P.B. Dharmasena0777 - 613234, 0717 - 613234dharmasenapb@ymail.com , dharmasenapb@gmail.com

https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasenahttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/contributions 

Rural DevelopmentCourse code: AS 4101 (2/ 30:00)

Monday from 8.30-10.30 a.m , ELTU, FoA

Course Content• Introduction to rural sector• Rural poverty• Rural development• Rural demography• Supporting services• Rural development societies and their role• Planning and implementing rural development

projects• Past and present rural development programs in

Sri Lanka and constraints• Analysis of rural development projects in the

Asian region

EVOLUTION OF SMALLRURAL SOCIETIES IN SRI LANKA

Three Stages of Evolution

Wild animalsCustomsNatural disasters

External invasions

Primary Rural Society

Discipline

TraditionsSharingRearingFarming

Water

Protection

BeliefsFood Primary Community PracticesGathering

Hunting

Secondary Rural Society

Trading

Industry

Agriculture Culture

Technology

Politics

Kingship - leadership

Transport

Historical documents before Mahawansa

Queen Devayani

SnghaMukha

Sura PadmaTharaka

Kelaniya Thissamaharama Lankapura

Maaya Ruhunu Pihiti

Princess Mandratha (sister)

The History left us

Pre-Vijaya History Ravana (3000 BC) – Vijaya (600 BC)

10 Divisions of Lanka1. Chalaka (Thambapanni), 2. Kewesastha (Northern area); 3. Upulwangiri (Dambulla area); 4. Rakungiri (Ritigala area); 5. Neelagiri (Manewa area); 6. Kawastha labha (Habarana area);7. Dhumaka kaddeera (Kala oya

area);8. Indra (Eastern area); 9. Agni (South-eastern area); and 10. Mahagiri (Samanala mountain

area).

Kewesastha

Upulwangiri

Rakungiri

Mahagiri

Chalaka

Neelagiri Kawasthalabha

Dhumakakaddeera Indra

Agni

2554 - 2517 BC

Pre-Vijaya History Ravana (3000) BC) – Vijaya (600 BC

Social perspective– Casts (gothra): yaksha, naga,

dewa, raksha– Religion:

• Chathurdhyana (for male)– Subhoda (kumara bambasara)– Dehenmewura (away from sexual misbehaviours)– Palata (observe sheela)– Manawaka (become anagarika)

• Sapthadyana (for female – Uthra chakrawata malabharana)

• Dasa apachara (10 sins): kurutha, sagitha, bajamu, mathula, kanchi, putta, gocha, dhassa, dehitha, kurala

Mahawansa• First Author – Mahanama Thero (450 AD)

– Written during King Dhatusena– From Vijaya to Mahasen (550 BC – 362 AD)– Hero – King Dutugamunu

• Second Author – Dhammakiththi Thero (1250 AD)– Written during King Parakrama Bahu II– From Mahasen to Parakrama Bahu I (362 AD – 1186 AD)– Hero – Parakrama Bahu I

• Third Author - Unknown – From Vijaya Bahu II to Buwaneka Bahu IV (1186 AD – 1681

AD)– Hero – Parakrama Bahu II

• Subsequent Authors– Thibbatuwawe Thero– Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero

Post - Vijaya History: Hydraulic Civilization (600 BC – 1200 AD)

• Anuradhapura Kingdom– 437 BC – 1040 AD (1477 years)– King Pandukabhaya – King

Wickrama Bahu (113 kings)– Prominent kings of hydraulic

civilization• Vasabha (67-111 AD),• Mahasena (276-303 AD),• Dhatusena (455-473 AD),• Agbo II (575-608 AD), and• Parakrambahu (1153-1186 AD)

Tank Based Societies• For a long time dry zone

settlers had identified water as the prerequisite for their life, thus became professionals in building irrigation systems with reservoirs and streams

• Tank of the village was considered the nucleus of their farming culture, and they built all physical and social structures around it.

• They were accustomed to this ‘tank based society’ and could not think of any other way out.

Traditional Settlement Pattern• Kotugama –

Cluster of houses faced all to the centre located as a circle, with grain storage structures (atuwa, bissa etc.) so that people can live closer.

• A strong community life

Traditional Settlement Pattern• Diggama – Linear

settlement linked with foot paths

• More independent community life

• Characteristics:– Freedom– A land strip for one owner– Land use according to soil

conditions– Land-family relationship– Paddy field is included in

the forest – garden ecosystem Vee bissa (rice

bin)

Evolution of Traditional Settlements

Evolution of Traditional Settlements

A Traditional Settlement

THE CASCADED TANK-VILLAGE SYSTEM (CTVS)IN THE DRY ZONE OF SRI LANKA

Our Agricultural Heritage 

Cosmo-spiritualDimension

Socio-culturalAspects

Bio-physicalprocess

Traditional Rajakariya system of the village and the community organizations

• Village chieftain - Gamarala• Wel Vidane - whose responsibility rests on the water

issues and handles the land disputes.• Veda Mahattaya - Indigenous physician• Kammala - Village black smith• Devalaya - Where the villages make appeal to the

guardian deities of the village.• Temple - Where the villages attend to the

religious observances, where they go for advice from the Buddhist monk and to gain language literacy.

Recent History of Dry Zone Agriculture• 1884 – School of Agriculture, Colombo to

train improved methods of ploughing and transplanting

• 1884 – Botanical Garden Branch, Anuradhapura

• 1894 – Planted rubber in this garden• 1898 – Rubber trees died due to a recorded

drought• 1901 – Closed down • 1902 – First experimental station at

Gannoruwa• 1903 – Dry Zone Experimental station at

Mahailluppallama for cotton• 1904 – Rubber at Mahailluppallama

Recent History of Dry Zone Agriculture• 1904 – Ceylon Agricultural

Society, took over the publication of the Tropical Agriculturist. Attempted to replace chena with rotational farming in the dry zone.

• 1907 – Coconut at Mahailluppallama

• 1912 – Formation of Department of Agriculture

• 1914 – Paddy experiments at Mahailluppallama

• 1914 – Experiment Station, Anuradhapura

Recent History of Dry Zone Agriculture

• 1914 – 1918 Sisal hemp at both sites

• 1916 – School of Tropical Agriculture, Peradeniya

• 1919 – Mahailluppallama closed down and leased (2200 acres) to Ceylon Hemp and Produce Company for sisal cultivation

• 1926 – Small scale field experiments at Vavuniya, Anuradhapura and Thissa on economic crops to replace chena

Recent History of Dry Zone Agriculture• 1938 – Dry farming Scheme,

Kurundan Kulama– Rotational mixed farming– Use of simple farm implements– ‘Working with farmers’– Seasonal Crops: cereals, cotton,

chilli, cucurbits, legumes, vegetables

– Perannial Crops: Coconut, banana, fruit trees (mango, orange, lime, papaw, sapodilla, bread fruit, jak)

– 40 ha at 4 ha/ farmer– 1 acre plot perimeter

conservation bunds

Recent History of Dry Zone Agriculture• 1945 – 1946 Broad based graded

bunds with a shallow drain• 1949 – Increased from 40 ha to 400

ha. And three more schemes at Relapanawa, Olukaranda and makalanagama

• Lessons learnt from Kurundankulama– Conservation bunds (broad based)

disturb the surface soil layer– Crops should be selected

according to the drainage conditions.

– Inversion tillage buries the fertile soil layer

COLONIZATION• 1902 – Minneriya – failed due to

malaria• 1919 – Land was alienated to Planters’

Association of Ceylon• 1920 – Minneriya Development

Company – used machinery due to lack of human labour, failed again due to malaria 1921

• 1933 – First two colonies in Sri lanka – Hingurakgoda and Haththota Amuna

• 1934 – Minneriya scheme inaugerated by D.S. Senanayake and assigned C.P. de Silva (AGA Polonnaruwa) to proceed

• This colonization process continued over Kalawewa, Nachchaduwa, Huruluwewa, Mahakanadarawa, rajanganaya etc. invading whole dry zone by 1960s.

Colonization in Anuradhapura District

• 1925 - Nachchaduwa• 1949 - Dewahuwa• 1951 - Kagama - Katiyawa• 1952 - Huruluwewa• 1955 - Mahawilachchiya• 1957 - Rajanganaya (RB)• 1957 - Padawiya• 1961 - Mahakanadarawa• 1974 - Wahalkada

COLONIZATION• Resettlement of 300,000 families from mid and up country in

the Dry Zone under the colonization programme of major irrigation schemes including Mahaweli brought two changes

– Reduction of forest cover in the dry zone

– Increase of population in the dry zone.

• The 'development' anticipated by these irrigation and colonization schemes had contributed to:

– Reduction of poverty ;

– Improvement of the quality of life;

COLONIZATION• However, environmental

sustainability was not considered as an important component.

• As a result of this resettlement together with shifting cultivation, forest cover in the dry zone has been reduced at the rate of 38,100 ha/year during the period from 1956 to 1982.

– (NARESA, 1991).

Evolution of the Rural Sector

• Traditional tank based rural societies

• Major irrigation settlements

• Green Revolution (1960s)

– High yielding varieties

– Mechanization

– Chemical fertilizer and agro-chemicals

– Commercial Agriculture

• Mahaweli and other development programmes

• Integrated Rural Development

What is a rural community?• A rural community comprises a group of inhabitants who live a rustic

or country lifestyle. Rural communities typically have smaller populations and an agricultural setting, but some areas contain forests.

• Essential characteristics of the rural community:– Size of the community– Density of population– Agriculture is the main occupation– Close contact with nature– Homogeneity of population– Social stratification– Social interaction– Social mobility– Social solidarity – Joint family.

Essential Characteristics of Rural community

• Size of the community:– The village communities are smaller in area than 

the urban communities. As the village communities are small, the population is also low.

• Density of population:– As the density of population is low, the people 

have intimate relationships and face-to-face contacts with each other. In a village, everyone knows everyone.

Essential Characteristics …….

• Agriculture is the main occupation:– Agriculture is the fundamental occupation of the 

rural people and forms the basis of rural economy. A farmer has to perform various agricultural activities, for which he needs the cooperation of other members. Usually, these members are from his family. Thus, the members of the entire family share agricultural activities. 

Essential Characteristics ……

• Close Contact with Nature:– The rural people are in close contact with nature 

as most of their daily activities revolve around the natural environment. This is the reason why a rural life is more influenced by nature than an urban life. The villagers consider land as their real mother as they depend on it for their food, clothing and shelter.

Essential Characteristics …….

• Homogeneity of Population:– The village communities are homogenous in 

nature. Most of their inhabitants are connected with agriculture and its allied occupations, though there are people belonging to different castes, religions and classes.

• Social Stratification:– In rural society, social stratification is a traditional 

characteristic, based on caste. The rural society is divided into various strata on the basis of caste.

Essential Characteristics ………

• Social Interaction:– The frequency of social interaction in rural areas is 

comparatively lower than in urban areas. However, the interaction level possesses more stability and continuity. The relationships and interactions in the primary groups are intimate. The family fulfills the needs of the members and exercises control over them.

– It is the family, which introduces the members to the customs, traditions and culture of the society. Due to limited contacts, they do not develop individuality and their viewpoint towards the outside world is very narrow, which makes them oppose any kind of violent change.

Essential Characteristics ……..• Social Mobility:

– In rural areas, mobility is rigid as all the occupations are based on caste. Shifting from one occupation to another is difficult as caste is determined by birth. Thus, caste hierarchy determines the social status of the rural people.

• Social Solidarity:– The degree of social solidarity is greater in villages as compared 

to urban areas. Common experience, purposes, customs and traditions form the basis of unity in the villages.

• Joint Family:– Another characteristic feature of the rural society is the joint 

family system. The family controls the behaviour of the individuals. Generally, the father is the head of the family and is also responsible for maintaining the discipline among members. He manages the affairs of the family.

What is Poverty? – Independent Views

Economic Poverty

• People who cannot afford to obtain basic human needs (food, clothes, shelter etc.)

• Lack of livelihood opportunities

• Income is low and inconsistent

• Frequently affected by natural disasters

Low income

Low savingsLow productivity

Low investment

Low consumption

Health Poverty• People are not in good health

– Suffering from Non-Communicable Diseases– Poor immunity– Poor growth (stunt growth)– Susceptible to epidemics

Poverty increases your chance of getting ill because of:• Poor nutrition• Overcrowding• Lack of clean water• Harsh realities that may make putting your health at risk the only way to survive or keep your family safe.

Poor health increases poverty by:• Reducing a family’s work productivity• Leading families to sell assets to cover the costs of treatment. This increases poverty and their vulnerability to shocks in the future.

Agricultural Poverty

• Poor income from agriculture• Farming is not sustainable• Lack of marketing opportunities• Farming with degraded resources• Lack of proper knowledge in farming

Poverty

Resources deterioration

Poor resources conservation

Low inputs – new technology

Low yields

Low income

Vicious Circle of Poverty

Social Poverty

• Life is unsatisfactory• People are away from ethics• Conflicts among and within families• Poor organizational strength• Alcoholism• Absence of proper leadership

Spiritual Poverty• Lack of happiness• Lack of confidence• Loneliness 

• Economic Poverty• Health Poverty• Agricultural poverty• Social poverty• Spiritual Poverty

Cultural Shift:• Economic stability• Healthy society• Sustainable agriculture• Social strength• Human happiness

Need of a Cultural Shift

Modification of a society through innovation, invention, discovery, or

contact with other societies