Running head: FEMALE PROBATION OFFICERSdtpr.lib.athabascau.ca/.../jenniferrattaiProject.pdf ·...

Female Probation Officers 1

Running head: FEMALE PROBATION OFFICERS

Letter of Intent

Female Probation Officers: The Challenge of

Work-life Balance in the Context of Traumatic Stress

Graduate Counselling Applied Psychology

March 2010

Heather Rattai

Supervisor: Dr. Patricia Fisher, PhD, R.Psych., L.Psych.


Female Probation Officers: The Challenge of

Work-life Balance in the Context of Traumatic Stress

Problem Statement

Shifts within the workplace and the family during the last 30 years have produced a

proliferation of research focused on the relation between work and family (Clark, 2000;

Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003; Mcelwain, Korabik & Rosin, 2005). While previous research

has examined the effects of multiple roles in the traditional workforce, there has been little

attention paid to women in non-traditional occupations characterized by high exposure to

traumatic stresses (Dushinski, 2006). One of those nontraditional careers is that of probation

officer.

There has been conflicting research findings regarding work-family relations. Some

research has found that employed women are vulnerable to role conflict from work-family

relations due to the demands of multiple roles (Bernas & Major, 2000; Casper, Martin, Buffardi

& Erdwin, 2002; Livingston & Judge, 2008). However, other researchers have concluded that

there are mental, physical and relationship benefits for an employed mother with multiple roles

(Barnett & Hyde, 2001; van Steenbergen, Ellemers & Mooijaart, 2007).

When examining the topic of work and family for mothers employed as probation

officers, the dynamics related to this specific occupation and client-population need to be

considered – specifically, exposure to workplace traumatic stress (Fisher, 2000). Workplace

traumatic stress includes primary and secondary traumatic stress. Primary traumatic stress refers

to an individual’s direct experience of threat, danger, or traumatic injury. In contrast, secondary

traumatic stress refers to an individual’s second-hand exposure to a traumatic event. For

example, if one staff member is assaulted by a client, that staff member has experienced a


primary traumatic stress. However, those witnessing the assault will have experience secondary

traumatic stress (Fisher, 2000; Saakvitne & Pearlman, 1996). In addition, female probation

officers with and without children may experience important differences in their vulnerability to

and responses to traumatic stress. This exploratory study compares female probation officers

with children to those without children in terms of the risk factors, the symptoms, and the effects

of primary and secondary traumatic stress exposure.

Project Rationale

While numerous studies have also been completed on work-family relations, their focus

has remained limited to occupations within the private sector (Greenhaus et al., 2003; Lee,

Reissing & Dobson, 2009; Lyness & Judiesch, 2008). The research to date has yielded

conflicting and incomplete findings in the area of work-family relations. For example, while

Barnett and Hyde (2001) found benefits for employees holding multiple roles, other researchers

have demonstrated negative physical and psychological impacts of work stressors on work-

family relations (Allen, Herst, Bruck & Sutton, 2000; Beatty, 1996; Burke, 2004). The literature

has yet to examine the work-family dynamics as applied to probation officers.

Exposure to traumatic stressors is a critical element of probation work. Despite the

tremendous amount of research on primary and secondary trauma, there is a paucity of research

regarding the risks and effects of primary and secondary trauma on corrections personnel, and

specifically female probation officers. Working as a probation officer involves a variety of roles

and includes exposure to direct danger from threatening clients as well as exposure to secondary

trauma in the form of “trauma material, including graphic descriptions of violent events,

exposure to the realities of people’s cruelty to one another” (Saakvitne & Pearlman, 1996, p. 45).


In addition, probation officers are faced with systemic workplace stresses including

limited resources, numerous roles, pressured deadlines, and a multitude of offenders’ daily life

problems. Exposure to both the traumatic and systemic stressors on a continual basis can

negatively impact a probation officer both professionally and personally (Fisher, 2000). There is

a growing body of research examining the (negative) effects of trauma exposure on related

occupations such as trauma counsellors (Adams & Riggs, 2008; Brady, Guy, Poelstra & Brokaw,

1999; Collins & Long, 2003; and Figley, 2002), social workers (Cunningham, 2003), ambulance

paramedics (Regehr, Goldberg & Hughes, 2002), correctional officers (Lambert, Cluse-Tolar &

Hogan, 2007) and law enforcement personnel (Daum & Johns, 1994; Wexler & Logan, 1983).

The purpose of this exploratory project is to extend our understanding of the role that trauma

exposure may play in the lives of women probation officers. In particular, this project will

compare female probation officers who are mothers with children in the home, and female

probation officers without children in the home in regard to the symptoms and effects associated

with primary and secondary trauma.

Due to the lack of research in this area, the current study will be exploratory in nature.

Exploratory data analysis can take a field of inquiry in a new, unexplored direction. Whereas

confirmatory data analysis is based on previous theories, data or knowledge in order to test a

specific hypothesis; exploratory data analysis is a “technique for investigating the structure of the

data set about which you have few preconceptions” (Giles, 2000, p. 122). Since there was no a

priori theory or research that could guide assumptions about work-life relations for female

probation officers, these analyses will begin with exploratory data analysis to identify the most

plausible model that fits the results. Exploratory studies are strongly heuristic first stage


investigations and typically employ basic and robust descriptive statistical analyses (Tukey,

1977).

Supporting Literature

There have been divergent findings regarding the effects of work-family relations for

employed mothers. Some researchers have suggested that the additional role of mothering can

act as a buffer against job related stress or even create energy and skills to use in another role

(Barnett & Hyde, 2001; van Steenbergen et al., 2007). Yet Desrochers, Lehoux, Halpren, and

Tse, (n.d.) found that employed mothers may be at increased risk for experiencing stress in the

form of work-family conflict and a lack of balance among their life roles because they have

difficulty prioritizing their commitments to these roles.

Physical and psychological stress within the work and family domains have been

examined (Allen et al., 2000). A positive association has been found between work-family

conflict and factors such as anxiety, irritability, emotional distress, job stress, alcohol use,

burnout, and quality of life (Allen et al., 2000; Burke & Greenglass, 1999; Burke & Mikkelsen,

2006; Frone, Russell & Barnes, 1996; MacEwen & Barling, 1999). Work-family conflict has

also been found to be associated with increased reports of physical and somatic complaints

(Allen et al., 2000; Liu, Spector & Shi, 2008). In a study of Norwegian police officers increased

job demands and role conflicts were significantly related to work family conflict (Burke &

Mikkelson, 2006).

Research has found differences between how individuals with and without children

balance work and family and how they each experience work-life conflict (Lee, Reissing &

Dobson, 2009; Mcelwain et al., 2005). MacEwen and Barling (1994) found increased levels of

anxiety and depression in relation to work-family conflict for women but not for men.


Depression was found to be positively related with work-family conflict for women with

children but not for women without children (Beatty, 1996). A review of the research of work-

family relations and physical and psychological stress-related variables demonstrated a

consistent and strong relation (Allen et al., 2000).

The field of corrections features “an additional set of challenges that are not encountered

in other fields” (Fisher, 2000, p. 6). These specific types of stress must also be considered when

exploring female probation officers with children. Research on law enforcement and corrections

personnel have painted a picture of stress and burnout which manifests in depression, anxiety,

job dissatisfaction and high levels of turnover (Castle & Martin, 2006; Lambert, Cluse-Tolar &

Hogan, 2007; Tracy, 2003; Wexler & Logan, 1983). Fisher (2000) combines the multitude of

stresses affecting probation officers into a two dimensional approach. The two dimensions are

workplace systemic stress including burnout, and job stress; and workplace traumatic stress

including primary and secondary trauma. Within each of these dimensions there are situational

and workplace risk factors and individual risk factors (Fisher, 2000). The risk factors of both

systemic and traumatic stress may be compounded by the addition of the mothering role

(Desrochers et al., n.d.), or as suggested by Barnett and Hyde (2001), this additional role may

provide some amount of protection against the stress.

Probation officers may experience an array of reactions in their work with offenders and

victims (Collins & Long, 2003). Secondary trauma can occur when an individual hears, reads or

witnesses a traumatic event. A number of workplace risk factors have been found to be related to

secondary trauma including workload, the nature of the work and clients, exposure to traumatic

material, supervision and resources, training, and work context and environment (Baird &

Kracen, 2006; Miller, 1998). There are also a number of individual risk factors including


personal history of trauma, personal support, and personal circumstances (McCann & Pearlman,

1990; Miller, 1998; Pearlman & MacIan, 1995). Probation officers are frequently exposed to

material that results in secondary trauma (Fisher, 2000). Ongoing exposure to secondary trauma

may result in physical, emotional, cognitive, behaviour, interpersonal and existential symptoms

(Adams, Boscarino, & Figley, 2006; Fisher, 2000; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995).

In addition to exposure to secondary trauma, probation officers sometimes experience

direct violence, such as an assault, resulting in primary trauma. Not all individuals who are

exposed to trauma will experience clinical difficulties (Briere, 1992; Finklehor, Hotaling, Lewis

& Smith, 1990). There are a number of factors that have been found to predict an individual’s

vulnerability to traumatic situations. These workplace factors include the traumatic experience

itself, training and preparation, and resources (Brewin, Andrews & Valentine, 2000). Individual

risk factors are trauma responses, support, trauma history, and family history (Regehr, Goldberg

& Hughes, 2002). The effects of primary trauma can include physical symptoms, psychological

symptoms, cognitive symptoms, behavioural symptoms, and interpersonal symptoms (Cadell,

Regehr, Hemsworth, 2003; Herman, 1992; Karatzias et al., 2007).

Project Procedures

To study the effects and risk of workplace systemic stress and workplace traumatic stress

on female probation officers with children and those without children, I will start with a search

of electronic databases such as PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, ERIC, and library resources, using

keywords such as post traumatic stress disorder, primary trauma, secondary traumatic stress,

vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, probation officers, corrections, work-family conflict, and

work-life balance. Another source of information will include my project supervisor, Dr. Fisher,


who is very knowledgeable in this field and will provide helpful resources and guidance for this

project.

The focus group for this study is probation officers employed by British Columbia (BC)

Community Corrections. The data was collected in 2006 by Dr. Patricia Fisher during voluntary

2-day workshops for all BC Community Corrections personnel on workplace stress and trauma

in corrections. Therefore, the current study involves secondary data analysis exploring a specific

sub-group from a different position1. Accessing this data set on female probation officers

provides the opportunity to answer new research questions and test new frames of references

which can add to the informational value of the original data (Boslaugh, 2007). This form of

research allows for unobtrusive and less expensive methods of studying a topic.

The research project which generated the large data set, to which I have been granted

access, was provided with ethical approval by the BC Government Ministry of Public Safety and

Solicitor General prior to the original data collection. The data collection represented a self-

assessment component of an intensive 2-day workshop program developed by Dr. Fisher: “The

Road Back to Wellness: Stress, Trauma and Burnout in Corrections”. The workshops were

facilitated by BC Community Corrections probation officers who were trained to provide the

program by psychologist, Dr. Fisher. The Wellness workshop contained 3 major elements (a) a

psychoeducational component regarding the mechanisms and effects of workplace traumatic and

systemic stress, (b) a set of self-assessments regarding the risk and resiliency factors associated

with workplace traumatic and systemic stresses, self assessments regarding self-care, and self

1 Rebman, S.L.T (2003). Traumatic Stress Risk Factors and Symptoms of Depression in B.C. Adult

Probation Officers: Clinical and Organizational Implications. Master of Arts Thesis, Department of

Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies, University of Victoria


assessment for the range of symptoms and effects that may result from stress exposure

(Appendix B), and (c) focus on beneficial strategies in participants’ workplace and personal life

that will increase their resiliency and improve their quality of life. At the beginning of the

workshop, all participants were informed of the purpose of the study, and were assured that they

were completing the survey anonymously. Participants were also informed that participation was

voluntary and that results of the research would be made available to the participants. Informed

consent was received from all study participants (Appendix A). In addition to the measurement

instruments, each study participant completed a one page demographic cover sheet regarding

gender, age, job classification, region of employment, type of caseload, years in position,

primary relationship, children, care of others, financial stress, and membership in minority

group. The measurement instruments were placed into sealed envelopes and forwarded directly

to Dr. Fisher. Each data set was identified only by a randomly generated numeric code and at no

time were participants’ names recorded with the data collection. The data was entered onto an

Excel spreadsheet and all data was held under conditions specified by the “Canadian Code of

Ethics for Psychologists” (Canadian Psychological Association, 2000).

The current study will be based on completed response sets of 120 female BC

Community Corrections probation officers (67 with children and 53 without children). The focus

of the study will be on the primary and secondary traumatic stress variables for female probation

officers. Given the lack of previous research focused on primary and secondary trauma in

relation to work-family relations for female probation officers, the current study will be an

exploratory study. Statistical analysis will include robust simple descriptive statistics

(percentages, mean, s.d., etc) and standard tests of significance (e.g. t-tests, F tests and Chi


squares) to compare female probation officers with and without children. Results will be

presented in written form, graphs and tables.

Potential Implications of the Project

This exploratory study compares female probation officers with children to those without

children in terms of risk factors and the effects of primary and secondary traumatic stress. This

provides a valuable opportunity to study an otherwise unexamined group and the results will

provide important insights into the possible effects for women probation officers. While building

on research in the areas of primary, and secondary trauma, and work-family dynamics, this

research will provide a Canadian focus that addresses women in a non-traditional occupation.

Initiating research in this important area may facilitate the development of targeted resources for

female probation officers to assist with the risks and effects of primary and secondary trauma.

The findings also have implications for future organizational policies and intervention

development.


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Appendix A


Appendix B

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