Romanticism & Romanticism & Transcendentalism Transcendentalism

Part II:Part II:Romanticism & the New NationRomanticism & the New Nation

English IIIEnglish III

Advanced Composition & NovelAdvanced Composition & Novel

Mrs. SnipesMrs. Snipes

Although romanticism flourished on both sides of Although romanticism flourished on both sides of the Atlantic in the 19the Atlantic in the 19thth century, the feelings century, the feelings inspired by the American frontier and the formation inspired by the American frontier and the formation of a new democratic society endowed America of a new democratic society endowed America with its own special brand of romanticism. with its own special brand of romanticism. European romanticism tended to be founded on a European romanticism tended to be founded on a wish to escape its own history and start over. wish to escape its own history and start over. America, however, was the embodiment of that America, however, was the embodiment of that wish. Everything was new and anything was wish. Everything was new and anything was possible. Continually breaking the molds of possible. Continually breaking the molds of European traditions, the emergent United States European traditions, the emergent United States began to place its unique stamp on government, began to place its unique stamp on government, art, philosophy, and literature. art, philosophy, and literature.

Transcendentalism Defined:Transcendentalism Defined:

The term refers to a literary and The term refers to a literary and philosophical movement in America based philosophical movement in America based on a belief that the transcendental—or on a belief that the transcendental—or spiritual—reality, rather than the material spiritual—reality, rather than the material world, is the ultimate reality, and that world, is the ultimate reality, and that knowledge is not solely derived from knowledge is not solely derived from experience and observation. One must learn experience and observation. One must learn about the world not only through about the world not only through reasonreason but but through through intuitionintuition. .

ReasonReason = the = the independent and independent and intuitive capacity to intuitive capacity to know what is know what is absolutely true. absolutely true.

IntuitionIntuition = the direct = the direct perception of truth, perception of truth, fact, etc. independent fact, etc. independent of any reasoning of any reasoning process; a keen and process; a keen and quick insight.quick insight.

The Transcendentalists upheld the essential The Transcendentalists upheld the essential goodness of humanity, the glories of nature, and goodness of humanity, the glories of nature, and the importance of free individual expression. the importance of free individual expression.

This period is sometimes referred to as the This period is sometimes referred to as the American Renaissance. American Renaissance.

Transcendentalism emphasized the idea that Transcendentalism emphasized the idea that individuals should act according to their innermost individuals should act according to their innermost personal beliefs, or spiritual convictions, rather personal beliefs, or spiritual convictions, rather than the dictates of society. than the dictates of society.

Closely related to this idea is that of the integrity of Closely related to this idea is that of the integrity of the individual—the idea/belief that each person is the individual—the idea/belief that each person is inherently good, capable of making rational inherently good, capable of making rational decisions, and worthy of respect from every other decisions, and worthy of respect from every other human being. human being.

The Role of NatureThe Role of Nature

The Transcendentalists believed in living close to The Transcendentalists believed in living close to nature and taught the dignity of manual labor.nature and taught the dignity of manual labor.

They emphasized the beauty and importance of They emphasized the beauty and importance of the natural world. the natural world.

They believed that by contemplating objects in They believed that by contemplating objects in nature the individual could transcend this world nature the individual could transcend this world and discover union with God and the Ideal. and discover union with God and the Ideal.

The Fulfillment of human potential was attainable The Fulfillment of human potential was attainable through mysticism and communion with nature. through mysticism and communion with nature.

Henry David Thoreau, Henry David Thoreau, one of the dominant one of the dominant writers of this period, writers of this period, wrote: “All good things wrote: “All good things are wild and free.”are wild and free.”

Philosophical InfluencesPhilosophical Influences

In opposition to the rational tendencies of the age, In opposition to the rational tendencies of the age, Transcendentalism incorporated elements from Transcendentalism incorporated elements from many philosophies and religions. many philosophies and religions.

Transcendentalism is closest to the philosophy of Transcendentalism is closest to the philosophy of IdealismIdealism, which held that material objects do not , which held that material objects do not have a real existence of their own. Rather, these have a real existence of their own. Rather, these objects are diffused parts or aspects of God, the objects are diffused parts or aspects of God, the over-soulover-soul, a term coined by Ralph Waldo Emerson , a term coined by Ralph Waldo Emerson meaning an ultimate spiritual unity that meaning an ultimate spiritual unity that encompasses all existence and in which each encompasses all existence and in which each human being has an equal share. human being has an equal share.

As the ultimate spiritual force, the As the ultimate spiritual force, the over-soulover-soul encompasses all existence and reconciles all encompasses all existence and reconciles all opposing forces in the world. opposing forces in the world.

Material objects, therefore, mirror or reflect and Material objects, therefore, mirror or reflect and ideal world. ideal world.

Transcendentalism arose in reaction/ opposition to Transcendentalism arose in reaction/ opposition to RationalismRationalism, a theory that the reason in itself is a , a theory that the reason in itself is a source of knowledge superior to sensory source of knowledge superior to sensory perceptions. perceptions.

Transcendentalists thought that Transcendentalists thought that RationalismRationalism, from , from which modern science had sprung, denied the which modern science had sprung, denied the profound sense of mystery found in nature and profound sense of mystery found in nature and humanity.humanity.

Other influences Other influences included Plato, Kant, included Plato, Kant, and Rousseau, along and Rousseau, along with Romanticism, with Romanticism, Deism, and Deism, and Unitarianism. Unitarianism.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

RomanticismRomanticism = a movement in art, literature, = a movement in art, literature, and music emphasizing passion rather than and music emphasizing passion rather than reason, and imagination and intuition, rather reason, and imagination and intuition, rather than logic. Most Romantic writers favored than logic. Most Romantic writers favored full expression of the emotions, as well as full expression of the emotions, as well as free, spontaneous actions rather than free, spontaneous actions rather than restraint and order. Romantic writers restraint and order. Romantic writers stressed freedom of the individual and stressed freedom of the individual and restricting social conventions and unjust restricting social conventions and unjust political rule. political rule.

DeismDeism = a movement advocating natural religion, = a movement advocating natural religion, emphasizing morality, and in the 18emphasizing morality, and in the 18 thth century, century, denying the interference of the creator with the denying the interference of the creator with the laws of the universe. laws of the universe.

UnitarianismUnitarianism = stresses individual freedom of = stresses individual freedom of belief, the free use of reason in religion, a united belief, the free use of reason in religion, a united world community, and liberal social action. world community, and liberal social action. Unitarians rejected Calvinistic notions of Original Unitarians rejected Calvinistic notions of Original Sin and Determinism in favor of beliefs in the basic Sin and Determinism in favor of beliefs in the basic goodness and innate free will of the individual.goodness and innate free will of the individual.

QuakersQuakers = emphasized the direct relationship = emphasized the direct relationship between God and the individual without the between God and the individual without the mediation of a minister.mediation of a minister.

The French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) The French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) argued that civilization was creating a race that was out of step with argued that civilization was creating a race that was out of step with nature. nature.

Civilization stripped people of their natural instincts.Civilization stripped people of their natural instincts. ““Everything is good when it leaves the creator,” he argued, “everything Everything is good when it leaves the creator,” he argued, “everything

degenerates in the hands of men.”degenerates in the hands of men.” Rousseau believed human beings had innate intuitive powers; that is, Rousseau believed human beings had innate intuitive powers; that is,

they instinctively knew how to deal with the outside world.they instinctively knew how to deal with the outside world. He felt that so-called “primitive” people, those who lived closer to and He felt that so-called “primitive” people, those who lived closer to and

in harmony with nature, had a greater, more refined intuition than “civil” in harmony with nature, had a greater, more refined intuition than “civil” human beings.human beings.

Rousseau believed that there were basic principles, such as liberty and Rousseau believed that there were basic principles, such as liberty and equality, which were innate to human beings. equality, which were innate to human beings.

Civilization and governments, however, had conditioned man to endure Civilization and governments, however, had conditioned man to endure life without them.life without them.

Rousseau’s ideas were influential to many, from the American and Rousseau’s ideas were influential to many, from the American and French revolutionaries to romantic writers.French revolutionaries to romantic writers.

His ideas of nature and intuition were taken even further in the His ideas of nature and intuition were taken even further in the philosophy of Kant.philosophy of Kant.

The German The German philosopher Emmanuel philosopher Emmanuel Kant stated: “Man can Kant stated: “Man can neither prove or neither prove or disprove the existence disprove the existence of God.”of God.”

Plato stated: “Absolute Plato stated: “Absolute goodness is knowable goodness is knowable only through intuition.”only through intuition.”

Kant

Organized ReligionOrganized Religion

Although the major writers of this period came Although the major writers of this period came from Protestant backgrounds, they found from Protestant backgrounds, they found themselves at odds with the dominant religions of themselves at odds with the dominant religions of the time. the time.

Though they strongly felt the need of intellectual Though they strongly felt the need of intellectual companionship and emphasized spiritual living, companionship and emphasized spiritual living, they felt that every person’s relation to God was to they felt that every person’s relation to God was to be established directly by the individual, rather be established directly by the individual, rather than through a ritualistic or organized church.than through a ritualistic or organized church.

They held that human beings were divine in their They held that human beings were divine in their own right, an opinion opposed by the doctrines of own right, an opinion opposed by the doctrines of the Puritans. the Puritans.

Self-trust and reliance were to be practiced at all Self-trust and reliance were to be practiced at all times, because to trust self was really to trust the times, because to trust self was really to trust the voice of god speaking intuitively within us. voice of god speaking intuitively within us.

They felt that current thought had reduced God to They felt that current thought had reduced God to a watchmaker, who, having once built and wound a watchmaker, who, having once built and wound up the universe, now sat back and observed it up the universe, now sat back and observed it detachedly. The individual in this scheme was detachedly. The individual in this scheme was likewise reduced, as Thoreau, put it, “to a cog” or likewise reduced, as Thoreau, put it, “to a cog” or wheel in this cosmic machine.wheel in this cosmic machine.

The Political LandscapeThe Political Landscape Politically, America was uncharted territory.Politically, America was uncharted territory. The American Revolution left a nation of loosely connected The American Revolution left a nation of loosely connected

states the very real task of creating a workable democracy.states the very real task of creating a workable democracy. Most Transcendentalists were, by nature, reformers, but Most Transcendentalists were, by nature, reformers, but

these reforms were attempts to regenerate the human these reforms were attempts to regenerate the human spirit, rather than to prescribe to particular movements.spirit, rather than to prescribe to particular movements.

Social conformity, materialism, commercialism, and what Social conformity, materialism, commercialism, and what they believed to be a lack of moral commitment angered they believed to be a lack of moral commitment angered and frustrated the transcendentalists. and frustrated the transcendentalists.

As basic American values were threatened by encroaching As basic American values were threatened by encroaching industrialization, reform groups sprang up.industrialization, reform groups sprang up.

Support for women’s rights and the abolition of slavery Support for women’s rights and the abolition of slavery became popular at this time. became popular at this time.

Public schools began. Public schools began. Utopian communities and communes were founded and Utopian communities and communes were founded and

established.established.

Civil DisobedienceCivil Disobedience

This is defined as the refusal to obey certain This is defined as the refusal to obey certain governmental laws or demands for the purpose of governmental laws or demands for the purpose of influencing legislation or government policy, influencing legislation or government policy, characterized by the employment of such characterized by the employment of such nonviolent techniques as boycotting, picketing, nonviolent techniques as boycotting, picketing, nonpayment of taxes—any form of passive and nonpayment of taxes—any form of passive and non-violent resistance. non-violent resistance.

Thoreau outlines his philosophy in an essay titled Thoreau outlines his philosophy in an essay titled “Civil Disobedience” in 1848.“Civil Disobedience” in 1848.

The Social LandscapeThe Social Landscape The Nation’s population doubled between 1790 and 1830 and doubled The Nation’s population doubled between 1790 and 1830 and doubled

again before 1870.again before 1870. Socially, America was a study in contradictions.Socially, America was a study in contradictions. On the one hand, the large majority of Americans made their living by On the one hand, the large majority of Americans made their living by

farming or by providing products and services to farmers.farming or by providing products and services to farmers. On the other hand, a growing number began to leave the farms to take On the other hand, a growing number began to leave the farms to take

jobs in factories and textile mills, especially in the East. jobs in factories and textile mills, especially in the East. Henry David Thoreau condemned industrial capitalism and the growing Henry David Thoreau condemned industrial capitalism and the growing

mechanism of work. To Thoreau, the “progress” of civilization was mechanism of work. To Thoreau, the “progress” of civilization was ruining the frontier spirit. ruining the frontier spirit.

Romantics such as Thoreau believed that humankind could find truth Romantics such as Thoreau believed that humankind could find truth and happiness in nature. and happiness in nature.

The economists of the day disagreed, believing that, rather than The economists of the day disagreed, believing that, rather than preserving nature, it was more important for people and government to preserving nature, it was more important for people and government to advance human commerce. advance human commerce.

America’s westward expansion increasingly attracted immigrants from America’s westward expansion increasingly attracted immigrants from all over the world.all over the world.

Dynamic advances were made in science and Dynamic advances were made in science and technology: new farm machines, roads, railways, technology: new farm machines, roads, railways, and the telegraph inspired a sense of optimism and the telegraph inspired a sense of optimism across the country.across the country.

Yet, there were some serious side effects of this Yet, there were some serious side effects of this progress: harsh working conditions and ugly mill progress: harsh working conditions and ugly mill towns were reflections of the nations growing towns were reflections of the nations growing industrialization.industrialization.

Skilled craftsmen were replaced by machines Skilled craftsmen were replaced by machines tended by lower paid women and children.tended by lower paid women and children.

Children were working 10-12 hours a day in Children were working 10-12 hours a day in factories and no longer had the freedom to pursue factories and no longer had the freedom to pursue an education or develop their potential. an education or develop their potential.

The Cultural LandscapeThe Cultural Landscape

Culturally, America also had uneasy ties to tradition.Culturally, America also had uneasy ties to tradition. On the one hand, American artists, thinkers, and writers On the one hand, American artists, thinkers, and writers

suffered greatly from what scholar Harold Bloom has called suffered greatly from what scholar Harold Bloom has called the “anxiety of influence.” the “anxiety of influence.”

Europe had a deep and complex cultural history. To ignore Europe had a deep and complex cultural history. To ignore this history would be to reject a great deal that was good this history would be to reject a great deal that was good along with the bad.along with the bad.

On the other hand, Americans were deeply suspicious of On the other hand, Americans were deeply suspicious of institutional authority and tradition.institutional authority and tradition.

Americans writers wanted forms, themes, and a literary Americans writers wanted forms, themes, and a literary language that were completely new. language that were completely new.

At the same time, however, they could not help but be At the same time, however, they could not help but be influenced by their “old world” cultural heritage.influenced by their “old world” cultural heritage.

Principle Writers in the Principle Writers in the Transcendental MovementTranscendental Movement

Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo Emerson Henry David ThoreauHenry David Thoreau William Cullen BryantWilliam Cullen Bryant John Greenleaf WhittierJohn Greenleaf Whittier Nathaniel HawthorneNathaniel Hawthorne Walt WhitmanWalt Whitman Emily DickinsonEmily Dickinson

http://www.walden.org/Institute/images/Maxham%20print.htm

SourcesSources

Phillips, Jerry and Andrew Ladd. Phillips, Jerry and Andrew Ladd. Romanticism and Romanticism and Transcendentalism (1800 – 1860). Transcendentalism (1800 – 1860). New York: New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2006.Facts on File, Inc., 2006.

The Norton Anthology of American Literature, 5The Norton Anthology of American Literature, 5 thth Ed. Ed. Vol. 1. Nina Baym, Editor. New York: W.W. Vol. 1. Nina Baym, Editor. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1998.Norton & Co., 1998.

The United States in LiteratureThe United States in Literature. Glenview, Illinois: . Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1991. Scott, Foresman and Company, 1991.