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Routes to Independence: Routes to Independence: Francophone colonies Francophone colonies
“ … he suffered from … suicidal obsessions. The critical date was that when on instructions from his organization he had placed a bomb somewhere. …This militant, who never for a single moment thought of repudiating his past action, realized very clearly the manner in which he himself had to pay the price of national independence”
[Franz Fanon,The Wretched of the Earth, p.206]
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WWII: Europe, Africa & the WWII: Europe, Africa & the WorldWorld
- post-war world saw creation of United Nations (to replace League of Nations)
- Increase in anti-colonial rhetoric (including
Pan-Africanists)
- independence in various Asian regions, especially India, had major impact on colonizers and colonized alike
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WWII: Europe, Africa & the WWII: Europe, Africa & the WorldWorld
-Britain and France began speaking of ‘changes’ to colonialism (will look at Britain next week)
- allowed formation of Workers’ Unions where previously illegal
-United States and Soviet Union emerged strong from the war:
- demanded access to colonial world
- supported anti-colonialist movements
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The French ExperienceThe French Experience
Post-war change came first in France:
- left-leaning coalition (including Communist Party) immediately moved for change in colonial world.
- 1946: Union Francaise created ‘commonwealth’ of French Colonies
- 20 Africans to be elected representatives to French Assembly
- others to serve in new Assembly for the Union
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Francophone Colonies: the Francophone Colonies: the 1950s1950s
To protect future influence established Communaute Francaise:
- France continued to control finance (common currency), foreign policy, military affairs
- local parliamentary government, flag, anthem devolved to ‘states’
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Francohpone… 1950s (cont.)Francohpone… 1950s (cont.)
Reactions varied:- some not happy but felt Communaute gave time for weaker, poorer colonies to gain strength, therefore supported
- others pleased to see small elite kept in positions of power
- cultural reactions expressed in part by Leopold Senghor’s concept of
negritude, ‘modern-conservatism’ -- ‘return to Mother Africa’ within larger French community
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Francophone…: the Francophone…: the ReferendumReferendum
1958: referendum on question of belonging to the Communaute:
- de Gaulle made special tour of each colony preparing voters
- maintained control over voting apparatus
- “YES” vote meant continuing patronage of France – aid, military support, currency stability (the FWA, FEA franc tied to French franc)
- “NO” meant withdrawal of all support
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Francophone…: Referendum Francophone…: Referendum (cont.)(cont.)
Every colony voted ‘yes’ – EXCEPT Guinea:
- leader, Seku Toure strongly based in workers unions
- Partie Democratique de Guinee won popular support
- undermined authority traditional chiefs
- 95% voters rejected the Communaute , opted for ‘real’ independence
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Francophone…: Referendum Francophone…: Referendum (cont.)(cont.)
- all aid immediately cut off
- all French infrastructure that could be removed was – even telephones ripped off walls!
Guinea reflected potential danger: if one colony could make it alone, how long
before the others did the same?
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AlgeriaAlgeria
- other ‘exception’: settler colony of Algeria
- already ‘province’ of France
- ‘decolonizing’ process not applicable (from perspective of France)
- ‘anachronism’ in decolonizing world (from perspective of ‘Arab’Algerians
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AlgeriaAlgeria
Algeria representative of most settler colonies:- resistance to continuing colonial rule led to full scale wars, often civil wars- ideology played key roles and therefore…- … had direct implications for international interests (Cold War) - had significant impact on ‘home’ colonial society as well as colony
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AlgeriaAlgeria
Algeria part of France:
-‘Algerie Francaise’ since 1830
- French settlers: ‘pieds noirs’ or ‘colons’
- 1950s Algerians struggling against two ‘layers’ colonizers who would not negotiate
- war for independence lasted 1954-1962
- Algeria’s battle critical to struggle of West African French colonies
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AlgeriaAlgeria
Algeria:
-oldest colony; climate, land attracted 1 million settlers (among 7 million Algerians)
- 1950 held 23% best land
-colons saw Algeria as part of France
-part of French metropolis except better policed, more military presence
-Algerian workers moved in, out of France
- fewer racial tensions than other settler regimes (eg Kenya)
,
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Algeria c.1950 (cont.)Algeria c.1950 (cont.)
Unlike West, East Africa, Algeria not part of post-war discussions of decolonization:
- but had educated elite, nationalists, representing same range of positions
-differed by being part of larger Arab, Muslim ‘nationalist’ movement
- strong across North Africa, rooted in Egypt
- drew on ideology not contained or defined by colony or regional ethnicity: Islam
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Algeria c.1950 (cont.)Algeria c.1950 (cont.)
France: - Gaullist party became powerful after 1951 elections
-aligned with colons’ interests
- openly repressed local inhabitants Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
- Last two colonies turned to United Nations to censure French policies: failed
- French position hardened in face of ‘external’ interference
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Algeria c. 1950 (cont.)Algeria c. 1950 (cont.)
Resistance in Algeria led by Front de Liberation National(FLN)
- guerilla warfare and terrorism in both countryside and cities- key battles in capital of Algiers
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War in CountrysideWar in Countryside
Peasants fleeing War (left)
Prisoner of War,farmer’s pig shed(right)
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War in AlgiersWar in Algiers
City Street Barricade. “Vive Massu” (reference to General Massu who led Parachute Troops and brought about end to battle of Algiers through terrorism and torture)
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VideoVideo
The Battle of Algiers(made in France, 1967 – reissued 2003)
[excerpt]
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F.L.N. and its IdeologyF.L.N. and its Ideology
Role of Islam as ‘ideology’:
- Islam played large role in defining who was ‘with’ who was not ‘with’ movement-seen by French as synonymous with: resistance
being ‘Arab’ terrorism
- bred ‘terrorism’ among French in return
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Impact on CombatantsImpact on Combatants
“the Arab, permanently an alien in his own country, lives in a state of absolute depersonalization. . . . The events in Algeria are the logical consequence of an abortive attempt to decerebralize a people" (Fanon, Toward the African Revolution 53).
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Impact on CombatantsImpact on Combatants
-The French and those who fought as French troops also scarred by war [see ‘Senegalese Soldier in Algeria’ in Additional readings]
- ‘total war’ in Algeria: everyone played a role [reference ‘Battle of Algiers’ video excerpt showed in class Mar 3]
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Struggle not confined to Struggle not confined to AlgiersAlgiers
Struggle neither began nor ended in Algiers:
-‘Battle of Algiers’ lasted three years (1954-7)
- ‘Battle of Algeria’ lasted seven
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F.L.N. and the Wider WorldF.L.N. and the Wider World
North Africa support strong, especially Egypt (‘Radio Caire’):
- angered French and British
- Nasser (power 1954) initially seen as positive in terms of controlling pan-Islamicism
- 1956: nationalized Suez Canal, provoked major debacle for western powers
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F.L.N and the Wider WorldF.L.N and the Wider World
Marked turning point for France:
-parachute troops to Algiers
- leader (Massu) brought experience of Indo-Chine (Vietnam)
- urban guerilla war met new terrorism, torture
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F.L.N. (cont)F.L.N. (cont)
‘impact’ of the war in France:
- left, liberals ‘uncomfortable’ with infringements on human rights
- 1956 articles and ‘dialogues’ appearing in major public venues like Paris-Match
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F.L.N. (cont)F.L.N. (cont)
Attracted attention in US:
-1957 Kennedy demanded discussion in UN
- 1958 France surveillance tracked FLN to Tunisian village: air bombed it
- US, Britain pushed for negotiations
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Air WarAir War
DroppingNapalm
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Impact on FranceImpact on France
International embarrassment:
- dissension in military, economic doubts
- all challenged holding on to ‘Algerie Francais’
- not enough to dislodge entrenched interests, boosted by victory in Algiers
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Impact on FranceImpact on France
May 1958:
- demonstration in Algiers led to formation “Committee of Public Safety”
- Fear military coup directed from Algiers led to constitutional transfer of power in Paris: de Gaulle called from retirement
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Impact on France (cont.)Impact on France (cont.)
“Je vous ai compris!” De Gaulle said to:- the colons
- the Algerian francophiles
- the military:
What did that mean?
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Impact on France (cont.)Impact on France (cont.)
- De Gaulle convinced of decolonization
- believed in modernization of country, ‘nuclearization’ of defense system
- tried to keep nuclear test sites in Sahara (a test had taken place in 1960), some oil and gas holdings but…
- by 1961, willing to negotiate the non-negotiable… and with the FLN!
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De Gaulle DecolonizesDe Gaulle Decolonizes
1959 he spoke of ‘self determination’ 1960 of an ‘Algerian Algeria’ 1961 of a ‘sovereign Algeria’ In 1962:
“We must concede these details rather than reject an agreement; for there is no comparison between the primary interest, which consists of reaching an agreement, and the secondary interest, which consists of holding a little longer certain things which in any case we do not reckon to hold for ever!”[cited in Feildhouse, Decolonization in Africa, 2nd ed., p.185]
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De Gaulle DecolonizesDe Gaulle Decolonizes
- Attempts to assure colons, military and Algerians who believed assimilation that France would not abandon them failed - 1961-2 constant unrest, plots to assassinate de Gaulle threatened to undermine France itself-1962 meetings at Evian, France with FLN led to agreement which was, only a few years earlier, unthinkable: negotiated independence for Algeria
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De Gaulle DecolonizesDe Gaulle Decolonizes
Agreement:- France promised ‘co-operation’
(financial assistance) to help rebuild after 8 years of war
- FLN promised to ‘protect’ remaining colons
- offer them choice of citizenship after 3 years
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De Gaulle DecolonizesDe Gaulle Decolonizes
But undermined:- flight of most settlers with skills,
capital threatened economy - FLN factions threatened political
stability
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IndependenceIndependence