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EASY ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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ENGLISH ALPHABET There are twenty six letters in English language. This entire set of 26 letters is called the English alphabet. LETTERS Letters are the symbols used for writing words, such as a, b, c, d, e. VOWELS There are five vowels in English. They are A, E, I, O, U. They are helpful to form word and pronunciation. We can not write even a single word and produce sound without using vowel. CONSONANT The remaining 21 letters of the alphabet are known as the constants in English. They are: B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,U,W,X,Y,Z.

CAPITAL LETTERSA,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z. SMALL LETTERSa,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z.WORDA word is a proper arrangement of letters which gives some meaning.Ex:-Sing, Write, Come, Car etc.

SENTENCES A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense.We can classify sentence into four kinds based on the meaning they convey-Assertive SentenceInterrogative SentenceImperative SentenceExclamatory sentence

ASSERTIVE SENTENCE A sentence that states or declares something is called an Assertive Sentence.EX:- 1) Kannada is spoken in Karnataka. 2)Ravi goes to school. 3)Manasa was never interested in sports.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE A sentence that asks questions is called an interrogative sentence. These sentences are followed by the question mark(?).There are two major types of sentences in English language. They are: (A) WH QUESTIONS (B) YES OR NO QUESTIONS

(A) WH QUESTIONS They begin with interrogative pronouns. What, Who, Why, Which, Whom, and Whose.Or with interrogative adverbs :Where, When, Why, and How.Ex: (1) How are you? (2)What is your name? (3)Where did you go yesterday? (4)When do you celebrate your birthday?(B) YES OR NO QUESTIONS They always start with an auxiliary verb like Am , Is , Are, Was, Were, Had, Have, Do, Does Did, Will ,would May Can etc.Ex: (1) Am correct? (2) Are you happy? (3) Do you like ice-cream? Etc.

IMPERATATIVE SENTENCE A sentence that expresses a command ,request , advice or suggestion is called an Imperative sentence.Ex:(a)Request: (1) May I come in sir? (2) Please post the letter. (b)Command: (1) Come here (2) Shut the door. (c)Advice: (1) Think before you ink. (2) Take care of your health. (d)Suggestion: (1) Let us go to temple . (2) You must apply for a job.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE A sentence that expresses strong feelings of joy, grief, warning ,concern ,fear is called Exclamatory sentence. Exclamatory sentences are always followed by the mark of exclamation(!)Ex: (1) What a melodious voice! (2) Hurrah !we won the match. (3) Help! There is a thief in the room. (4) Alas! Her husband is no more. (5) Oh! Dear you have fear.

PARTS OF SPEECH Words are used for different purposes. They in other words, perform a variety of functions. They some times, name persons, places and things on certain occasion, they are used in place of nouns or they describe things ,persons or places. Words are also used to describe actions, show relationships and to combine words or sentences. Words may also be used to modify a verb ,an adjective or another adverb and to express some sudden feeling.

They are classified into eight kinds on account of their use and function in a sentence. Words which are frequently used in speech or writing are called parts of speech.NOUNPRONOUNADJECTIVEVERBADVERBPREPOSITIONCONJUCTIONINTERJECTION

NOUN The noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing.The word thing includes : i) all objects that we can see, touch, hear, smell or taste (ii) something we can think of but cannot perceive through our senses. There are five different kinds of noun . They are :(1) PROPER NOUN(2) COMMON NOUN(3) COLLECTIVE NOUN(4) MATERIAL NOUN(5) ABSTRACT NOUN

PROPER NOUN A proper noun is the name of some particular person , place or thing.Ex : Hulkoti, Delhi, Chetan, The Ganges etc.NOTE : Proper nouns begin with a capital letter.

COMMON NOUN A common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.Ex: boy, man teacher ,doctor, village.

COLLECTIVE NOUN It denotes a group or collection of similar individuals or things considered as one complete whole.Ex: army , committee, family, team.

MATERIAL NOUN A material noun is the name of a material or substance out of which things are made.Ex: gold, wool , milk, paper, iron, glass.

ABSTRACT NOUN An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action or state.Ex: Quality : honesty, beauty, innocence etc. Action : judgment, theft, laughter, etc. State : manhood ,childhood, poverty, youth, etc.

A LIST OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS- A band of musicians.- A batch/class of students.- A school of fish.- An army of soldiers.- A board of directors.- A bunch of keys.- A bundle of sticks.-A choir of singers.-A cluster/constellation/of stars.-A brood of chicken.-A bouquet of flowers.

FORMATION OF NOUNS1.Nouns from adjective : Most of nouns can be formed from adjectives. ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN Able Ability Brave Bravery Capable Capability Dense Density Loyal Loyalty Fertile Fertility Generous Generosity Honest Honesty Zealous Zeal Wise Wisdom True Truth Vain Vanity Just Justice Pure Purity Young Youth Royal Royalty Useful Usefulness Kind Kindness

2. Nouns from verbs : Nouns are also formed from verbs. VERBS NOUN VERBS NOUN Admit Admission Believe Belief Choose Choice Deny Denial Exist Existence Free Freedom Invite Invitation Know Knowledge Offend Offence Live Life Wed Wedding Unite Union Vary Variety Perform Performance Quote Quotation Speak Speech Think Thought Narrate Narration Heal Health Marry Marriage

THE NOUN:GENDERGender : Gender indicates whether a person or an animal is male or female . The word gender is originated from Latin genus which means kind or sort. Kinds of gender: In English genders are four kind: 1. Masculine Gender 2. Feminine Gender 3. Common Gender 4. Neuter Gender

1.Masculine Gender: A noun which denotes a male person or an animal is known as masculine gender. Ex: boy , dog, king , son , wizard.

2. Feminine Gender: A noun which denotes a female person or an animal is known as feminine gender.Ex: girl, bitch, queen, daughter, witch .

3.Common Gender: A noun which denotes both male and female person or an animal is known as common gender.Ex: singer, child, friend, cook, judge.

4.Neuter Gender: A noun which denotes neither male nor female person or an animal is known as neuter gender.Ex : book , car lamp, pen table.

SOME FACTS ABOUT GENDER1.Ships and Countries are treated as feminine gender.Ex: The ship has lost all her crew. India is proud of her heritage and culture

2. Objects noted for strength and violence are treated as masculine gender. X sun ,summer winter time death.The sun sheds his beam on the rich and the poor alike

3. Objects notable for beauty grace gentleness and admiration are treated as feminine gender.Ex:moon,earth,spring,autumn,nature,liberty,justice,mercy,peace,hope, cherty.i)The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.ii)Spring has spread her mantle of greenery over the earth. iii)Peace has her victories no less renowned than war.

THE NOUN:NUMBERNumber : A word which denotes whether a noun is singular or plural is known as number.Kinds of Numbers : A noun has two numbers:1. The singular Number2. The Plural Number

1.The singular Number: A noun which denotes one person or thing is known as singular number. Ex: tree, box, man, boy, pen.2.The Plural Number: A noun which denotes more than one person or thing is known as plural number.Ex: trees, boxes, men boys, pens.

HOW TO FORM PLURALAS1.Most nouns form their plurals by adding s to the singular.

2. Nouns ending with h, s, ss, sh, x, o form their plurals by adding es to the singular.

3. Nouns ending with y and which have a consonant form their plural by changing y into ies.

4) Nouns ending with f or fe, plural is formed by changing f or fe into ves.

Some nouns form their plural by vowel change.

6. Some nouns have the same form for singular and plural.

THE CORRECT USE OF SOME NOUNS1. Nouns which are always used in plural.

People Folk Police Cattle Nation Mankind Audience Poultry

2. Collective nouns used in plural.

3) Nouns used in singular.

4) Material Nouns are not used in plurals. Ex: copper, water ,milk, gold, iron etc.5. Abstract Nouns have no plurals : Ex: hope ,charity ,love, kindness etc.

Pronouns is a word which is used instead of noun. It does all the functions of the noun-such as number, gender, and case.Kinds of pronouns:1.Personal Pronouns

2.Reflexive Pronouns

3.Demonstrative Pronouns

4.Indefinite Pronouns

5.Interrogative Pronouns

6.Distributive Pronouns

7.Relative Pronouns

8.Possive Pronouns

9.Emphathetic Pronouns

Pronoun

1.PERSONAL PRONOUNSPersonal pronouns stands for person .They are used for persons only.These are:(a) First person Pronouns(I, me, mine, us, ours)(b) Second Person Pronouns(you ,yours)(c) Third person Pronouns(he ,she ,they ,them ,theirs ,it ,its ,him, his ,hers , her, themselves, himself , herself, itself ) Ex: You and I have come on time. It is nine oclock.

2.Reflexive PronounsWhen the action done by the subject affects or reacts or reflects upon the subject ,they are called reflexive pronoun.Ex: myself, yourself, themselves , herself , ourselves , himself. Savitri hurt herself while cutting the vegetables.

3.Demonstrative PronounsDemonstrative pronouns are used for pointing out something, e.g. this, that, these, those.Ex: This is my cell phone, that is yours.

4.Indefinite PronounsPronouns like, someone, something , one, none, all, some, somebody, few, many others, anyone, anybody, nobody are called Indefinite pronouns .Ex: Someone took my pen without my permission. Nobody was their to help me.

5.Interrogative PronounsInterrogative pronouns are used to asking question cv e.g. What, Which, How, Who etc.Ex: What do you like the most? Whose is this pen?

6.Distributive PronounsDistributive pronouns denote persons or things taken as single or in groups ,e.g. each. either, neither.Ex: Either of you can try it. Each one of them is interested in this project

7.Relative PronounsRelative pronouns refer to the noun or pronoun mentioned before .They also join two sentences together. e.g. Who, Whom ,which ,Whose etc.Ex: I dont know the man who is knocking the at the door The girl lost the ring which was made of gold.

8.Possessive PronounsPossessive pronouns indicate possession. They are ,mine ,ours ,yours ,his , her etc.Ex: This book is mine. Where is yours ? That book is his.

9.Emphatic PronounsEmphatic pronouns are personal pronouns used for emphasis on the subject. Their form is the same as reflexive pronouns. e.g. myself, herself. Ex: I myself completed this project.

ADJECTIVEA word which describes a noun or pronoun is called an adjective.Kinds of adjectives :1. Adjective of Quality2. Adjective of Quantity 3. Adjective of Number4. Demonstrative Adjective5. Distributive Adjective6. Interrogative Adjective7. Passive Adjective8. Proper Adjective

Adjective of QualityAn adjective used to talk about the quality of a person or thing is known as Adjective of quality.Ex: wealthy, regional, beautiful, wise etc. Ramesh is a wealthy person. Rose is a beautiful flower. They are wise students.

Adjective of QuantityAn adjective used to talk about the quantity of things is known as Adjective of Quantity.Ex: little, much, no, any some, all, half ,enough etc. There is a little milk in the jug. My father earned enough money. Tippu showed much courage in the war.

Adjective of NumberAn adjective used to talk about the number of things or person is known as Adjective of Number.Ex: five, few, first, any, one, most, all etc. I got first class in my B.A. Only a few people are kind to the poor. There are forty-five students in this .

Demonstrative AdjectiveAn adjective used to point out which person or thing we speak about is known as demonstrative adjective.Ex: This these those and that. These mangoes are very sweet. That girl is very beautiful. This book is very interesting

Distributive AdjectiveAn adjective used to refer to each and every person or thing separately is known as Distributive adjective.Ex: each, every, either, neither, any, both, none, every etc. Every citizen should love his mother land. Each boy was awarded a Diploma.

Interrogative AdjectiveAn adjective used to question is known as Interrogative Adjective.Ex: what, which ,whose, etc. What advice shall I give you? Which place do you wish to visit? Whose handwriting is this?

Possessive AdjectiveAn adjective used to talk about ownership or possession is known as Possessive Adjective.Ex: my, your, our, his, her etc. My father is a teacher. Our country is India. His wealth was lost.

Proper AdjectiveAn adjective is derived from a proper name is known as a Proper adjective.( continent, countries, states, and cities)Ex: Indian army. English grammar. American president.

Important notes about Adjective :1. Adjective of quality answers the question of what kind of .Ex: Praveen is a brave person.(What kind of person ?Brave)2. Adjective of quantity answers the question How much.Ex :She gained much experience.(How much experience? Much)Punit earned enough money.(How much money? Enough)3.Distributive adjective refers to each persons or thing.Ex He goes to school every day.4.Demonstrative adjective points out a particular person or thing or answers the question which. Ex: These mangoes are very tasty.(Which mangoes? These)Those books are very interesting.(Which books? Those)5.Possesive adjective answers the question Whose.Ex: This is my house.(Whose house? My house)

6.Interrogative adjective makes question.Ex : To which state do you belong to?7.What is used in general sense and Which is used in a selective sense.Ex: What language can you speak well?( General sense) Which sister do you like most?(Selective sense)8.Adjective of number questions How many. Ex : I met Dr.Rajkumar several times.(How many times ?Several times) We have two hands? (How many hands? Two hands)9.A cardinal denotes How many.Ex: She has three sons.10.An ordinal denotes the order of things.Ex: He got first prize. She failed second times.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVESEvery adjective has three Degrees of Comparison:1. Positive Degree2. Comparative Degree3. Superlative Degree

1. Positive Degree: An adjective used to talk about the quality of a person, place, or thing is known as Positive degree. Ex: good, fat, heavy, clever, brave, beautiful, poor , rich etc. She is a beautiful girl.

2. Comparative Degree: An adjective used to compare two persons or things or the qualities is known as Comparative degree. Ex : better than , fatter than, heavier than, more beautiful than. She is more beautiful than her sister.

3. Superlative Degree: An adjective used to talk about comparing more than two persons or thing or their qualities is known as the superlative degree. Ex: the best, the fattest, the bravest. She is the most beautiful of all her sisters.

Notes:1. Than is added to the comparative degree. Ex: She is cleverer than her mother. 2. The definite article the is placed in the superlative degree. Ex : He is the cleverest in the class.

VERBVerbs are action words .A word which shows an action is called a verb. Verb is the most important word in the sentence .Without it a sentence cannot make any sense. So it is called Heart of a sentence.Kinds of verbs:1.Transitive verbs2.Intransitive verbs

1.Transitive verbs: The verbs which take an object is called Transitive verbs.Ex: I eat an apple. I write a letter.2.Intransitive verbs: The verbs which do not take an object is known as Intransitive verbs.Ex: Ravi goes to school. The sun sets in the West.

Forms of verbs

ADVERBSA word which describes a verb or an adjective or another adverb .It indicates how, when, where, why or how much an action is done.Most adverbs end in-ly suffix.Ex: Mostly, quickly, slowly, quietly, slowly, loudly . Pranita writes slowly. They lived happily.

Kinds of Adverbs:1.Adverb of Time 2.Adverb of Manner3.Adverb of Place 4.Adverb of Degree5.Relative Adverb 6.Interrogative Adverb7.Adverb of Frequency/Number

Adverb of TimeAn adverb used to show when an action is done is known as an Adverb of Time.Ex: now, then ,today, tomorrow ,early ,still ,yet. We went to temple yesterday. My father is not at home now.

Adverb of MannerAn adverb used to show how an action is done is known as an Adverb of Manner.Ex: quickly bravely, happily, well, possibly etc. They lived happily. Sanjana speaks beautifully.

Adverb of PlaceAn adverb used to show where an action is done is known as an Adverb of Place.Ex: here ,there ,up, down, near , above etc. Please come here. I went there.

Adverb of DegreeAn adverb used to show how much or in what degree or to what extent an action is done is known as an adverb of degree.Ex: rather, fairly, almost hardly fully ,enough etc. He is very great. We have eaten enough. My friend is very honest.

Relative AdverbAn adverb used to relate two clauses or statement is known as a Relative Adverb.Ex: Do you know when Namrata came here. I dont know why she went to Delhi

Interrogative AdverbAn adverb used to ask question is known as Interrogative Adverb.Ex: where, when, why, how etc. Where did you go yesterday?

Adverb of Frequency /NumberAn adverb used to show how often an action is done is known as an Adverb of Frequency.Ex: once, twice, often, never, always, occasionally, again etc. I never go to film.

CONJUCTIONSConjunctions are joining words. They join two or more words, group of words , or sentences.Ex : and, but, or , because ,as ,still ,yet, otherwise ,still ,etc. She is as tall as her sister. We study that we may gain knowledge. She is sick yet she is cheerful. Kamalamma sells mangoes and oranges.

INTERJECTIONSInterjections are words that are used to express some sudden feelings or emotions. They are used to express joy, sorrow, anger ,regret etc.Interjections are followed by the Exclamation mark(!) in writingEx: Hello! Alas! Hurrah! Ah! Alas! He is no ore. Hurrah! We won the match. Oh! What an idea. Hello! What are you doing there.

PrepositionsA preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in What relation the person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to Something else.Example: The cat jumped off the chair.Sometimes a preposition follows the object.Examples: What are you looking at? Here is the book(that)you were looking for. This is the girl who you wanted to speak to. This is the girl to whom you wanted to speak.Note: The preposition is often placed at the end when the object is an Interrogative pronoun as in sentence (a) or a relative pronoun understood as in sentence (b).

Kinds of Prepositions:1.Simple Preposition:at,by,for, in,of,off,from, on, out, through', 'till, to, up, with, etc.Example: She goes through the paper every morning. I bought this sari for my mother from the new mall2.Compound prepositions:These are generally formed by prefixing a preposition to a noun , an adjective or an adverb.about, across, along, amidst, among, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, and without, etc.Example : We rowed across the river to reach the village beyond the forest. Come, lets go for

3.Phrase preposition:These are group of words with the force of a single preposition.according to, by means of, by way of, in case of, in accordance to, in regard to, with a view to, in spite of.etc.Ex: In spite of all my help ,she deserted me when I needed her most. There is a garden in front of my home.4.Participle preposition: Barring ,concerning, considering ,not withstanding pending regarding respecting ,touching , during.The above present participles are frequently used absolutely without any noun or pronoun attached to them and do the work of prepositions.Examples: Sandstorms are common during the Saudi Arabian winter. The former hostage is in remarkably good shape considering his ordeal.

ARTICLEArticles play very important role in ensuring that we speak and write correct English .A wrong use of articles can sometimes lead to a change in the meaning of the word altogether .use of some articles depends strictly on the sounds produced by them .They are also called determiners.Kinds of articlesArticles are demonstrative adjectives. There are two types of Articles:1.Indefinite article.(a, an)2.Definite article.(the)

Use of Indefinite article A and AnA is used before:1.All singular common nouns beginning with a consonant: A black and a white cow were grazing in the field. A girl sings a song.2.If a words begins with a vowel but gives the sound of a consonant ,a should be used before it. He is a one eyed man. She is a European.3.A is used in its numerical sense of one. Twelve inches make a feet.

An is used as follows:1.All singular common nouns beginning with a vowel. Ravivarma was an artist. I will buy an umbrella.2. If a word stars with a consonant but gives the sound of a vowel ,an should be used before it: He is an honour to his profession. You will reach there in an hour. Bhudesh is an honorable man.

The is used before:1.The superlative degree: Savitri is the cleverest girl in her \class. Aman is the tallest boy in his class. Honesty is the best policy.2.The names of scriptures: The bible is a holy book. The Quran The Gita3.The names of news paper: The Times of India. The Hindu.4.Names of rivers, canals, seas, oceans, bays, gulf ,group of island etc. The Indian Ocean The Ganga , The Bay of Bengal, The Yamuna ,The Arabian sea, The Persian Gulf etc.

5.The names of famous buildings: The Taj is one of the best monuments in India.6.Famous historical events. The French revolution took place in 1798.7.When the singular noun is meant to represent a whole class: The dog is a faithful animal. The cow is a useful animal.8.With ordinals: The seventh chapter of this book is very interesting.Note:Do not use the before languagesThe English (incorrect)English (correct)Before the names of games.The hockey (incorrect)Hockey (correct)

TENSEThe form of verb which shows the time of an action and its degree of completeness is Tense.We mention the time of an action in the following ways:Past: (action happened before) Past TensePresent:(action happing now) Present TenseFuture:(action that will happen after now ) Future TenseWe mention the degree of completeness in the following manner:Indefinite: When the degree of completeness is not definite.Continuous: When the action is in progress .Perfect: When the action is completed.Perfect Continuous: When the action is started in the past but still in progress.

Taking both the things i.e. , the time of action and the degree of completeness we divide tenses into the following types:

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT INDEFINITE /SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE We use simple present tense:(i) To express a habitual action: e.g. I brush my teeth every day.(ii)To express a general or universal truth. e.g. Sun rises in the east. Sugar is sweet but lemons are sour.(III)To introduce quotations as: John Keats says, A thing of beauty is a joy forever.(iv)It is used instead of the simple future tense ,in clauses of time and of condition as: I shall wait till you finish your lunch.Words often used with Simple Present Tense:Always, daily, generally, seldom, never, sometimes ,every.

SENTENSE STRUTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + 1st form of the verb + object . Negative sentence: Sub +do not/ does not+ 1st form of the verb + object.Interrogative Sentence : Do/Does+sub+1st form of the verb+ object? Note: When the subject is 3rd person singular number( he /she / it or any single name ) s or es is added to the base form of the verb.

Present Continuous TenseWe use this tense to express.(i) An action that is going on at the time of speaking. e.g. Children are playing. (playing now) She is singing.(ii) An action that may not happening at the time of speaking but happening around the time. e.g. I am learning French. (learning these days not now) He is writing a novel.(iii) A planned future action. I am flying to U.K. next month. They are leaving by the night train.

SENTENCE STRUCTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + am/is/or+1st form of the verb +ing + object . Negative sentence: Sub +am/is/are+ not+ 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object.Interrogative Sentence : am/is/are+sub+1st form of the verb +ing+ object?

Present Perfect TenseWe use this tense to express.(i)A recently completed action. (when the time is not given) e.g. Manjunath has finished his homework.But when recent action is mentioned along with the time ,we used Simple past tense. e.g. She has come here this morning(x) She came here this morning.()(II) A past experience(especially with once twice before, etc.) e.g. I have seen the Taj .(before) Have you (ever)visited Katmandu? (iii)An action that include already, so far , as, yet, recently, just now etc. e.g. I havent seen her so far.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE OF PRESENT PREFECT TENSE

Affirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + have/has +3rd form of the verb +object . Negative sentence: Sub +have/has + not+ 3rd form of the verb+ object.Interrogative Sentence : Have/has +sub+3rd form of the verb+object?

Present Perfect Continuous TenseIt is used to describe an action that began at some time in the past and is still continuing .e.g. They have been discussing the matter for several months now. SENTENCE STRUCTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + have /has+been+1st form of the verb +ing + object . Negative sentence: Sub +have/has+ not + been + 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object. Interrogative Sentence : Have/has+sub+been+1st form of the verb +ing+ object?

Past TenseWe use past indefinite(i)To mention an action completed in the past.e.g. I went to temple yesterday.(ii)To express habitual actions in the past.e.g. My grandmother told me stories when I was a child. SENTENSE STRUTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + 2nd form of the verb + object . Negative sentence: Sub +did not+ 1st form of the verb+ object.Interrogative Sentence : Did+sub+1st form of the verb+ object?

Past Continuous tenseWe use past continuous when:(I)We mention an action was going on in the past. e.g. Peacock was dancing in the forest.(ii) We mention when two actions taking place simultaneously in the past. e.g. When Chetan was reading his book , Sahana ,his sister was writing a letter. SENTENCE STRUCTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + was/were+1st form of the verb +ing + object . Negative sentence: Sub +was/were+ not+ 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object. Interrogative Sentence : was/were+sub+1st form of the verb +ing+object ?

Past Perfect Continuous TenseWe use past perfect continuous tense denotes an action that was finished at some definite time in the past but which had been going on before it was finished.e.g. He had been sleeping for two hours when the thieves broke into his house. Harish had been playing for two hours. SENTENCE STRUCTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub + had+been+1st form of the verb +ing + object . Negative sentence: Sub +had+ not+ been+ 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object. Interrogative Sentence : Had+sub+been+1st form of the verb +ing+ object?

Future TenseWe use simple future :(i)To express simple future actions. e.g. Sachin will play his match tomorrow.(ii)To express the result in conditional sentences. e.g. If he works hard ,he will pass. SENTENSE STRUTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub +shall/will+ 1st form of the verb+object . Negative sentence: Sub +shall/will+ not+ 1st form of the verb+ object.Interrogative Sentence : Shall/will+sub+1st form of the verb+ object?Note:Shall: Shall is used with I and We.Will: Will is used with 2nd and 3rd person subject.

Future Continuous TenseWe use future continuous tense :To express an action which will happen at a given time in future.e.g. I will be flying to U.K. tomorrow . SENTENSE STRUTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub +shall/will+ be+ 1st form of the verb +ing+ object . Negative sentence: Sub +shall/will+ not+ be+ 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object .Interrogative Sentence : Shall/will+sub+be+1st form of the verb+ ing +object?

Future perfect tenseWe use future perfect tense: To express an action to be completed by a certain time in future.e.g. Rohan will have finished his project by the end of this month. SENTENCE STRUCTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub +will/shall+ have +3rd form of the verb + object . Negative sentence: Sub +shall/will+ have + not+ 3rd form of the verb+ object.Interrogative Sentence : Shallwill+sub+have+3rd form of the verb ++ object?

Future perfect continuous tenseWe use future perfect tense To express an action which will be in progress over a period of time that will end in future.e.g. I will have been living in this for ten years next July. SENTENSE STRUTUREAffirmative/Positive sentence: Sub +shall/will+ have+ been+ 1st form of the verb +ing+ object . Negative sentence: Sub +shall/will+ not+ have+ been+ 1st form of the verb+ ing+ object . Interrogative Sentence : Shall/will+sub+have+been+1st form of the verb+ ing +object?

NARRATION (DIRECT SPEECH & INDIRECT (SPEECH)We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.Direct Speech / Quoted SpeechSaying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech).Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.For example:She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." or"Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported SpeechIndirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.For example: Direct speech : I am going to the cinema, he said.Indirect speech : He said he was going to the cinema.

StatementsIf we want to say what other people said, thought or felt, we can use the direct and indirect speech (reported speech).The direct speech: "I like it," he said. "Irene is late," he thought. "I will pass the exam," she hoped.The reported speech: He said he liked it. He thought that Irene was late. She hoped she would pass the exam.The reported speech is typically introduced by verbs such as say, tell, admit, complain, explain, remind, reply, think, hope, offer, refuse etc. in the past tense. He said (that) he didn't want it.She explained that she had been at the seaside.If these verbs are in the past tense, we change the following:a) verb tenses and verb forms,b) pronouns,c) the adverbs of time and place.

A) Verb tensesWe change the tenses in the following way:1. Present - past"I never understand you," she told me.-She told me she never understood me. "We are doing exercises," he explained. - He explained that they were doing exercises.2. Present perfect - past perfect"I have broken the window," he admitted. - He admitted that he had broken the window."I have been waiting since the morning," he complained. - He complained that he had been waiting since the morning. 3. Past - past perfect"She went to Rome," I thought. - I thought that she had gone to Rome."He was thinking of buying a new car," she said. - She said he had been thinking of buying a new car.

NotesI shall, we shall usually become would."I shall appreciate it," he said. - He said he would appreciate it.I should, we should usually changes into would."We should be really glad," she told us. - She told us they would be really glad.May becomes might."I may write to him," she promised. - She promised that she might write to him.

The verb forms remain the same the following cases. 1. If the reporting verb is in the present tense. Bill: "I am enjoying my holiday." - Bill says he is enjoying his holiday. Sandy: "I will never go to work." - Sandy says she will never go to work. 2. When we report something that is still true. Dan: "Asia is the largest continent." - Dan said Asia is the largest continent. Emma: "People in Africa are starving." - Emma said people in Africa are starving. 3. When a sentence is made and reported at the same time and the fact is still true. Michael: "I am thirsty." - Michael said he is thirsty. 4. With modal verbs would, might, could, should, ought to, used to. George: "I would try it." - George said he would try it. Mimi: "I might come." - Mimi said she might come. Steve: "I could fail." - Steve said he could fail. Linda: "He should/ought to stay in bed." - Linda said he should/ought to stay in bed. Mel: "I used to have a car." - Mel said he used to have a car.

5. After wish, would rather, had better, it is time. Margo: "I wish they were in Greece." - Margo said she wished they were in Greece. Matt: "I would rather fly." - Matt said he would rather fly. Betty: "They had better go." - Betty said they had better go. Paul: "It is time I got up." - Paul said it was time he got up. 6. In if-clauses. Martha: "If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy." - Martha said that if she tidied her room, her dad would be happy. 7. In time-clauses. Joe: "When I was staying in Madrid I met my best friend." - He said that when he was staying in Madrid he met his best friend. 8. We do not change the past tense in spoken English if it is clear from the situation when the action happened."She did it on Sunday," I said. - I said she did it on Sunday.We must change it, however, in the following sentence, otherwise it will not be clear whether we are talking about the present or past feelings."I hated her," he said. - He said he had hated her.

9. We do not usually change the modal verbs must and needn't. But must can become had to or would have to and needn't can become didn't have to or wouldn't have to if we want to express an obligation.Would/wouldn't have to are used to talk about future obligations."I must wash up." - He said he must wash up/he had to wash up."I needn't be at school today." - He said he needn't be/didn't have to be at school that day."We must do it in June." - He said they would have to do it in June.If the modal verb must does not express obligation, we do not change it."We must relax for a while." (suggestion) - He said they must relax for a while."You must be tired after such a trip." (certainty) - He said we must be tired after such a trip.

B) PronounsWe have to change the pronouns to keep the same meaning of a sentence. "We are the best students," he said. - He said they were the best students. "They called us," he said. - He said they had called them. "I like your jeans," she said. - She said she liked my jeans. "I can lend you my car," he said. - He said he could lend me his car.Sometimes we have to use a noun instead of a pronoun, otherwise the new sentence is confusing. "He killed them," Kevin said. - Kevin said that the man had killed them. If we only make mechanical changes (Kevin said he had killed them), the new sentence can have a different meaning - Kevin himself killed them.This and these are usually substituted."They will finish it this year," he said. - He said they would finish it that year."I brought you this book," she said. - She said she had brought me the book."We want these flowers," they said. - They said they wanted the flowers

C) Time and placeLet's suppose that we talked to our friend Mary on Friday. And she said: "Greg came yesterday." It means that Greg came on Thursday. If we report Mary's sentence on Sunday, we have to do the following:Mary: "Greg came yesterday." - Mary said that Greg had come the day before. If we say: Mary said Greg had come yesterday, it is not correct, because it means that he came on Saturday. The time expressions change as follows.today - that day, tomorrow - the next day/the following day, the day after tomorrow - in two days' time, yesterday - the day before, the day before yesterday - two days before, next week/month - the following week/month, last week/month - the previous week/month, a year ago - a year before/the previous yearBill: "She will leave tomorrow." - Bill said she would leave the next day.Sam: "She arrived last week." - Sam said she had arrived the previous week.Julie: "He moved a year ago." - Julie said he had moved a year before.

NoteIf something is said and reported at the same time, the time expressions can remain the same."I will go on holiday tomorrow," he told me today. - He told me today he would go on holiday tomorrow."We painted the hall last weekend," she told me this week. - She told me this week they had painted the hall last weekend.

On the other hand, if something is reported later, the time expressions are different in the reported speech. Last week Jim said: "I'm playing next week."If we say his sentence a week later, we will say: Jim said he was playing this week.Here usually becomes there. But sometimes we make different adjustments.At school: "I'll be here at 10 o'clock," he said. - He said he would be there at 10 o'clock.In Baker Street: "We'll meet here." - He said they would meet in Baker Street.

QuestionsQuestions become statements. The reporting verb say changes into ask, want to know, wonder ... ."Where have you been?" he said. - He asked me where I had been."What time did it start?" he said. - He wanted to know what time it had started."Why won't he do it?" she said. - She wondered why he wouldn't do it.In yes/no questions we use if or whether in questions. If is more common and whether is more formal."Will you come?" she asked me. - She asked me if/whether I would come."Did he marry Sue?" she said. - She wondered if/whether he married Sue.

Commands, requests and adviceThe commands, requests and advice mostly have the same form in English: verb + object + infinitive (advise, ask, beg, forbid, order, persuade, recommend, tell, urge, warn etc.).Unlike the direct speech the person addressed must be mentioned in the indirect speech."Get up!" he said. - He told me to get up."Please, revise for the test," he said. - He urged me to revise for the test."Put on your coat," I said. - I advised him to put on his coat.Negative commands, requests and advice are made by verb + object + not + infinitive."Don't hesitate," he said. - He persuaded me not to hesitate."Don't smoke," the doctor warned my father. - The doctor warned my father not to smoke.

Tell can introduce statements, commands, requests or advice. The form is different, however.Statements with tell"I'm leaving," he told me. - He told me that he was leaving.Commands, requests or advice with tell"Leave the room," he told John. - He told John to leave the room."Don't give up," the teacher told her students. - The teacher told the students not to give up.Similarly ask is used in reported questions, commands, requests or advice in different forms.Questions with ask"Will you make coffee?" he said. - He asked me if I would make coffee.Commands, requests or advice with ask"Make coffee, please," he said. - He asked me to make coffee."Don't park in my place," Greg told me. - Greg asked me not to park in his place.

Active and Passive Voice.Active Voice:A verb is in active voice when it tells us something that a person or a thing does. In other words, an active voice expresses an action performed by the subject.Example: The peon brought a circular.Passive Voice:A verb is in passive voice when it tells us something that is done to a person or a thing. In other words ,a passive voice expresses an action performed upon the object.Example: A circular was brought by the peon.

General Rules1.Note the tense of the given sentence.2.Note the Past Participle of the main verb of the given sentence.3.Write down the forms of the verb be in the tense of the given sentence.4.Place the object of the sentence in the place of subject and then write the suitable form of the verb.5.Then write the pas participle of the main verb.6.Then unite by followed by the subject.7.Only transitive verb can be changed to passive voice. Intransitive verbs can not be changed to passive voice.8.There are only eight passive forms out of twelve active forms.

1. Simple present tense

2. Present continuous tense

3. Present perfect tense

4. Simple Past tense

5. Past continuous tense

6. Past perfect tense

7. Simple future tense

8. Future perfect tense

Letter writingLetters are broadly divided into two classes:1.Personal letter /Informal letter:-Personal letters are those which we write to our friends and relatives.2.Formal letter(including business letters):-Formal letters include letters to officers, business companies, newspapers, etc.

Personal letter /Informal letter1.Senders address The address is written with open punctuation .It is written on the extreme left on the top of the letter.2.Date. How to write date?1st January,2012 or January 1, 2012

3.Salutuation or Greeting Dear Daddy Dear Mummy Members of the family Dear uncle Dear Sister Dear Brother

Dear friend Dear Prakash Friends My dear friend My dear Manasa

4.Body of the letterThis is of course the letter itself. The style in which it is written , will depend upon the kind of letters one wishes to write. The main body is divided into short paragraphs. The number of paragraph will depend on the subject matter.5.Subscription:Relations or members of the family.With love,Love form,Yours affectionately,Your loving son or Daughter,FriendsYours sincerely,Yours,Best wishes,See you,All the best,Note: yours has no apostrophe.(Dont write Yours)

Format of informal letter2nd cross Krishna colony Senders addressHulkoti-582205

2nd May,2012 DateDear, GreetingBody of the letter

Yours Subscription

SignName

Model of an informal letter1.You are Pavan/Pavitra staying at S.J.B.V.P. Hostel, S.J.B.V.P. Primary School Hosahalli . Write a letter to your father ,informing him about your result in the examination.

S.J.B.V.P. HostelS.J.B.V.P .Primary schoolHosahalli15 th March ,2011My dear Papa,I write this letter to share one of the great moments of my life with you .I am glad to inform you that I have topped my school this year .I have scored 97% marks in my final examination.My dear Papa I am so happy .It is all due to your guidance and blessing .I always wanted to be on the top, and your guidance made it possible .You must be feeling proud of me.Papa ,the annual prize distribution function will be held on 10th May . Please make it a point to attend .I will be so happy.Please convey my regards to dear mother and love to my sister.Yours affectionately,Pavan

Formal letter1.Senders address2.Date e.g. 2nd October 20113.Address of the addressee Designation Official addresse.g. The sales manager, Blow Plast Ltd, Shastri Nagar ,Mysore.4.The salutation or GreetingSir,Dear sir/madamRespected sir/madam

5.Body of the letterThis is of course the letter itself. The style in which it is written ,will depend upon the kind of letters one wishes to write. The main body is divided into short paragraphs. The number of paragraph will depend on the subject matter.6.Forms of subscription Yours faithfully or Faithfully yoursYours sincerely or Sincerely yoursYours Obediently , etc

Format of Formal LetterFrom address......DateTo Address..GreetingSubjectBody of the letter.

Subscription & Signature.

Model of a formal letterYou are Manish /Amruta studying in IX -A Govt. High School, Bangalore . You have been suffering from fever for the last three days and are unable to attend your school. Write an application to the Principal, requesting him / her to grant you sick leave.ManishIX AGovt. High School, Bangalore6th August ,2010The PrincipalGovt. High School, BangaloreRespected Sir,Subject: Sick leave.Most respectfully ,I have to submit that I have been suffering from fever for the last three days. The doctor advised me complete rest for six days. Under these circumstances ,I am unable to attend my classes from 06-08-2010 to 11-08-2010.Kindly grant me leave for six days.Thanking youYours obedientlyManishIX A Roll NO.15

PROVERBS1.Every cloud has a silver lining.2.Better be alone than in bad company.3.Actions speak louder than words.3.Good beginning makes a good ending.4.Every pleasure has a pain.5.Fortune favours the brave.6.First try and then trust.7.It is no use crying over spilt milk.8.The face is the Index of mind.9.Better an open enemy than a false friend.10.Believe not all that you see nor half what our hear.11.Kill your anger before it kills you.12.To error is human ; to forgive is divine.13.Ability is poor mans wealth.14.The secret of life is to give and take.15.Where there is a will there is a way.