Roman Supplement

8/13/2019 Roman Supplement

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SUPPLEMENT III:

THE ROMAN WORLD

SUPPLEMENT III:..........................................................................................................................1THE ROMAN WORLD..................................................................................................................1

I. Introduction: The Roman Word.............................................................................................!II. The Roman Re"u#ican $on%titution.....................................................................................&

A. The $on%u% and Other Ma'i%trate%....................................................................................(

). The Senate...........................................................................................................................*$. The A%%em#ie%...................................................................................................................*

III. The Roman +ami, and Socia Structure.............................................................................11A. The Roman +ami,............................................................................................................11). Patrician%- Pe#eian%- and $ient%......................................................................................1$. Roman Socia Structure o/ the Late Re"u#ic and Ear, Em"ire.....................................10

I. The Roman Arm,................................................................................................................1(. Roman Im"eriai%m...............................................................................................................1*

A. The War/are State.............................................................................................................!2). Rome- Incor"orated: Munici"ia- Latin Ri'ht% and $oonie%................................................!1

$. The Moti3e% )ehind Roman Im"eriai%m.........................................................................!

I. Ma4or War% o/ the Roman Re"u#ic....................................................................................!0A. War% in Ita,- c5226!&0 )$..............................................................................................!0). +ir%t Punic War 7!&06!01 )$8..........................................................................................!0$. The Second Punic War 7!196!21 )$8...............................................................................!(

D. War% o/ Tran%marine E"an%ion 7!22610& )$8..................................................................E. War% o/ the Late Re"u#ic.................................................................................................5

II. The +a o/ the Roman Re"u#ic........................................................................................(A. The ;racchi.......................................................................................................................9). Mariu%................................................................................................................................*$. Sua...................................................................................................................................02D. $inna.................................................................................................................................0

E. $ra%%u%...............................................................................................................................00+. Pom"e,..............................................................................................................................05;. $icero................................................................................................................................0&H. $odiu%..............................................................................................................................0(I. $ae%ar.................................................................................................................................0(


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A. Au'u%tu% 7!( )$6AD 108.................................................................................................5!). Ti#eriu% 7AD 106(8..........................................................................................................50$.;aiu% >$ai'ua? 7(6018....................................................................................................5&D.$audiu% 7016508................................................................................................................59E. Nero 7506&98......................................................................................................................&2

+. $oncu%ion........................................................................................................................&! ..................................................................................................................................................& I@. Other Em"eror% o/ the Princi"ate 7&96!58.....................................................................&

A. The ear o/ the +our Em"eror%........................................................................................&). The +a3ian Em"eror% 7&*6*&8.........................................................................................&$. The +i3e ;ood Em"eror% 7*&61928..................................................................................&0D. $ommodu%- Didiu%


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three "ain%. The northernmo%t o/ the%e "ain% a% caed Etruria in ancient time% and i% nocaed Tu%can,. +or our "ur"o%e%- it% %outhern #oundar, a% e%%entia, the Ti#er Ri3er.


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Pro/ound thou'ht and arti%tic 'eniu% ere rare trait% indeed amon' the Roman%- a% the,oud ha3e #een the /ir%t to a'ree- /or the, ere /undamenta, a "ra'matic- con%er3ati3e anddon6to6earth "eo"e: en'ineer% rather than %cienti%t%- "ractica admini%trator% rather than"oitica theori%t%- "atron% o/ art rather than arti%t% them%e3e%. The ear, Roman% ere ane%%entia, %tu"id- #a%ica, #ruta- and etreme, ariCe "eo"e ho ere armed ith a %tern

morait, and a %e/6ri'hteou% mentait,. The, %a them%e3e% a% de%cended /rom a 'rou" o/ari%tocratic ,oun' "unC%- runaa, %a3e%- and other du#iou% t,"e%. The ater Roman% ere moreintei'ent and %o"hi%ticated- much e%% morai%tic- and %omehat e%% ariCe- #ut the, erene3er the inteectua eua% o/ the ;reeC%hom the, admired- imitated ,et a%o o/tende%"i%ed. Their miitar, achie3ement% ere #a%ed e%% on martia 'eniu% than on a miture o/ant6iCe "er%i%tence and "i'6headed ina#iit, to admit de/eat: in their 3ie- an enem, o/ Romecoud on, #e on hi% #acC or on hi% Cnee%. The, did ha3e- hoe3er- a certain 'eniu% /or'o3ernment and a- and ere %econd on, to the ;reeC% in the /ied o/ iterature.

The one arti%tic area in hich the Roman% ere %u"erior to the ;reeC% a% architecture.Athou'h man, ;reeC #uidin'% ere more #eauti/u than their Roman counter"art%- im"ortantRoman #uidin'% tended to #e #etter en'ineered and contained %uch /eature% a% rounded arche%and dome% hich ;reeC %tructure% entire, acCed. Perha"% the mo%t im"re%%i3e %in'e Roman

edi/ice in the Pantheon 7Tem"e o/ A the ;od%8 in Rome a% re#uit #, the em"eror Hadrian inthe %econd centur, AD. Thi% i% a circuar %tructure to""ed #, a dome 100 /eet in diameter. Acuriou% /eature o/ thi% dome i% a %erie% o/ %te"6iCe %tructure% on it% out%ide. E"ert% ere at ao%% to under%tand the /unction o/ the%e %te"% unti com"uter ana,%i% re3eaed that the %te"%'reat, reduced %tre%%e% on the dome. et the %tructure% o/ hich the Roman% ere the mo%t"roud ere their /amou% aueduct%. The Roman% #uit aueduct% o3er their em"ire- ith no e%%than nine o/ them %er3in' Rome it%e/ and con3e,in' o3er a miion 'aon% a da, into the cit,.A% one Roman ater commi%%ioner "ut it- GWith %o man, indi%"en%a#e %tructure% carr,in'%o much ater- e need /ear no com"ari%on ith the ide ",ramid% o/ the E',"tian% and theu%ee%%- thou'h /amou%- orC% o/ the ;reeC%. A ma4or rea%on /or the tremendou% #uidin'achie3ement% o/ the Roman% a% their in3ention o/ Gh,drauic cement- a miture o/ ime and"oBBoana that hardened into an etreme, e//ecti3e concrete.

The Roman% ere not a% #ad a ot a% the, ha3e #een de"icted in /im% and no3e%- herethe, aa,% %eem to #e "er%ecutin' $hri%tian% and


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uintu% Tuiu% $icero. +e "raenomina ere actua, in u%e and the, ere norma,a##re3iated: M. /or Marcu%- . /or uintu%- L. /or Luciu%- P. /or Pu#iu%- T. /or Titu%- Ti. /orTi#eriu%- #ut note $. /or ;aiu% and $n. /or ;naeu%the Roman% ori'ina, did not ha3e %e"arateetter% /or C and G and did not chan'e the %tandard a##re3iation% hen the, /ina, diddi//erentiate #eteen the to etter%. GTuiu% a% $iceroK% nomen and %i'ni/ied hi%mem#er%hi" in the Tuian can. Other /amou% nomina ere $orneiu% and


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B. 4iddle Rep"lic (**-133 BC), period o& t!e t!ree Pnic =ars "etween Romeand Cart!age and t!e con6est o& most o& t!e 4editerranean =orld'

C. ate Rep"lic (133-*7 BC), period in w!ic! t!e Romans proed na"le to copewit! t!e political, social, economic and militar# pro"lems created "# t!e ac6isition o& anempire, leading to t!ree "ots o& ciil war and dictators!ip t!at &inall# ended in t!e

esta"lis!ment o& t!e Roman mpire nder gsts, t!og! t!is period also saw Rome reac!!er cltral pea$.

3. Roman mpire (*7 BC-> 27). +!is was t!e period w!en t!e Roman =orld wasrled "# emperors (&rom t!e atin im"erator, originall# a title gien a ictorios general "# !issoldiers). Reeling &rom t!e political nrest, ciil wars and general corrption at t!e end o& t!eate Rep"lic, t!e Romans accepted one-man rle as an alternatie w!en gsts Caesar, t!egrandnep!ew and adopted son o& ?lis Caesar, was more t!an willing to gie it to t!em. +!isperiod is s"diided as &ollows

. Principate (*7 BC-> *35), &rom "rince"% or &irst citi@en,8 one o& t!ecollection o& titles and special powers amassed "# gsts t!at allowed !im to control "ot! t!earm# and t!e goernment' t!e Principate was essentiall# a militar# dictators!ip t!at

increasingl# "ecame a monarc!#'

B. 4ilitar# narc!# (*35-*A2), t!e age o& t!e soldier-emperors' a c!ronic state o&anarc!# t!at saw soldiers and ot!ers iolentl# ma$e and nma$e more t!an twent# di&&erentemperors'

C. >ominate or ate mpire (*A2-27), term >ominate8 &rom title dominu% orlord8 assmed "#. increasingl# more a"soltist emperors' period "egn wit! accession o&>iocletian in *A2' !is re&orms saed t!e empire' si@e o& arm# and "reacrac# astl# increased,as were ta;es' empire split into an eastern and a western !al&, eac! wit! its own emperor'period also saw t!e legali@ation o& C!ristianit#, w!ic! trimp!ed in t!e late 300s w!enpaganism was otlawed. Conditions grew &rom "ad to worse in t!e =estern mpire, w!ic!allowed German "ar"arians to sei@e large portions o& it and trn t!em into Germanic $ingdoms.

+!e =estern mpire o&&iciall# &ell in 27, w!en t!e German 9doacer sent t!e last =esternemperor, Romls gstls, into pensioned retirement. +!e ast Roman or B#@antine mpiresried ntil 1253, !oweer.

II. The Roman Republican Constitution

A re"u#ic i% no more and no e%% than a %,%tem o/ 'o3ernment ithout a monarch- #ut itdoe% ha3e the connotation o/ "o"uar %o3erei'nt,. The term come% /rom the Latin Res P"licaor GPu#ic Ream. The co%e%t En'i%h ord to thi% conce"t- other than GRe"u#ic it%e/- i%

G$ommoneath- a% in the $ommoneath o/ =entucC,. A monarch, a% a ca%e o/ ResPriata or 'o3ernment a% a "ri3ate concern o/ a Cin'. When Roman% %"oCe o/ li"ertas orG/reedom- the, 'enera, meant /reedom /rom the rue o/ a Cin'.

Ne3erthee%%- the Roman Re"u#ic a% an out'roth o/ the earier Roman monarch,. TheCin' or re;had #een a miitar, eader- a 4ud'e- and a hi'h "rie%t. A%%i%tin' him a% a counci o/eder% orsenate7/romsene;,Latin /or God man- hence G%enie8 and an a%%em#,- the comitiacriata. The %enate %eected the Cin' and the comitia curiata then in3e%ted him ith the "oer o/miitar, command 7imperim8 and rei'ion %anction 7aspicim8. Near the end o/ the Re'a

&


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con%u% had to #e a "e#eian.

Praetor% ere de"utie% and a%%i%tant% to the con%u%. The, a%o hed im"erium- #ut thecon%u% outranCed them. In artime the, coud %er3e a% de"ut, commander% under the con%u%or coud command their on armie%- #ut the, coud a%o %er3ed a% actin' con%u% in Rome in thea#%ence o/ the rea con%u%. et their "rime /unction a% actua, to %er3e a% 4ud'e% and- ater-

a% "ro3incia 'o3ernor% a% e. The to mo%t im"ortant "raetorian o//ice% ere thepraetor r"ans, ho 4ud'ed di%"ute% #eteen Roman citiBen%- and thepraetor peregins, hohanded ca%e% in3o3in' at ea%t one non6citiBen. S"eci/ic "raetorian o//ice% ere a%%i'ned to theinnin' "raetorian candidate% #, ot.

Aedie% came in to /a3or%: curue aedie% and "e#eian aedie%. In either ca%e- aedie%ere re%"on%i#e /or the u"Cee" o/ "u#ic #uidin'%- maintainin' the 'rain %u"", o/ Rome andhodin'at their on e"en%e"u#ic /e%ti3a%. Thou'h o//icia, not a 3er, im"ortant o//ice-it a% /reuent, %ou'ht #, am#itiou% "oitician% ho i%hed to ad3erti%e them%e3e% to theeectorate #, 'i3in' %"endid "u#ic 'ame% and %"ectace%.

uae%tor% ere "rimari, miitar, "a,ma%ter%- medium6'rade arm, o//icer%- and 4ud'e% inminor ca%e%. The, outranCed miitar, tri#une% 74unior arm, o//icer%8 #ut ere them%e3e%

outranCed #, con%u% and "raetor%.

Tri#une% o/ the "e#% coud on, #e "e#eian%- /or %a/e'uardin' the ri'ht% o/ "e#eian% a%their "rimar, dut,. The, tooC o//ice on Decem#er 12 and e/t it on the %ucceedin' Decem#er *.A tri#une had the ri'ht to 3eto the deci%ion o/ an, norma ma'i%trate- or a decree o/ the %enate- orthe 3ote o/ an, a%%em#, ece"t a decaration o/ ar. Hi% "oer- hoe3er- a% imited to the%acred #oundar, o/ the cit, o/ Rome it%e/. Since tri#une% ran a 'ood chance o/ an'erin'"oer/u men- e%"ecia, in the ear, da,% o/ the o//ice- there a% a rei'iou% ta#oo a'ain%tCiin' them hie in o//ice. The roe o/ the tri#une% a% the 'uardian% o/ "e#eian ri'ht% #ecameo#%oete ith the ri%e o/ the mied "atrician6"e#eian ari%tocrac,- #ut the, then #ecameom#ud%men /or the "eo"e in 'enera and de/ender% o/ indi3idua% a'ain%t the ar#itrar, act% o/ma'i%trate%. Later- the o//ice a%o #ecame a 3ehice /or radica- ra##e6rou%in' "oitician%.

A""roimate, e3er, /i3e ,ear% the Roman% eected to cen%or% /rom the ranC% o/ /ormercon%u%. Their "rimar, ta%C a% to count the num#er o/ Roman citiBen% and ta, their "ro"ert,7to conduct the censs8- #ut the, a%o %u"er3i%ed "u#ic mora%- aarded %tate contract%- andadded ne mem#er% to the %enate- and e"eed unorth, %enator% /rom that #od,. $en%or%%er3ed /or ei'hteen month% rather than a ,ear.

In time% o/ emer'enc, the con%u% a""ointed a dictator to %er3e a% %u"reme ma'i%trate andmiitar, commander6in6chie/ /or no more than %i month%. There a% no 3eto or a""ea o/ adictatorK% decree. The dictator a%o had an a%%i%tant- the magister e6itmor Gma%ter o/ hor%e.In ear, Rome- the dictator "er%ona, commanded the in/antr, and the ma%ter o/ hor%e theca3ar,- hence the atterK% tite. The dictator norma, a""ointed him. The o//ice o/ dictatora"%ed a/ter !22 )$- #ut Luciu% $orneiu% Sua- the #etter to Ci hi% enemie% and re/orm thecon%titution to hi% iCin'- re3i3ed it in 9! )$. The a%t man to hod the o//ice a%


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/or the aedie%hi". The o//ice% o/ tri#une and aedie ere o"tiona- hoe3er. At a'e * an, e6uae%tor coud run /or the "raetor%hi"- hie at a'e 0! a /ormer "raetor coud %tand /or thecon%u%hi". An, e6con%u coud then %eeC the cen%or%hi"- i/ he i%hed. The%e rue% ere%ometime% reaed in the ca%e% o/ %"eci/ic indi3idua% #, 3ote o/ the "eo"eF thu%- Sci"ioA/ricanu% #ecame con%u ithout e3er hodin' the "raetor%hi".

+ina,- hen a "raetor or con%u a% a "ro3incia 'o3ernor or arm, commander- it a%o/ten nece%%ar, to Cee" him in that "o%t e3en a/ter hi% annua term had e"ired. In %uch a ca%ethe %enate coud maCe him a "roma'i%trate- %"eci/ica, either a "ro"raetor or a "rocon%uF thati%- a% %omeone actin' in "ace o/ a "raetor or a con%u. Thi% "ractice #ecame routine durin' theLate Re"u#ic hen con%u% in "articuar tended to %ta, in Ita, and- a/ter the end o/ their term-%er3e a% a "ro3incia 'o3ernor ith the tite o/ "rocon%u.

%. T!ESENTE

In theor,- the %enate had no con%titutiona "oerF in "ractice- it a% actua, the mo%t"oer/u Roman "oitica in%titution- and the mo%t re%"ected. A/ter a- the /amou% Romana##re3iation GSPR %tood /or enats Popls6e Romans or Gthe Senate and the RomanPeo"e. Ori'ina, a counci o/ eder% that eected and ad3i%ed the Cin'- the %enate %ur3i3ed the/a o/ the monarch, and #ecame a #od, o/ 22 /ormer ma'i%trate% that ad3i%ed the con%u% ande%%er o//icia% and had /u contro o/ /orei'n "oic, and %tate /inance%. The "oer o/ the %enate%"ran' /rom three /actor%. +ir%t- it a% a cu# containin' the mo%t "oer/u- Cnoed'ea#e- andeath, men in Rome. Second- the Roman% had a nationa characteri%tic o/ con%utin'com"etent ad3i%or% #e/ore undertaCin' an,thin' o/ im"ortance- and the %enate contained themo%t com"etent "oitica ad3i%or% in Rome. Third- the %enate coud a%%em#e- de#ate- and 3otemuch more uicC, than an, "o"uar a%%em#,.

The %enate a% or'aniBed #, %eniorit, and the hi'he%t ma'i%trac, a mem#er e3er hed.$on%euent,- it a% dominated #, the e6con%u%- e%"ecia, %ince the%e %"oCe /ir%t on an,i%%ue. The cen%or% named one o/ the e6con%u% to %er3e a% princeps senatsor %enior %enator-

the man ho a% aa,% the /ir%t to #e a%Ced to %"eaC #, the "re%idin' o//icer. The "re%idin'o//icer coud #e a con%u- a dictator- a "raetor- or a tri#une o/ the "e#%. When the %enate 3oted-mem#er% aCed to one %ide o/ the cria 7%enate hou%e8 or the other- "ro#a#, 'rou"in'them%e3e% ith the mo%t "rominent ad3ocate or o""onent o/ the mea%ure in ue%tion. The %ideith the mo%t #odie% "re3aied. The %enate coud "a%% no a%- #ut it% decree%- or senatsconslta 7itera,- Gad3ice% o/ the %enate8- had the /orce o/ a. When /aced ith a %u#3er%i3e"oitician- the %enate had the "oer durin' the Late Re"u#ic to i%%ue a senats consltmltimmor G/ina decree o/ the %enate. Thi% in%tructed the $on%u% to u%e an, mean% nece%%ar,to eiminate the "oitician concerned and hi% /ooer%. What rea, marCed the end o/ theRoman Re"u#ic and the #e'innin' o/ the Roman Em"ire a% the %enateK% o%% o/ it% mo%tim"ortant "oer% to the em"eror- ho e%%entia, #ecame a one6man %enate ith an arm, o/thirt, or %o e'ion% to en/orce hi% i.

C. T!ESSEM%LIES

Roman a%%em#ie% had three #a%ic "rinci"e%. The /ir%t o/ the%e a% the unit or #ocC 3oteeach a%%em#, a% di3ided into a num#er o/ unit%- each o/ hich had one 3ote. The %econd"rinci"e a% ma4orit, ruea unitK% 3ote ent accordin' to the i o/ the ma4orit, o/ themem#er% o/ the unit. The third "rinci"e a% the ei'hted 3otethe 3ote% o/ the more reia#eand re%"ecta#e mem#er% o/ %ociet, 7the rich don to the moderate, e6o// /armer%8 counted/or more than tho%e o/ the "oor or e6%a3e% ho i3ed in Rome it%e/.

*


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The Roman Re"u#ic had no e%% than /our a%%em#ie%- #ut #e/ore ,ou cut ,our throat ,ou%houd /ir%t Cno that the %ituation a% not a% #ad a% it %eem%- /or one o/ the%e a%%em#ie% a% %oin%i'ni/icant that e need %carce, con%ider it and to o/ the other% ere 3irtua, one and the%ame a%%em#,.

The in%i'ni/icant a%%em#, a% a%o the ode%t- the comitia curiata- hich a% di3ided into2 criae. Thi%- ,ou ma, remem#er- had 'i3en the im"erium and au%"icium to the Cin'. Durin'the Re"u#icit 'a3e them to the con%u% in%tead- and that i% a it did do a% /ar a% e areconcerned. ), the Late Re"u#icit did not e3en meet a% a "o"uar a%%em#,- #ut in%teadcon%i%ted o/ 2 ictor% ho re"re%ented the 2 curiae.

The %tran'e%t o/ the three im"ortant a%%em#ie% a% the comitia centuriata. Thi% a%ori'ina, the archaic Roman arm, actin' a% a "oitica a%%em#,F it #ecame %trict, a "oitica#od, durin' the Ear, Re"u#ic- ,et it retained it% o#%oete miitar, or'aniBation and character.The comitia centuriata eected con%u%- cen%or%- and "raetor%F it a%o had the %oe authorit, /ordecarin' ar or rati/,in' a "eace treat,F it coud a%o "a%% a% and conduct crimina tria%- #utthe%e ta%C% ere u%ua, handed #, other #odie%. It% "re%idin' o//icer a% norma, a con%u-"raetor- or dictator. It a% or'aniBed into /i3e economic ca%%e% that re/ected the or'aniBation

o/K the archaic Roman arm,. Each o/ the%e ca%%e% contained 3otin' unit% caed centurie%- eacho/ hich had one 3ote. The ma4orit, 3ote ithin each centur, determined ho the centur,K%3ote oud #e ca%t. The /i3e economic ca%%e% ere a% /oo%:

1. 19 centurie% o/ eue%trian% 7ca3ar,men8!. 92 centurie% o/ /ir%t6ca%% in/antr,men. *2 centurie% o/ i'ht,6armed in/antr,men

0. 0 centurie% o/ mu%ician% and technician%5. 1 centur, o/ "ro"ert,e%% citiBen% (proletarii).

The%e miitar, de%i'nation% %oon meant nothin' ece"t that the eue%trian% and /ir%t6ca%%in/antr,men ere eathier than the re%t o/ the ca%%e%- #ut that a% "reci%e, h, thi% #iBarrea%%em#, a% %o im"ortant: the eue%trian% and /ir%t6ca%% in/antr,men 7the moderate, e6o//

to the etreme, eath,8 to'ether had a tota o/ *9 3ote% out o/ 1* in a- meanin' that the,coud /orm an a#%oute ma4orit, ithout the he" o/ the "oorer ca%%e%. In a Roman a%%em#,-the 3otin' %to""ed a% %oon a% a ma4orit, o/ 3ote% had 'one one a,. The Roman% #eie3ed thatthi% a% entire, 4u%t #ecau%e the eath, "aid hea3ier tae% and had to "er/orm more "u#ic%er3ice% than the "oor- %o the rich de%er3ed a ar'er %a, in "oitica i/e.

The to other im"ortant a%%em#ie% ere the comitia tri#uta- or tri#a a%%em#,- and theconciium "e#i%- or 'atherin' o/ the "e#eian%. The%e to #odie% ere identica in or'aniBationand amo%t the %ame in com"o%itionF the on, di//erence #ein' that the tri#a a%%em#, incuded#oth "atrician% and "e#eian%- hie the conciium "e#i% con%i%ted on, o/ "e#eian%. )oth ereor'aniBed into 1 rura tri#e% and 0 ur#an tri#e%. Mem#er% o/ the ur#an tri#e% i3ed in Romeit%e/- theple"s r"ana. Since 19 tri#e% /ormed a ma4orit,- the rura tri#e% coud ea%i, out3otethe ur#an tri#e%. The decC a% thu% dei#erate, %tacCed a'ain%t the ur#an "e#%- ho tended to#e more radica- and in /a3or o/ the rura "e#%- ho tended to #e much more con%er3ati3e andmuch more ea%i, controed #, the ari%tocrat%. The di//erence% #eteen the%e to a%%em#ie%ere %o %i'ht that e3en the Roman% them%e3e% %ometime% /ound it di//icut to /i'ure out hicha% hich. The comitia tri#uta eected miitar, tri#une%- uae%tor%- and curue aedie%F theconciium "e#i% eected tri#une% o/ the "e#% and "e#eian aedie%. The "re%idin' o//icer o/ thecomitia tri#uta a% a con%u- dictator- "raetor- or tri#une o/ the "e#%F the "re%idin' o//icer o/ theconciium "e#i% a% a tri#une o/ the "e#% or "e#eian aedie. A mea%ure "a%%ed #, the comitiatri#uta a% a le; or GaF a mea%ure "a%%ed #, the conciium "e#i% a% a ple"iscitm orG"e#i%cite. +rom !9( )$ onard- "e#i%cite% ere #indin' on "e#eian% and "atrician% aiCe.

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The Roman% did not tr, to %treamine their cum#er%ome con%titution /or to rea%on%.+ir%t- the, ere a 3er, con%er3ati3e and traditiona, minded ot ho re%i%ted chan'e une%% ita% ine%ca"a#e. Second- the ari%tocrac, a% %o /irm, in the Roman %adde that it %a norea%on to chan'e the %,%tem that had "aced it in that "o%ition and Ce"t it thereF the 3er,com"eitie% o/ the %,%tem- thorou'h, ma%tered #, ari%tocrat% %ince #o,hood- /a3ored the

continued "oitica domination o/ the ari%tocrac,.

III. The Roman &amil' and Social Structure

. T!ER"MN&MIL(

The Roman /ami, a% a uniue %ocia in%titution #ecau%e o/ the unu%ua "oer o/ thehead o/ the hou%ehod- thepater&amilias. A% on' a% the "ater/amiia% i3ed- he had /u controo3er a mem#er% o/ hi% /ami,- re'arde%% o/ their a'e or %ocia %tandin'- and a that the,"o%%e%%ed a% e'a, hi% to #e di%"o%ed a% he %a /it. He coud e'a, "ut hi% chidren to death

or %e them into %a3er,- thou'h in "ractice thi% "oer a% re%tricted #, a and cu%tomF hedecided hen and hom hi% chidren married or hether the, di3orcedF he a% the hi'h "rie%t o/the /ami, cut- the or%hi" o/ the /ami,K% 'od% and ance%tra %"irit%. The on, imitation on thepatria potestas- the "oer o/ the "ater/amiia%- a% o3er a %on ho hed "u#ic o//iceF he coudnot direct the %onK% "oitica action%- #ut he a% %ti in tota contro o/ hi% %onK% "er%ona i/e and"o%%e%%ion% e3en i/ the %on ere a con%u or a dictator. There ere on, to a,% /or a %on toe%ca"e the "oer o/ a "ater/amiia%: either to #e emanci"ated #, hi% "ater/amiia%- hich a% adee" di%'race and meant e"u%ion /rom the /ami,- or #, the death o/ the "ater/amiia%. A% on'a% the "ater/amiia% i3ed- e3er, mem#er o/ the /ami,- incudin' 'randchidren and 'reat6'randchidren- a% %u#4ect to hi% authorit,. When the "ater/amiia% died- hoe3er- each o/ hi%%on% #ecame a "ater/amiia% in hi% on ri'ht. I/ the "ater/amiia% died inte%tate 7ithout a i8-hi% "o%%e%%ion% ere di3ided eua, amon' hi% chidren- incudin' dau'hter%F i/ the"ater/amiia% e/t a i- then the /ami, "o%%e%%ion% ere di3ided accordin' to it% "ro3i%ion%.

The "o%ition o/ dau'hter% 3aried accordin' to their marita %tatu% and the Cind o/ marria'ethe, had. An unmarried dau'hter a%- o/ cour%e- %u#4ect to her "ater/amiia% hie he i3ed. I/he died #e/ore the dau'hter married- then %he came under the tutea'e o/ an a""ointed mae'uardian- u%ua, a #rother or unceF %he oned her inheritance /rom her "ater/amiia%- #ut it a%the 'uardian ho e'a, controed it. When a dau'hter married- the marria'e coud #e ithmanu% or ithout manu%. A marria'e ith manu% meant that the i/e had e'a, tran%/erred/rom on /ami, to another. Her ne "ater/amiia% a% either her hu%#and i/ he ere a"ater/amiia% in hi% on ri'ht or her hu%#andK% "ater/amiia%. When her hu%#andK% "ater/amiia%died- her hu%#and #ecame her "ater/amiia%. I/ the hu%#and ere "ater/amiia% and he died- %hecame under the tutea'e o/ a 'uardian a""ointed #, her hu%#andK% /ami,. A marria'e ithoutmansmeant that the i/e remained "art o/ her ori'ina /ami, and %u#4ect to her ori'ina"ater/amiia%K authorit,. The marria'e ithout mans #ecame increa%in', "o"uar amon'omen and their #ood reati3e%. To a oman it 'a3e 'reater /reedom- e%"ecia, a/ter her"ater/amiia% had died- hie to her #ood reati3e% it meant that an, "ro"ert, %he hadaccumuated durin' the marria'e #ecame "art o/ the "o%%e%%ion% o/ her ori'ina /ami,. Undereither /orm o/ marria'e- hoe3er- omen remained under the 'uidance o/ %ome man- either a"ater/amiia% or a 'uardian. In "ractice- hoe3er- 'uardian% coud not a% co%e, %u"er3i%e theirchar'e% a% a "ater/amiia% coud and o/ten %er3ed a% mere, e'a ru##er%tam"% ho %im",authoriBed hate3er the oman o//icia, in their char'e anted to do.

Indeed- ari%tocratic omen in Rome ere /reer than their ;reeC counter"art% and ere /ar

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#etter educated. The, a%o tended to #e /ar more in/uentia. When )rutu% a% de#atin' hetherto 4oin the "ot a'ain%t $ae%ar- he caed a counci o/ hi% /riend% and reati3e%- the atter incudin'#oth hi% i/e and hi% mother 7ho had once #een $ae%arK% mi%tre%%8. A /ormida#e- i#eratedoman o/ Re"u#ican time% a% $orneia- the dau'hter o/ Sci"io A/ricanu% and mother o/ the;racchi #rother%F %he a% #oth "oitica, and inteectua, in/uentia. Women #ecame %timore "oer/u under the Em"ire. Li3ia- the i/e o/ Au'u%tu%- %eem% to ha3e dominated #oth her

hu%#and and her %on Ti#eriu%- Au'u%tu%K %ucce%%or. Another "oer/u oman a% Antonia- thedau'hter o/ MarC Anton,- niece o/ Au'u%tu%- and mother o/ $audiu%F amaBin', eath,- %hetooC under her char'e the Son% o/ /orei'n Cin'% ho ere hed a% ho%ta'e% in Rome and a% theon, "er%on in Rome ith the a#iit, and the coura'e to in/orm Ti#eriu% o/ the e3i machination%o/ hi% "raetorian "re/ect- Se4anu%. A'ri""ina murdered her hu%#and $audiu% to "ace her %onNero on the throneF %he dominated Nero unti he had her Cied. The mo%t "oer/u omen inRoman hi%tor, ere the /our


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ado"ted %on% rather than #ioo'ica %on% o/ the "re3iou% em"eror.

)ut a Roman /ami, con%i%ted o/ more than reati3e% #, #ood- marria'e- or ado"tion. Theterm &amiliarea, meant Ghou%ehod rather than G/ami, a% e under%tand the term- andincuded %a3e%- e6%a3e%- and their o//%"rin'. The roe o/ %a3e% and e6%a3e% i% a com"icated%u#4ect- hoe3er- and i% #e%t e/t to Su#%ection $- GSocia $a%%e% o/ the Late Re"u#ic and Ear,

Em"ire.

%. PTRICINS) PLE%EINS) N#CLIENTS

No one i% entire, %ure eact, hat the "atrician% and the "e#eian% ere or ho the,ori'inated. $ertain /amiie% ere de%i'nated a% "atrician and other% a% "e#eian. What e doCno i% that a "atrician /amiie% ere ari%tocratic in Ear, Rome #ut that %ome "e#eian/amiie% ere a%o %u//icient, "rominent a% to %eem ari%tocratic. The #e%t theor, i% that the"atrician% ere the ori'ina %etter% in Rome and /ormed an a'ricutura ari%tocrac,. The"atrician% a%o had a num#er o/ oer6ca%% retainer% attached to their /amiie%F the%e "eo"e ereCnon a% cient%- hie the "ater/amiia% o/ the /ami, to hich the, ere attached a% Cnona% their "atron. The cient% "er/ormed 3ariou% %er3ice% /or the "atron in return /or the "atronK%"rotection and a%%i%tance. The tie% #eteen them ere %ocia and mora- tho%e o/ mutuao#i'ation- rather than e'a. The "e#eian% ere a""arent, necomer% ho arri3ed a/ter the%,%tem o/ "atrician% and cient% had #een aread, e%ta#i%hed. In other ord%- "e#eian% eretho%e out%ide the "atrician6cient %,%tem. UniCe the cient%- the "e#eian% had no one to homthe, coud turn /or "rotection. Ne3erthee%%- a 'reat man, "e#eian /amiie% "ro%"ered ande3entua, /ormed a Cind o/ "arae ari%tocrac, aon'%ide the "atrician%.

Short, a/ter the /oundation o/ the Re"u#icit a""ear% that the "atrician% attem"ted to'ain an ecu%i3e ri'ht to "oitica "oer and tem"orari, %ucceededF the "e#eian%- e%"ecia,the rich "e#eian%- uicC, a%%erted them%e3e% and demanded /u "oitica ri'ht%- hiche3entua, the, recei3ed /ooin' hat a% Cnon a% the Stru''e )eteen Order%. In%tead o/3ioence- the "e#eian% u%ed the ea"on o/ %ece%%ion: the, %im", aCed out o/ Rome and

re/u%ed to %er3e in the arm,. Thi% a% e//ecti3e #ecau%e Rome had a ho"ite arm, and thee6o// to /air, e6o// "e#eian% ere e%%entia, the ho"ite ca%%. The chronoo', o/ thi%%tru''e i% a% /oo%:

0*0 )$. +ir%t Sece%%ion o/ the Pe#eian% to Mount SacroF "atrician% /orced to 'rant the eectiono/ %trict, "e#eian o//icia%- aedie% and tri#une% o/ the "e#%.

0(1 )$. Second Sece%%ion o/ the Pe#eian% to Mount SacroF conciium "e#i% reco'niBed a% ae'a a%%em#,.

051052 )$. Pe#eian% demand creation o/ a ritten a code to #reaC mono"o, o/ e'aCnoed'e hed #, "atrician%F thi% ed to the e%ta#i%hment o/ the Decem3ir%- a commi%%ion o/ten a'i3er% ho rote the Te3e Ta#e%.

0056&( )$. Ten miitar, tri#une% ith con%uar "oer- man, o/ hom ere "e#eian%-/reuent, %er3ed in "ace o/ the norma to "atrician con%u% in thi% "eriod.

&( )$. Licinio6Setian e'i%ation "a%%ed: reduction o/ de#t%- imitation on hodin' o/"u#ic andF a#oition o/ miitar, tri#une% ith con%uar "oerF reuirement that one out o/ e3er,"air o/ con%u% had to #e "e#eian.

5& )$. +ir%t "e#eian dictator a""ointed.

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ere ordinar, %enator% and their de%cendant% the noi !omines or Gne men ho acCedcon%uar ance%tor%.

The eue%trian order- %ometime% caed the Cni'ht%- ere the non"oitica eite and con%i%tedo/ /ree#orn Roman mae citiBen% ho ere orth 022-222 %e%terce% or more. Mo%t eue%trian%ere %im", #i' andoner%- and their %t,e o/ "ri3ate i/e a% not 3er, di//erent /rom that o/

%enator%. Other eue%trian%- hoe3er- acted a% #anCer%- #i'6time merchant%- and eath, #u%i6ne%%men. An im"ortant %u#'rou" o/ the eue%trian order durin' the Late Re"u#ic a% thep"licani or mem#er% o/ the "ri3ate ta6coection com"anie%. The Roman 'o3ernment"re/erred it% ta mone, u" /ront and %o auctioned o// the ri'ht to coect tae% in certain"ro3ince%. The com"an, that on the auction "aid the mone, into the trea%ur, and then %enta'ent% to coect the tae%- there#, reco3erin' it% initia outa,- "u% a marC6u" that re"re%entedthe com"an,K% "ro/it. Durin' the Ear, Em"ire- the eue%trian order a%o /urni%hed certain'o3ernment o//icia%- chie/, tho%e ho hed o//ice% too undi'ni/ied /or a %enator to hod- or too%en%iti3e /or a %enator to hod. An eam"e o/ the /ormer a% the 'o3ernor%hi" o/


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'reat num#er%- certain, more than did an, other ancient %ociet,. The %a3e o/ a Roman citiBen-hen /reed- automatica, #ecame a Roman citiBen. Indeed- a tru, /undamenta di//erence#eteen Roman and ;reeC %ociet, a% the reati3e ea%e ith hich the Roman% #e%toedcitiBen%hi" u"on out%ider%. Technica,- /reedmen ere "art o/ the ur#an "e#%- #ut the /ree#ornaa,% ooCed don on them. Thi% attitude a% ironic #ecau%e the /reedmen ere u%ua, #ettero// /inancia, than ere the /ree#orn %ince the, norma, had %ome 3aua#e trade- "ro/e%%ion or

%Ci- thou'h %ome ere on, /reed oin' to od a'e or ine%%- thu% %"arin' their ma%ter thee"en%e% o/ /eedin' them%uch /reedmen ere a%o ei'i#e /or /ree 'rain. A 'reat man,Roman doctor%- teacher%- arti%t%- cra/t%men- #u%ine%%men and merchant% ere /reedmen- u%ua,the %ame 4o#% the, had "er/ormed a% %a3e%. The ear, em"eror%- "articuar, $audiu%- u%ed/reedmen a% im"ortant 'o3ernment o//icia%. The%e and other /reedmen #ecame etreme, richand "oer/u.

Sa3e% norma, came /rom the ea%t- e%"ecia, %uch %emi6HeeniBed area% a% A%ia Minorand Thrace- #ut e3er, "art o/ the Roman Word a%o "roduced %a3e%. Sa3e% /ied a 3a%t ran'eo/ occu"ation% /rom the mo%t a#4ectminer- /ied hand- and manua a#orerto tho%e ucrati3e4o#% detaied a#o3e /or /reedmen- #ut a 'reat man, other% ere hou%ehod %er3ant%- e%tate andarehou%e mana'er%- cerC%- 'adiator%- charioteer%- actor%- and "ractica, e3er,thin' e%eece"t %odier% and "oitician%. Sa3e% ere aoed to acuire "er%ona "ro"ert, in the 7correct8

#eie/ that thi% oud maCe them orC harder- and man, %a3ed enou'h mone, to #u, their/reedom. It a% not uncommon /or %a3e% to ha3e their on %a3e%. The %ituation #ecame tru,comica hen a %a3e /reed hi% %a3e% #ut remained in %a3er, him%e/. Thi% ha""ened moreo/ten than one oud thinC amon' theDamilia Caesarisor the em"erorK% on %a3e%. Ma%ter%did not ha3e an unre%tricted ri'ht to Ci their %a3e%- and %a3e marria'e% had ua%i6e'a %tatu%.Such marria'e% ere norma, encoura'ed #ecau%e the chidren o/ %a3e% natura, #eon'ed tothe ma%terF man, ma%ter% cu%tomari, /reed %a3e omen ho had #orne three or /our chidren.Roman a a%o hed that a "er%on a% /ree une%% it coud #e "ro3ed that he or %he a% a %a3e.On the other hand- no %a3e coud 'i3e e3idence in court ece"t under torture and- i/ a %a3emurdered hi% ma%ter- a the other %a3e% under the ma%terK% roo/ had to #e "ut to death- a% e a%the actua murderer. Ordinar, %a3e% ere reati3e, chea" in the Roman Word- e%"ecia,durin' the %econd centur, )$ hen RomeK% conue%t o/ the Mediterranean 'utted %a3e marCet%ith ca"tured %odier%- #ut %"eciaiBed %a3e% %uch a% eotic cooC% coud co%t a% much a% &22-222

%e%terce% hen the annua a'e% o/ a /ree#orn Roman a#orer ran a#out 1-222 %e%terce%. Theem"eror Au'u%tu% oned %ome &-222 %a3e%F o/ the%e- no e%% than &22 ere hi% i/eK% "er%ona%er3ant%. When con%iderin' Roman %a3er,- hoe3er- "erha"% the mo%t im"ortant thin' toremem#er i% that the ot o/ a t,"ica Roman %a3e a% not uite a% ro%, a% de%cri"tion% %uch a%thi% tend to %u''e%t: mo%t Roman %a3e% ere ne3er /reed ece"t #, death and their i3e% ere%"ent "er/ormin' hard a#or on ar'e rura e%tate% under the threat o/ the a%h.

)e/ore e can ea3e the %u#4ect o/ Roman %ocia %tructure- hoe3er- e %houd #rie/,di%cu%% to other item%. +ir%t- there a% a 'reat di%tinction #eteen Roman citiBen and non6citiBen in the "ro3ince%: durin' the im"eria "eriod- citiBen% coud not #e /o''ed- tortured oreecuted #, a Roman 'o3ernor ece"t #, the e"re%% con%ent o/ the em"eror in each %"eci/icca%eF /urther- citiBen%- no matter ho hum#e- had the ri'ht o/ a""eain' to the em"eror an,%entence "a%%ed on them #, a 'o3ernor. St. Pau a% a Roman citiBen and u%ed hi% citiBen ri'ht%

etreme, %Ci/u, hen deain' ith Roman "ro3incia o//icia%. The di//erence #eteencitiBen and "ro3incia %teadi, eroded durin' the %econd centur, AD- hoe3er- and in AD !1!the em"eror $aracaa 'a3e Roman citiBen%hi" to amo%t a /ree#orn inha#itant% o/ the em"ire.Second- a%o durin' the %econd centur, AD- a to6tier %,%tem o/ e'a %tatu% a%o de3eo"ed.Senator%- eue%trian%- curia%- and %odier% o/ a ranC% en4o,ed the %tatu% o/ !onestiorese3er,onee%e a% ree'ated to the %tatu% o/ !miliores. Hone%tiore% recei3ed a e%%er de'ree o/"uni%hment /or crimina o//en%e% than did humiiore%. A "ro3incia 'o3ernor- /or eam"e- coudnot eecute a mem#er o/ the hone%tiore%F at the mo%t he coud on, %end him into eie- and thenon, a/ter a con%utation ith the em"eror. Humiiore%- on the other hand- ere %u#4ect to

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%ummar, 4udicia action and eua, %ummar, "uni%hment- o/ten the death %entence in/icted in"articuar, crue a,% %uch a% cruci/iion- #urnin' ai3e- and #ein' thron to the id #ea%t% inthe circu%. The /act that common %odier% 7and honora#, di%char'ed /ormer %odier%8 ereca%%ed a% hone%tiore% ma, %eem %ur"ri%in'- #ut the /ate o/ #oth the rei'nin' em"eror and theem"ire it%e/ re%ted too much on the o,at, o/ the %odier% /or them not to #e treated a% a"ri3ie'ed ca%te. The Roman Em"ire a% 3er, much a ca%e o/ 'o3ernment o/ the "eo"e- #, the

em"eror- /or the rich and "oer/uand /or the %odier%.

I*. The Roman rm'

The Roman Arm, i% a ar'e and com"icated %u#4ect- main, #ecau%e it chan'ed o3er thecenturie%. The core o/ the arm, a% the e'ionar,- a hea3, in/antr,man. He ore a hemet-chain6mai #od, armor- and carried an o#on' %hied o/ rou'h, o3uar %ha"e ith a cur3edcro%%6%ection. The %hied a% a#out 00 inche% on'- !0 inche% ide and a#out .(5 o/ an inchthicC. It a% made o/ ood ith an iron #o%% and a% co3ered ith eather. The u%ua e'ionar,a% armed ith to hea3,- %e3en6/oot6on' 4a3ein%- #ut the e'ionar,K% "rimar, ea"on a% a%hort 7196inch or %o8- %trai'ht %ord- thegladis aspaniensis or GS"ani%h %ord- that a% u%ed/or #oth cuttin' and thru%tin'. The e'ionar, thre hi% to "ia hen the enem, a% 5 ,ard%aa,- ho"in' to #reaC the enem, /ormation or at ea%t "ant a "ium into an enem,K% %hied andthere#, ham"er him. A/ter ca%tin' #oth "ia- the e'ionar, dre hi% %ord /or hand6to6handcom#at- at hich he a% unmatched in the Ancient Word in #oth /erocit, and e//ecti3ene%%. Ae'ionar, t,"ica, %ma%hed hi% %hied into hi% o""onent and then tried to %ta# him in the tor%o.I/ that /aied- he 'enera, ieded hi% %ord iCe a 'i'antic meat cea3er and endea3ored to hacCo// one o/ hi% ad3er%ar,K% im#%.

)e/ore the re/orm% o/ Mariu% in the ate !nd centur, )$- a Roman e'ion con%i%ted o/ 2mani"e%. Tent, o/ the%e mani"e% had 1!2 men each- the other ten had &2 men a"iece. Thereere thu% -222 in/antr,men "er e'ion. )ut a e'ion a%o contained 1-!22 ca3ar,men and1-222 i'ht in/antr,men- maCin' it into a %ma arm,. The hea3, in/antr,men ere arra,ed inthree #atte ine%. The /ir%t to con%i%ted o/ the tent, 1!26man mani"e%F it% mem#er% ere

armed a% de%cri#ed a#o3e. The /ront ine men ere caed the !astati and the %econd ine mentheprincipes. The third ine or triarii con%i%ted o/ the ten &26man mani"e%F it% mem#er% erearmed ith a on' thru%tin' %"ear in%tead o/ the to "ia. The third ine a% manned #, oder3eteran% and a% norma, not e"ected to en'a'e an unde/eated enem, une%% the i%%ue ere%eriou%, in dou#t. Thi% 'a3e ri%e to a Roman %a,in' in a de%"erate %ituation- GIt i% don to thetriarii no. Ha/ the e'ionar, ca3ar, a% "o%ted on each in'- hie the i'ht in/antr,men orelitesacted a% %Cirmi%her% in oo%e /ormation in /ront o/ the /ir%t ine. The 3eite% hara%%ed theenem, ith their 4a3ein% a% he a""roached- then retreated #ehind the third ine. The mani"e% o/the /ir%t ine ere te3e men ide and ten men dee" and had three /eet #eteen each man. Themani"e% ere arra,ed iCe the #acC %uare% on a che%%#oard- ith an em"t, %"ace #eteen eachmani"e. The mani"e% o/ the %econd ine ere arra,ed #ehind the em"t, %"ace% #eteen themani"e% o/ the /ir%t ine- hie the mani"e% o/ the third ine ere #ehind the %"ace% #eteen themani"e% o/ the %econd ine. E"ert% are di3ided- hoe3er- hether the Roman% actua, /ou'ht

#atte% hie arra,ed in that /ormation- ith man, #eie3in' that the Roman% co%ed the 'a"% intheir /ront ine 4u%t #e/ore contact ith the enem,. Other% ar'ue the Roman% retained the 'a"% inthe /ront ine in the ho"e o/ %ucCin' the enem, into them and thu% #reaCin' the cohe%ion o/ hi%ine- hie re,in' on their %econd to Cee" the enem, /rom #reaCin' throu'h.

The re/orm% o/ Mariu% con%idera#, %im"i/ied the %ituation and %et the #a%ic "attern /orthe e'ion% o/ the Late Re"u#ic and Ear, Em"ire. Mariu% a#oi%hed the 3eite% and armede3er, e'ionar, ith the to "ia- incudin' the triarii. The e'ion a% a%o reor'aniBed into tencohort% o/ 522 to &22 men a"iece. Each e'ion a% a%o 'i3en it% on ea'e %tandard that it%

1(


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%odier% itera, or%hi""ed. Under


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monetar, /ine%- demotion- and un"ea%ant dutie%. $enturion% carried hea3, %ticC% a% a %,m#o o/ranC- #ut the, ere not %o to u%e them on the #acC% o/ trou#e%ome %odier%. One centuriona% nicCnamed $edo Ateram 7+etch6Me6Another8 #ecau%e he a% aa,% #reaCin' hi% %ticC on%odier%K #acC% and demandin' a re"acement %ticC.

In addition to the e'ion% and auiiarie% Roman miitar, /orce% under the Em"ire incudedthe /ooin':

The Praetorian Guard. Or'aniBed #, Au'u%tu%- the Praetorian ;uard a% norma,%tationed out%ide Rome in order to intimidate the Senate and "eo"e o/ Rome and to uicC,cru%h an, re3ot% that mi'ht eru"t in the cit,. It% %tren'th 3aried /rom -222 to 1&-222 men. ThePraetorian% /ir%t #ecame notoriou% in A.D. 01 hen the, in%taed $audiu% a% em"eror in return/or the "romi%e o/ a %"ecia ca%h "a,ment or donati3e. )ut the Praetorian% reached their oe%t"oint in 1*- hen the, murdered the em"eror Pertina and then "ut the em"ire u" /or auction.The inner a% an immen%e, rich %enator named Didiu%


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. T!EWR&RESTTE

Ear, Rome had to #e a ar/are %tate %im", to %ur3i3e. Situated near the #order #eteenLatium and Etruria and on a %trate'ic /ord acro%% the Ti#et- Rome a% an out%tandin' miitar,

tar'et that a% 3irtua, #ere/t o/ natura de/en%e%- thu% attractin' out%ide a''re%%or% %uch a% theEtru%can% and the O%co6Um#rian hi tri#e%. A% e ha3e %een- Re'a Rome a% rued #,Etru%can Cin'% and a% #rie/, conuered #, Lar% Por%enna o/ $u%ium in the 522% )$. TheEtru%can Cin'% and their Roman %u#4ect% ere norma, %ucce%%/u in Cee"in' their enemie% at#a,- #ut Rome 're eaCer ith the end o/ the monarch, and thi% em#odened the hi tri#e%-"articuar, the o%ci. )eteen a#out 0*2 and 022 )$- Rome had to concentrate her miitar,e//ort% a'ain%t the o%ci unti the, had #een tamed. RomeK% net tar'et a% the Etru%can cit, o/eii- hich a% on, ten mie% aa,. In thi% ca%e- hoe3er- the cau%e o/ ar a% economic- /orRome and eii had on' #een di%"utin' contro o/ the ucrati3e route #eteen the interior and the%at"an% on the coa%t. eii /e in *& )$ and a% thorou'h, "undered to the enrichment o/Rome.

)ut Rome a% a%o a mem#er o/ a con/ederation o/ Latin communitie% caed the Latin

Lea'ue. Such a reation%hi" amon' the Latin% come% a% no Sur"ri%e. The 3ariou% Latin citie%and ton% ere a ocated on a rich "ain ith no natura de/en%e%. The Latin% a%o %"oCe the%ame an'ua'e- %hared common rei'iou% center%- #eie3ed the, had a common ori'in- and ere%urrounded #, aien an'ua'e% and cuture%. A the%e /actor% com#ined to "roduce an attitudeamon' the Latin% that the, a had to han' to'ether or the, oud a han' %e"arate,. et theLatin% carried thi% /urther ith their uniue in%titution% o/ con"im, commercim,and migratio.$onu#ium a% the ri'ht o/ intermarria'e #eteen citiBen% o/ to di//erent Latin citie% and"ro3ided that the chidren o/ %uch marria'e% oud #e /u citiBen% o/ #oth citie%. $ommerciumreated to the en/orcement o/ contract% #eteen citiBen% o/ to Latin citie%. Su""o%e a citiBen o/Rome made a contract ith a citiBen o/ another Latin cit, %uch a% Tu%cuum- #ut the Roman/aied to a#ide #, the term% o/ the contract. The ri'ht o/ commercium ena#ed the man o/Tu%cuum to %ue the Roman in Rome and com"e him to o#%er3e the contract. The ri'ht o/migratioaoed a citiBen o/ one Latin cit, to mo3e to another Latin cit, and #ecome a citiBen o/

hi% ne cit, ithout reinui%hin' hi% citiBen%hi" in hi% od cit,. De%"ite a thi%- Rome had a%torm, reation%hi" ith the re%t o/ the Latin Lea'ue. The Latin% ri'ht, %u%"ected o/ theRoman% o/ tr,in' to dominate the Lea'ue- ,et the Latin% a%o reaiBed that the, needed themiitar, %tren'th o/ Rome a'ain%t the incur%ion% o/ the Etru%can% and the O%can hi tri#e%. +ortheir "art- the Roman% %u%"ected the Latin% o/ in'ratitude toard% Rome and o/ a de%ire to %eeRome cut don to %iBe- thou'h the, a%o reaiBed that the other Latin citie% "rotected RomeK%%outhern /anC.

Rome did indeed tr, to dominate the Latin Lea'ue toard% under =in' Taruiniu%Su"er#u%- #ut the /a o/ Taruin eaCened Rome and ed to a Latin #acCa%h a'ain%t her. Theentr, o/ the o%ci cau%ed #oth the Roman% and Latin% to %ette their di//erence% and %i'n the$a%%ian Treat, in 0* )$. Thi% 'a3e Rome the %tatu% o/ /ir%t amon' eua% ithin the LatinLea'ue #ut not a "o%ition o/ /u dominance o3er it. In *2 i% )$- hoe3er- the ;au% or $et%

#roCe out o/ the Po ae, under their d,namic Cin'- )rennu%- de/eated the Etru%can% and routedand humiiated the Roman% at the )atte o/ the Aia. The ;au% %acCed Rome and #urned amo%ta o/ it to the 'round. Thou'h the Roman% utimate, dro3e 7or #ou'ht o//8 the ;au%- the,#amed the de/eat on their not6%o6'aant Latin aie% and 3oed re3en'e. )ut the, ere too"reoccu"ied ith re#uidin' Rome and deain' ith the ;au% to "ut thi% 3o into immediatee//ect. Indeed- Rome #ecame the eader o/ the /i'ht a'ain%t the #and% o/ ;aui%h raider% thatcontinued to "a'ue Ita,- and in the "roce%% a%%i%ted- and /ormed aiance% ith- the Etru%can%-$am"anian%- and O%can Samnite%. In the interim- Rome and the re%t o/ the Latin Lea'uee%%entia, ent their on a,%- ith Rome a""arent, hum#, acce"tin' the o%% o/ it% %u"erior

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%tatu% ithin the Lea'ue. Un/ortunate, /or the Latin%- a hum#e Rome a% a "articuar,dan'erou% Rome. Ha3in' %etted the ha%h o/ the ;au% and made /riend% ith the Etru%can%-$am"anian%- and Samnite%- Rome a% no /ree to %ette od %core% ith the Latin% and rea%%erther ri'ht% under the $a%%ian Treat, in 59 )$. Di"omatica, i%oated and miitari, ine//ecti3e-the Latin% had to %u#mit. ), 02 )$- hoe3er- the Latin% %a that Rome had 'ron too"oer/u and re3oted a'ain%t her. With the aid o/ the Samnite%- Rome de/eated the Latin% in

9 )$ and di%%o3ed the Latin Lea'ue. Thi% action made Rome tru, an im"eria "oer- a#eit%ti on a %ma %cae.

%. R"ME) INC"RP"RTE#: MUNICIPI) LTINRI$!TSN#C"L"NIES

Sti- Rome mo%t iCe, oud ha3e remained a #i' /i%h in a %ma "ond #ut /or the a, inhich %he no treated the Latin%. In%tead o/ %acCin' the Latin citie% and turnin' the Latin% into%a3e%- the Roman% created a uniue /ederation under hich the Latin% ere their 4unior "artner%.The chie/ rea%on /or ado"tin' a /edera rather than an im"eria reation%hi" ith the Latin% andother% a% a Roman aer', to #ureaucrac,. The Roman% anted a %ma 'o3ernment con%i%tin'on, o/ a /e eected ma'i%trate% and a %carce, ar'er num#er o/ cerC%. )ut im"o%in' directRoman rue on the Latin% oud ha3e 'reat, increa%ed the %iBe o/ the Roman 'o3ernment. Thi%%,%tem oud ater #e etended throu'hout Ita, and- in a modi/ied /orm- the Roman Em"ire.

Some Latin citie% had %ta,ed on 'ood term% ith Rome durin' the Latin re3ot. The%eere no rearded #, #ein' made Roman mnicipia. A munici"ium a% a cit, ho%einha#itant% #ecame citiBen% o/ Rome- #ut it retained it% on oca 'o3ernment and a%. Theinha#itant% o/ the%e munici"ia thu% had dua citiBen%hi" ith Rome and coud "artici"ate inRoman "oitica i/e- #ut the, a%o had to %er3e in the Roman arm, and "a, Roman tae%. TheRoman% a%o etended munici"a %tatu% to %e3era ton% in Latium and $am"ania that ereinha#ited #, O%can%. The inha#itant% o/ the%e munici"ia- hoe3er- did not ha3e /u citiBen%hi"%tatu%F the, had a the dutie% and ri'ht% o/ Roman citiBen%hi" ece"t /or the ri'ht to 3ote inRome. Such communitie% ere Cnon a% mnicipia sine s&&ragioGmunici"ia ithout the3otehie the munici"ia ith the 3ote ere Cnon a% mnicipia optimo ireGmunici"ia

ith #e%t ri'ht%. The %tatu% o/ mnicipia sine s&&ragioa% re'arded a% "ro#ationar,F the%ecitie% ere ater ee3ated to optimo ireranC a/ter the, had "ro3en orth, o/ it in Roman e,e%.At thi% "oint- hoe3er- one mi'ht onder hat the rea ad3anta'e o/ munici"a %tatu% a% totho%e ho had it- "articuar, tho%e ith on, the ha/6citiBen%hi" o/sine s&&ragioranC. The #i'ad3anta'e o/ Roman citiBen%hi" a% that it "rotected one a'ain%t the ar#itrar, act% o/ otherRoman% #, 'i3in' one the "rotection o/ Roman a. It a%o had a 'reat "%,choo'ica #ene/it:"eo"e iCe to identi/, ith inner%F the Roman% ere inner%F the mnicipes 7inha#itant% o/munici"ia8 #ecame Roman% and hence #ecame inner%. E3en %o- munici"a %tatu% a%"articuar, #ene/icia to the u""er6ca%% mnicipes optima ire- /or the, coud 3ote and %eeC"u#ic o//ice in Rome- hie the oca eite% o/ the mnicipia sine s&&ragioCe"t their no%e% ceanin order to #e ee3ated to optimo ire%tatu% more uicC,.

Other Latin citie% ere 'ranted Latin ri'ht%. The%e ere the od ri'ht% o/ conu#ium-

commercium- and mi'ratio- #ut the, no hed the%e ri'ht% on, ith Rome and not ith eachother. The, a%o had to %u"", auiiar, contin'ent% to the Roman arm, on demand- and Romedirected their /orei'n "oic,. On the other hand- the, retained oca autonom, in a othermatter% and did not "a, Roman tae%- hie their oca eite% Cne the, coud count on Roman%u""ort a'ain%t the oer ca%%e% in the e3ent o/ %ocia di%content. Indeed- a characteri%tic/eature o/ Roman im"eriai%m a% RomeK% cacuated %u""ort o/ the u""er ca%%e% o/ their%u#4ect%.

In addition to e%ta#i%hed citie% ith Latin Ri'ht%- the Roman% a%o created Latin coonie%-

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hich ere ne citie% ith Latin Ri'ht%. The, ere norma, "anted on territor, that Romehad con/i%cated /rom the Latin% in the /ir%t "ace. The initia %ettement norma, con%i%ted o/%ome -222 Latin /amiie%. The Roman% a%o e%ta#i%hed Roman coonie%- #ut the%e ere%maer 722 /amiie%8- e%% numerou% and u%ua, %ituated on the coa%t. The, ere treated a%eten%ion% o/ Rome it%e/- and their inha#itant% had /u Roman ri'ht%- #ut Roman cooni%t% didnot ha3e to %er3e in the e'ion%. In%tead- the, ere re%"on%i#e /or oca de/en%eF the "ur"o%e o/

the%e coonie% a% to 'uard the coa%t ithout the need to #uid a na3,- thou'h the, a%o %er3ed to"ro3ide and to ande%% Roman%.

When the Roman% conuered the Samnite% in !*2 )$- the, made the Samnite% into sociior aie%. The%e meant that the Samnite% acCnoed'ed the he'emon, o/ Rome- reinui%hedcontro o/ their /orei'n "oic, to Rome- and %u""ied %odier% to Roman auiiar, unit% ondemand. In other ord%- the, had a the dutie% toard% Rome o/ citie% ith Latin Ri'ht%- #utthe, did not ha3e Latin Ri'ht% them%e3e%. The Samnite%- and other %ocii- ere thu% in/erioraie% o/ Rome. )ut the Roman% a%o had eua aie%. Eua aie% ere aie% in the modern%en%e o/ the ordF citie% o3er hom Rome had no contro #ut ith hich it en4o,ed /riend,reation%. The Roman%- hoe3er- de3eo"ed a na%t, ha#it o/ turnin' eua aie% into in/eriorone% hen the, had the chance.

We ha3e 'one into the%e reation%hi"% in %uch detai #ecau%e the, ere the techniue% thatRome u%ed /ir%t to dominate Ita, and then to contro her o3er%ea% em"ire. The another e//ect o/the%e arran'ement% a% to increa%e RomeK% miitar, man"oer. ), !19 )$- hen Hanni#ain3aded Ita,- the Roman% coud dra u"on 022-222 Roman%- Latin% and aie% ho ereca"a#e o/ #earin' arm%. Indeed- Hanni#aK% entire %trate', a% to %tri" Rome o/ her 3ariou%de"endent communitie% and cau%e them to de/ect. He /aied #ecau%e mo%t o/ the%e communitie%remained o,a to Rome- and their o,at, aoed the Roman% to %u%tain terri/ic o%%e% 7o3er1!2-222 men in three #atte%8 ,et %ti emer'e 3ictoriou%.

When Rome acuired Sici, a/ter the +ir%t Punic War- the Roman% /ound that the %,%temthe, had u%ed in Ita, did not orC 3er, e ith the Siciian%- "articuar, in e%tern ha/ o/the i%and that had #een rued #, $artha'e. The Siciian% ere u%ed to "a,in' tri#ute in mone,and /arm "roduct%- #ut not in "ro3idin' %odier%. The Itaian% had #een 4u%t the o""o%ite: the,

oud ha3e re%ented "a,in' tri#ute /ar mote than %u"",in' %odier%. $on%euent,- the Roman%ere /orced to a#andon their u%ua method% and ado"t tho%e "racticed #, the ;reeC% and$artha'inian% in Sici,. The, coected ten "ercent o/ a har3e%ted cro"% %uch a% heat and#are, and tent, "ercent o/ a 'arden "roduce and /ruit% %uch a% 'ra"e% / or inemaCin'.+urther- the Siciian% ere not u%ed to %e/6'o3ernmentF the, ere u%ed to Heeni%tic6%t,e'o3ernment% that tod them hat to do and hen to do it. Thi% com"eed the Roman% toe%ta#i%h a "raetor to %er3e a% 'o3ernor o/ Sici,- u%ua, /or a one6,ear term. et the Roman%retained their di%ta%te /or #ureaucracie%. The 'o3ernorK% o//icia %ta// norma, incuded on,one o/ the uae%tor% and three e'ate%- #ut he u%ua, tooC aon' a /e /riend% and %on% o//riend%- and u%ed hi% %a3e% and /reedmen a% %ecretarie% and cerC%. Ta coection a% entru%tedtop"licanior "ri3ate com"anie% that "aid a um" %um direct, to the Roman trea%ur, and thencoected the tae% "u% "ro/it in the "ro3ince. A% RomeK% em"ire increa%ed and ne "ro3ince%ere added- the Roman% #e'an %endin' out e6con%u% and e6"raetor% to act a% 'o3ernor%. I/

ar ere #ein' a'ed in the "ro3ince- the 'o3ernor a% "rimari, a 'enera and miitar,'o3ernor com#ined. In a "eace/u "ro3ince- the 'o3ernorK% chie/ roe a% to act a% a 4ud'e andar#itrator. A% "ro3ince% #ecame more RomaniBed- hoe3er- the Roman% tended to introduce the%,%tem o/ munici"ia- Latin %tatu% and coonie% to their o3er%ea% "ro3ince%- "articuar, durin' theEar, Princi"ate.

The%e 3ariou% reation%hi"% %Cetched a#o3e made the Roman% tru, the mo%t%ucce%%/u im"eriai%t% in hi%tor,.

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C. T!EM"TI*ES%E!IN#R"MNIMPERILISM

The moti3e% #ehind Roman im"eriai%m 3aried in indi3idua ca%e%- #ut in 'enera the, rana% /oo%:

1. Fear of Powerful Neighbors. Ha3in' #een conuered #, Etru%can% and then

humiiated #, the ;au%- the Roman% ere natura, "aranoid and %ou'ht to eiminate miitar,threat% "o%ed #, their nei'h#or% #, %u#4u'atin' their nei'h#or%. A% Roman "oer 're-hoe3er- the Roman% Ce"t runnin' acro%% "oer/u nei'h#or% ho them%e3e% had to #e%u#dued.

!. Economic and an!ower Gain. Each %ucce%%i3e conue%t #rou'ht more eath toRome and "aced more men under Roman contro.

. "evenge against "eal or Perceived Treachery. The Roman% reacted 3ioent,a'ain%t tho%e the, con%idered to #e treacherou%- %uch a% the Latin%- and /et com"eed to teachhar%h e%%on% in /ide%. When Phii" o/ Macedonia #ecame aied ith Hanni#a in !1& )$- theRoman% %a thi% a% a %ta# in the #acC and in !22 )$ ent to ar a'ain%t him- thu% #e'innin'RomeK% /ate/u in3o3ement in ;reeC a//air%.

0. #ristocratic ilitary #mbitions. The Roman eite cra3ed miitar, 'or, a% an endin it%e/- #ut a 'ood miitar, record a%o im"ro3ed oneK% "oitica chance%. $andidate% /or o//iceroutine, "araded their miitar, %er3ice% and tho%e o/ their ance%tor%. Accordin',- a /inemiitar, record a%o aided the "oitica /ortune% o/ oneK% de%cendant%. ;enera% a%o recei3ed'reat amount% o/ #oot, and coud o/ten #uid their e6%odier% into a %iBa#e "oitica /ooin' to%er3e them at the "o%. Succe%%/u 'enera% coud a%o #e 'ranted ma'ni/icent trium"h%7"arade%8 u"on their return to Rome- and the "ro%"ect o/ #ein' 'ranted a trium"h aone a%%u//icient rea%on /or 'oin' to ar.

5. $ower%Class &ellicosity. The oer6ca%% Roman% ho ere dra/ted into e'ion%ere amo%t a% #eico%e 7ariCe8 a% the Roman no#iit, and %a direct 'ain% /rom ar in to

a,%. +ir%t- %ince the ate 022% )$ Rome had "aid her %odier% a %ma %aar, durin' acti3e%er3ice- uite uniCe the other citiBen armie% o/ the Ancient Word. Second- %odier% recei3ed a%hare o/ the #oot, acuired a/ter a 3ictoriou% ar. Thu%- miitar, %er3ice %u""emented income.It a%o 'a3e a man a #reaC /rom the demand% o/ i/e- /ami,- and /arm. One %houd a%o #ear inmind that the Roman%- iCe the ;reeC%- re'arded ar a% the norma %tate o/ a//air% and "eace a%an a#norma and tem"orar, condition.

&. The 'angers of Peace. The Roman eite %a to dan'er% ari%in' /rom "roon'ed"eace. +ir%t- the, /eared that %e3era ,ear% o/ "eace oud cau%e Roman %odier% to #ecome %o/tand o%e their miitar, a#iit,- thu% in3itin' a miitar, di%a%ter hen ar #roCe out a'ain.Second- "roon'ed "eace oud 'i3e the oer ca%%e% and the aie% an o""ortunit, to #ecomedi%contentedF %uch di%content oud ead to interna %tri/e and re#eion- and oud a%o in3iteattacC% /rom "oer/u out%ider% "o%%i#, aied ith di%contented interna 'rou"%. The hi%tor, o/

the Late Re"u#ic "ro3ed the%e /ear% to #e e 'rounded. +or eam"e- hen Roman aie% inIta, re3oted in *2 )$- thi% re3ot encoura'ed Cin' Mithridate% I o/ Pontu% to in3ade theRoman "ro3ince o/ A%ia 7the /ormer Cin'dom o/ Per'amum8- hie "roon'ed "eace a%certain, a /actor in the ri%e o/ %ocia di%content amon' the Roman% them%e3e%. Proon'ed"eace "ro#a#, reduced the e//icienc, o/ the Roman arm, toard% the end o/ the %econd centur,)$- hich "erha"% e"ain% the %e3era miitar, di%a%ter% the Roman %u//ered at the hand% o/ the$im#ri and Teutone% #e/ore the miitar, re/orm% o/ $. Mariu%.

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*I. Ma+or Wars o, the Roman Republic

. WRSINITL() C-/012 %C

1. Paci/ication o/ in3adin' O%can hi tri#e% 7c5226022 )$8the %ucce%%/uoutcome o/ thi% %tru''e aoed Rome to %et her %i'ht% on the Latin% to the %outh and theEtru%can% to the north.

!. $a"ture o/ eii 7*& )$8thi% marCed the end o/ a "oer/u Etru%can cit, on,12 mie% aa, /rom Rome that the Roman% had %een a% a dan'erou% "oitica- miitar, andeconomic threatF it% de%truction hetted the Roman a""etite /or the /ruit% o/ conue%t.

. War ith- and de%truction o/ Rome #,- ;au% 7$et%8 in *2 )$.

0. Re3ot o/ the Latin Lea'ue- 0269 )$.

5. Samnite War% 7!&6!*2 )$8the%e re%uted in the anneation o/ Samnium- thereduction o/ the Samnite% to in/erior aie% o/ Rome- and the a""earance o/ Roman /orce% inea%tern and %outhern Ita,. The a%t ed to:

&. War ith P,rrhu% o/ E"iru% 7!926!(5 )$8the %u#4u'ation o/ the Samnite%made the "oer/u ;reeC cit, o/ Tarentum %u%"iciou% o/ the 'roin' "oer o/ RomeF henRome inter3ened in the Tarentine %"here o/ in/uence- the Tarentine% caed in the ;reeC miitar,ad3enturer rin' P,rrhu% o/ E"iru%. A cou%in o/ Aeander the ;reat- P,rrhu% #ecame the 'reate%t'enera o/ hi% da, and %ecret, ho"ed to conuer Ita,- Sici,- and North A/rica. In !92 )$ here%"onded to the "ea o/ the Tarentine% to a%%i%t them a'ain%t Rome. He de/eated to Romanarmie% in !92 and !(* )$- #ut at %uch a co%t that a third %uch 3ictor, oud ha3e de%tro,ed hi%

arm,. Su#%euent,- 3ictorie% 'ained at too 'reat a co%t ha3e #een Cnon a% G",rrhic 3ictorie%.P,rrhu% net turned to he"in' the Siciian ;reeC% a'ain%t the $artha'inian%- #ut the ;reeC% %oon/eared P,rrhu% more than $artha'e and %ta##ed him in the #acC. The di%'u%ted P,rrhu% returnedto Ita, to do #atte a'ain ith the Roman%- #ut the, de/eated him at )ene3entum in !(5 and/orced him to return to ;reece. The de/eat o/ P,rrhu% cau%ed the entire Heeni%tic Word to taCenotice o/ the ri%in' "oer o/ Rome. P,rrhu% him%e/ #ecame in3o3ed in a ar ith ;reece thated to hi% death at Ar'o%he a% ae'ed, %trucC in the head #, a roo/in' tie thron at him #,an an'r, Ar'i3e oman. With the de/eat o/ P,rrhu% Rome ca"tured Tarentum and %outhernIta,- hich in turn ed to:

%. &IRSTPUNICWR3012/024 %C56

$artha'e a% an immen%e, rich and "oer/u cit, ocated in North A/rica on hat i% nocaed $a"e )on in Tuni%ia. Ori'ina, a Phoenician coon, /ounded #, T,re c(52 )$- it#ecame inde"endent in the &22% )$. The $artha'inian% #uit a "oer/u na3, and u%ed it toacuire a mercantie em"ire that etended /rom Li#,a to ;i#ratar and incuded Sardinia-$or%ica- e%tern Sici, and %outhern S"ain. UniCe the Roman%- the $artha'inian% treatedconuered "eo"e% mere, a% tri#ute6"a,in' %u#4ect%. Thi% had to momentou% con%euence%.+ir%t- the $artha'inian% ere hated #, their %u#4ect%- ho on'ed to #reaC /ree o/ their o3erord%.

The termPniccome% /rom the Latin ord /or GPhoenician. Since $artha'e a% a /ormer Phoenician coon,ho%e inha#itant% %ti %"oCe Phoenician- the Roman% a""ied the term to the $artha'inian%.

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Second- their e"erience ith their on %u#4ect% ed the $artha'inian% to mi%taCen, #eie3e thatthe Roman% ere %imiar, hated #, their on %u#4ect%. The eath o/ $artha'e came /rom threema4or %ource%: 718 tri#ute /rom her em"ireF 7!8 income /rom the rich a'ricutura hinterand near$artha'e- hich a% di3ided into ar'e %a3e6orCed "antation%F 78 trade- e%"ecia, u%in' ramateria% /rom her em"ire. The $artha'inian% %ent tradin' e"edition% a% /ar north a% )ritain and%outh aon' the e%t coa%t o/ A/ricaF the, had a trade mono"o, in the e%tern Mediterranean- an

area that her "oer/u na3, turned into a $artha'inian aCe. The 'o3ernment o/ $artha'e a% anoi'arch, ith a %u"er/icia re%em#ance to the Roman Re"u#ican $on%titution: 718 to annua,eected s!op!etsor G4ud'e% ith ci3i #ut 7uniCe Roman con%u%8 no miitar, "oerF 7!8 a%enate o/ 22- thou'h thi% a% actua, controed #, a counci o/ 2F 78 a #oard o/ eected'enera% ho a%o %er3ed a% admira%F 708 a eaC "o"uar a%%em#,. Rich merchant% and eath,andoner% /ormed the $artha'inian oi'arch,- hie the oer ca%%e% ere amo%t "oere%%and remarCa#, docie #, #oth ;reeC and Roman %tandard%. Since the $artha'inian% %a theirna3, a% the "remier %er3ice- the, u%ed their on citiBen% a% roer%- %aior%- and marine%. Theirarm,- on the other hand- a% com"o%ed o/ con%cri"ted %u#4ect% /rom their em"ire andmercenarie% /rom 3ariou% "art% o/ the Mediterranean ord. $artha'inian 'enera% thu% had tocommand %odier% o/ du#iou% o,at,- #ut that a% not the end o/ their orrie%. I/ the, ere too%ucce%%/u- then the $artha'inian oi'arch% oud accu%e them o/ "ottin' to e%ta#i%h them%e3e%a% miitar, dictator%F i/ the, ere too un%ucce%%/u- the oi'arch% ere ia#e to cruci/, them /or

incom"etence.

Rome and $artha'e ne3er came into direct con/ict #e/ore !&0 )$- /or there a% rea, norea%on /or them to ha3e done %o. Rome a% an a'ricutura and "oer intere%ted on, in Ita,F$artha'e a% a mercantie %ea "oer ith no de%i'n% on Ita,. +urther- one o/ the earie%t act% o/the Roman Re"u#ic a% to maCe a treat, ith $artha'e. Thi% e%ta#i%hed %e"arate %"here% o/in/uence: Rome %ta,ed o// the %ea- $artha'e %ta,ed out o/ Ita, and #oth %ta,ed out o/ eachotherK% hair. In !(* )$- Rome and $artha'e concuded a mutua de/en%e "act a'ain%t P,rrhu% o/E"iru%F thou'h neither cit, 'a3e direct miitar, a%%i%tance to the other- $artha'e ma, ha3e u%edher eath to "artia, %u#%idiBe RomeK% %tru''e a'ain%t P,rrhu%.

)ut thi% /air, amica#e reation%hi" #e'an to chan'e hen Rome etended her %a, to thetoe o/ Ita, and %tarted to 'ain an intere%t in Siciian a//air%. What "articuar, intere%ted Rome

a% the %ituation o/ a #and o/ Itaian mercenarie% caed the Mamertine% or GSon% o/ Mar%.The%e had #een em"o,ed #, S,racu%e unti !9* )$- hen their %er3ice% #ecame %u"er/uou%-and the, ere di%char'ed #, the S,racu%an%. The Mamertine% ca"tured the cit, o/ Me%%ana7modern Me%%ina8 at the northea%t ti" o/ Sici, and #e'an to "under S,racu%an territor,. In !&5)$- Hiero II- the ,oun' and a#e Cin' o/ S,racu%e- aid %ie'e to Me%%ana. The Mamertine%a""eaed to the $artha'inian% /or a%%i%tance. The $artha'inian% dro3e o// Hiero and "aced a'arri%on in Me%%ana. The Mamertine% no #e'an to onder ho oud "rotect them /rom their$artha'inian "rotector% and a""eaed /or a%%i%tance /rom Rome.

The %enate a% di3ided in o"inion. On the one hand- Rome did not i%h to %ee $artha'econtro Me%%ana- hich a% 4u%t a narro %trait acro%% /rom the toe o/ Ita,. The traditionaRoman /ear o/ "oer/u nei'h#or% #e'an to a%%ert it%e/. On the other hand- man, %enator% hadno o3e /or the Mamertine%- hom the, %a a% di%order, "acC o/ murderou% ro##er%- and man,

more %enator% had no i%h to /i'ht the $artha'inian%. Una#e to reach a con%en%u% on the i%%ue-the %enate "a%%ed the #ucC to the comitia centuriata. To o/ the other moti3e% #ehind Romanim"eriai%m no came into "a,: the ari%tocratic de%ire /or miitar, 'or, and Roman oer6ca%%#eico%it,. A"". $audiu% $aude- one o/ the con%u% o/ !&0 )$- "articuar, hun'ered /or atrium"h and %a Sici, a% an eceent arena in hich to in one. The Roman commoner%-Cnoin' Sici, to #e a rich i%and- %a %ome o/ it% riche% di%a""earin' into their "ocCet% in thee3ent o/ ar. E''ed on #, #oth $audiu% and hi% con%uar coea'ue- the comitia decared ar in!&0 )$.

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The Roman% continued to in 3ictorie% at %ea in !55 and !5 )$- ,et on #oth occa%ion%their 3ictoriou% /eet% ere "rom"t, o%t in %torm%the Roman% di%co3ered that the cor3u%made their %hi"% to"6hea3, and ea%i, ca"%iBed in hea3, eather. The%e di%a%ter% "ut atem"orar, end to Roman %ea "oer. The, concentrated in%tead u"on dri3in' the $artha'inian%/rom Sici, and ere near, %ucce%%/u- #ut the $artha'inian% mana'ed to hod out at to/ortre%%e% at the e%tern ti" o/ Sici, and de/ied a Roman attem"t% to dri3e them out. The

momentum o/ the ar #e'an to %hi/t in $artha'eK% /a3or. The Roman% ha3in' a#andoned thecor3u% a% too dan'erou%- the $artha'inian /eet #e'an to a%%ert it% %u"eriorit,. In !0* )$- in to%e"arate en'a'ement%- the Roman% o%t near, !!2 ar%hi"%. To ,ear% ater- a ne$artha'inian 'enera arri3ed in Sici,: Hamicar. He terroriBed the Roman% ith hi% ra"id-darin' attacC% #ehind Roman ine% and raid% on the Itaian coa%t. He mo3ed %o /a%t that he a%nicCnamed )arca- Phoenician /or Gi'htnin'.

De%"ite the re%ur'ence o/ their /eet and the amaBin' %ucce%%e% o/ Hamicar )arca-$artha'e mana'ed to o%e the ar. The rea%on /or thi% a, in $artha'e it%e/. The $artha'inianoi'arch, a% di3ided into to /action%. One- com"o%ed o/ rich merchant%- i%hed to in thear ith Rome and to conuer a o/ Sici,. The other- con%i%tin' o/ no#e% ho oned hu'ea'ricutura e%tate% in North A/rica- had no intere%t in Sici, hat%oe3er. In%tead- the mem#er%o/ thi% /action i%hed to e"and $artha'eK% hodin'% in North A/rica. In !00 )$ the

andonin'- a'ricutura /action came to "oer under Hanno the ;reat. Hanno aid u" the na3,-dra/ted it% "er%onne into the arm,- and %ent them to conuer ne territorie% in A/rica.Meanhie- the Roman% #ecame more determined than e3er to in the ar and reaiBed thatcon%tructin' a ne /eet oud #e e%%entia to that end. A ne /eet o/ !22 ar%hi"% a% du,#uit and thi% %eiBed contro o/ the ater% around Sici,- /orcin' the $artha'inian% to reacti3atetheir na3,- hich a% no %hort o/ e"erienced %aior% thanC% to the and o"eration% o/ Hannothe not %o ;reat. In !0! )$- the Roman /eet under the con%u $. Lutatiu% $atuu% de%tro,ed the$artha'inian /eet at the #atte o/ the Ae'ate% I%and% near Sici,. It% /eet 'one- $artha'e had nochoice #ut to a%C /or "eace.

)oth %ide% ere #, then thorou'h, ehau%ted and e aare o/ 4u%t ho co%e6run athin' the Roman 3ictor, had #een. Accordin',- the Roman% at /ir%t "ro"o%ed enient term%- #utthe%e had to #e rati/ied #, the comitia centuriata. The comitia re4ected them in /a3or o/ har%her

term% hich ere utimate, acce"ted #, $artha'e: a#andonment o/ Sici, and a nei'h#orin'i%and%- a "rohi#ition a'ain%t Itaian% %er3in' a% $artha'inian mercenarie%- the ecu%ion o/ a$artha'inian %hi"% /rom Itaian ater%- and the "a,ment o/ an indemnit, o3er a 126,ear "eriod o/-!22 taent% o/ %i3er. It i% etreme, di//icut to tran%ate that %um into meanin'/u term%. Onetaent a% eua to &-222 Roman denarii- %o -!22 taent% oud eua 1*.! miion denarii. Onedenariu%- near, to centurie% ater- a% the norma dai, a'e /or a Roman a#orer- #ut adenariu% oud ha3e #een orth more in !01 )$. To "ace the %iBe o/ the indemnit, in moderneconomic term% e oud ha3e to maCe a denariu% eua to at ea%t Q122- %o the tota indemnit,oud ha3e #een orth o3er Q1.* #iion toda,. )ut a more im"ortant re%ut o/ the ar a% thatRome e"anded #e,ond Ita, /or the /ir%t time and #ecame a Ce, "a,er in the "oer "oitic% o/the Mediterranean Word. A% e ha3e aread, %een- the acui%ition o/ Sici, /orced the Roman%to ado"t a ne %,%tem o/ "ro3incia admini%tration.

C. T!ESEC"N#PUNICWR3047/04 %C5

Reation% #eteen Rome and $artha'e a/ter the +ir%t Punic War ere at /ir%t %ur"ri%in',/riend,- ar'e, #ecau%e there a% con%idera#e /eo /eein' #eteen thea'ricutura no#iit,o/ Rome and the a'ricutura eite that no dominated $artha'inian "oitic%. The atter %oon/ound it%e/ in3o3ed in 'ra3e di//icutie%- hoe3er. Some !2-222 mercenarie% arri3ed /romSici, and demanded ,ear% o/ accumuated #acC "a,- a demand that the $artha'inian% re/u%ed to

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honor in /u. The mercenarie% mutinied- ent on a ram"a'e- and in%"ired the %u#4ect% o/$artha'e to re3ot. The re%ut a% the Trucee%% War 7!016!9 )$8 #eteen $artha'e and hermutinou% mercenarie% and re#eiou% %u#4ect%. Perha"% the mo%t %a3a'e ar e3er /ou'ht inancient time%- the Trucee%% War %a #oth %ide% %hoin' no merc, and committin' e3er, Cind o/atrocit,. The Roman% had 'reat %,m"ath, /or $artha'e and re/u%ed to %u""ort the re#e%- #uttheir attitude #e'an to chan'e hen Hamicar )arca in/icted a cru%hin' de/eat u"on the

mutineer% and re#e%. Hamicar a% the one $artha'inian hom the Roman% /earedF hi%a%cendanc, in $artha'e arou%ed an anti6$artha'inian reaction. When the Sardinian% re3oteda'ain%t $artha'e in !9 )$- the Roman% %u""orted them and e3en decared ar on $artha'e.et thi% ar a% ne3er /ou'ht. The $artha'inian% had no /eet and ere at RomeK% merc,.$on%euent,- the, uicC, made "eace- a'reein' to hand o3er Sardinia- and the nei'h#orin'i%and o/ $or%ica- to Rome and to "a, another 1-!22 taent%.

De%"ite the%e %et#acC%- $artha'e %oon #ecame eathier than e3er- a'ain thanC% toHamicar )arca. He turned the $artha'inian /oothod in %outhern S"ain into an em"ire thate3entua, em#raced %ome %e3en6ei'ht% o/ the I#erian Penin%ua- thou'h much o/ thi% a% 'aineda/ter hi% death in !!( )$ #, hi% %on6in6a Ha%dru#a and hi% %on Hanni#a. Their com#inede//ort% turned S"ain into a 3irtua )arcid /ami, Cin'dom ho%e minera out"ut a% orth !-222to -222 taent% a ,ear. Thi% income aoed the )arcid% to recruit and train a %u"er# arm,.

Meanhie- the Roman%- ha3in' 'ained Sardinia and $or%ica throu'h du"icit, ando""ortuni%m- /urther e"anded their domain #, %u#duin' the $et% and conuerin' the Poae,. The, a%o %eiBed the coa%t o/ I,ria 7in modern time% "art o/ the /ormer u'o%a3ia8ha3in' 'ron tired o/ /i'htin' the I,rian "irate%. At rou'h, the %ame time- Rome concudedan aiance ith Sa'untum- a cit, in S"ain that had remained inde"endent o/ $artha'e. The%ethree de3eo"ment% a had a roe to "a, in the out#reaC o/ the Second Punic War.

A /ourth de3eo"ment occurred in !!1 )$ hen Ha%dru#a a% a%%a%%inated andHanni#a- the ede%t %on o/ Hamicar )arca- tooC command in S"ain. Accordin' to one %tor,-Hamicar )arca had made the nine6,ear6od Hanni#a %ear that he oud ne3er #e a /riend o/Rome. Accordin' to another 3er%ion- Hanni#a %ore that he oud aa,% #e an enem, o/Rome. In an, ca%e- Hanni#a oud %oon #e the 'reate%t enem, Rome e3er /aced.

The Sa'untine%- em#odened #, their aiance ith Rome- %oon #e'an %tirrin' certainS"ani%h tri#e% into re3ot% a'ain%t Hanni#a. ), !1* )$- Hanni#a had had enou'h andreue%ted. "ermi%%ion /rom the $artha'inian %enate to attacC Sa'untum. )eie3in' that Romehad her hand% /u ith the $et% and I,rian%- the $artha'inian %enate 'a3e it% a""ro3a.Sa'untum /e and a% de%tro,ed #, Hanni#a in !19 )$.

The end o/ Sa'untum made Rome a""ear eaC and /ooi%hF thi% a//ront had to #e a3en'ede%t RomeK% other aie% 'ro du#iou% o3er RomeK% a#iit, to "rotect them. Added to thi% a%the /ear that the $artha'inian% in S"ain and the $et% in %outhern +rance oud com#ine toin3ade Ita,. +ina,- there a% the u%ua de%ire /or miitar, 'or, and oot. $ertain, no one inRome dou#ted the outcome o/ the ar. The Roman% "anned to %end one arm, a'ain%t Hanni#aand another to attacC North A/rica- there#, #rin'in' the ar to a %i/t concu%ion and acce"tin'

another hu'e indemnit, /rom $artha'e.

Hanni#a- hoe3er- had other idea%. He reaiBed that RomeK% "oer/u /eet and enormou%man"oer re%ource% had to #e neutraiBed or the ar oud #e o%t. He /urther reaiBed that theone reia#e miitar, /orce $artha'e had a% hi% on arm, in S"ain. The%e reaiBation% dictatedhi% %trate',. He oud in3ade Ita, #, and- thu% ne'atin' the Roman na3, and /orcin' theRoman% to a#andon their o#3iou% %trate', o/ in3adin' A/rica. In3adin' Ita, oud a%o aoHanni#a to /orm an aiance ith the di%'runted $et% o/ the Po ae, hom the Roman% hadrecent, conuered. et the #i''e%t rea%on /or in3adin' Ita, a% hi% ho"e that innin' a

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3ictor, or to o3er the Roman% in Ita, oud cau%e RomeK% Itaian aie% to de/ect to him. Theentire %,%tem o/ reation%hi"% and aiance% Rome had con%tructed in Ita, o3er the centurie%oud #e turned a'ain%t Rome. )ere/t o/ aie%- Rome oud #e /orced to %ue /or "eace onHanni#aK% term% and oud cea%e to #e a ma4or threat to $artha'inian intere%t%. Hanni#aK%%trate',- thou'h #riiant- %u//ered /rom one /a- hoe3er. He 3ieed the Roman %,%tem o/aiance% ith a $artha'inian e,e- %eein' RomeK% aie% a% %u#4ect% ho hated their ma%ter% %uch

a% the %u#4ect% o/ $artha'e hated their o3erord. Hanni#a /aied to a""reciate ho the Roman%had inte'rated the Itaian% into the Roman %,%tem.

The Roman% %ent an arm, under the con%u P. $orneiu% Sci"io to interce"t Hanni#a in%outhern +rance- #ut Hanni#a mo3ed too uicC, and a3oided the tra" Sci"io had ho"ed to %et.In Au'u%t- !19- Hanni#a ed hi% arm, o/ %ome 02-222 in/antr,- &-222 ca3ar, and &2 ee"hant%into the A"%. It a% at thi% "oint that Hanni#a %u//ered hi% /ir%t "iece o/ #ad ucC- hoe3er.The inter o/ !19!1( a% #oth "remature and unu%ua, %e3ere in the A"% and in Ita,.Thou'h it a% on, autumn- Hanni#a and hi% arm, had to co"e ith inter condition%. The,a%o /aced near, con%tant attacC% /rom the A"ine tri#e%. ), the time the arm, emer'ed /romthe A"%- it had #een reduced to !&-222 in/antr,- 0-222 ca3ar, and !2 ee"hant%- thou'hHanni#a a% a#e to maCe u" hi% o%%e% in in/antr, #, enroin' $et% ho ere ea'er to a3en'ethem%e3e% on Rome.

Meanhie- the con%u Sci"io and hi% arm, mo3ed into the Po ae, and "re"ared tomeet Hanni#a at the Ticinu% Ri3er. Thi% #atte "ro3ed to #e a /oreta%te o/ di%a%ter% to come /orthe Roman%. Hanni#aK% %u"er# Numidian ca3ar, outca%%ed and out/ou'ht the Roman hor%e.Sci"io a% ounded and oud ha3e #een ca"tured #ut /or the heroi%m o/ hi% 1(6,ear6od %on-a%o caed P. $orneiu% Sci"iothe /uture Sci"io A/ricanu%. Thi% de/eat /orced the Roman% toretreat %outh o/ the Po Ri3er and to cance the in3a%ion o/ A/ricaF the arm, that a% to ha3eattacCed A/rica a% in%tead %ent to northern Ita, to aid Sci"io. Hanni#aK% %trate', to maCeIta, the #atte'round o/ the ar a% aread, %ucceedin'.

The eder Sci"io and hi% con%uar coea'ue T. Sem"roniu% Lon'u% no had a com#ined%tren'th o/ 02-222 men to thro a'ain%t Hanni#a. The, met Hanni#a at the Ri3er Tre#ia- a%ma tri#utar, o/ the Po in Decem#er- !19 )$ Hanni#a %ent a %ma ca3ar, detachment acro%%

the Tre#ia. The Roman% uicC, routed it and "ur%ued it acro%% the ri3er4u%t a% Hanni#a hadantici"ated. No %ooner a% the Roman arm, e%ta#i%hed on the o""o%ite #anC than Hanni#aK%main #od,- conceaed in hea3, under#ru%h- %udden, a""eared. The Roman% had #een ured intoa coo%%a am#u%h. A mere 12-222 Roman% e%ca"ed ith their i3e%- and the entire Po ae, /einto Hanni#aK% hand%.

The o%% o/ the Pa ae, in/uriated the Roman%- #ut the mo%t incen%ed a% $. +aminiu%-the man ho had conuered it in the /ir%t "ace. +aminiu% and $n. Ser3iiu% ere eectedcon%u% /or !1( )$. The, rai%ed ne e'ion% and di3ided their /orce% in order to #ocC the tomo%t iCe, route% into Ita, "ro"er- #ut Hanni#a %i""ed into Ita, throu'h an uniCe, andthere/ore un'uarded route. +aminiu% cautiou%, "ur%ued Hanni#a- ho 'a3e the con%u e3er,chance to en'a'e him in #atte #ut too no a3ai. Hanni#a accordin', em"o,ed a de%"erateru%e: he %udden, chan'ed direction a% i/ he intended to march on Rome it%e/. The route he no

/ooed ran aon' the northern %hore o/ LaCe Tra%imene. A %tee" rid'e etended amo%t to the%hore o/ the aCe- ea3in' on, a narro "a%%a'e. Hanni#a %ent "art o/ hi% arm, ahead andconceaed the re%t #ehind the rid'e. +aminiu% and hi% arm, reached the north %hore o/ the aCein the midde o/ a dri3in' %no%torm- #eie3in' that Hanni#aK% entire arm, a% ahead o/ themand %ti marchin' toard% Rome. The, ere in the narroe%t "art o/ the "a%%a'e #eteen therid'e and the aCe hen Hanni#aK% arm, %oo"ed don u"on them. +aminiu% a% Cied andhi% &-222 men ere amo%t com"ete, i"ed out.

The ne% o/ thi% di%a%ter thre Rome into a "anic. E3er,one e"ected to %ee Hanni#a

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cro%% the Ti#et at an, moment- #ut in reait, he acCed the cata"ut%- a%%aut toer% and #atterin'ram% nece%%ar, to #e%ie'e a cit,. More im"ortant,- hi% 3ictorie% at Ticinu%- Tre#ia andTra%imene notith%tandin'- he had %ti not induced a %in'e Roman a, to de/ect. Hi% "rimar,%trate'ic o#4ecti3e ha3in' thu% /ar euded him- Hanni#a marched into %outhern Ita, in the ho"eo/ /indin' aie%. Meanhie- the de/eat and death o/ the no3u% homo and radica +aminiu%di%'raced hi% /action and "ut a much more con%er3ati3e ciue in char'e in Rome. Thi% 'rou"

du%ted o// the dictator%hi" a/ter an a#e,ance o/ 2 ,ear% and aarded it to . +a#iu% Maimu%-an eder, ,et %hred %enator. +a#iu% decided that to meet Hanni#a in o"en #atte oud #e anact o/ madne%%. In%tead- he Ce"t hi% arm, on hi, terrain here Hanni#a coud not em"o, hi%%u"erior ca3ar,F /urther- +a#iu% em"o,ed 'uerria tactic% a'ain%t Hanni#ahara%%in' hi% rear-attacCin' hi% %entrie% and detachment%- %triCin' hi% %u""ie%- Cee"in' him on the mo3e- and"re3entin' him /rom acuirin' an, aie%. Such tactic% o/ hara%%ment are no caed G+a#iantactic% in hi% honor. The, "ro3ed etreme, e//ecti3e- #ut not e3er,one in Rome concurred inthi% a%%e%%ment. A nota#e di%%enter a% +a#iu%K on ma%ter o/ hor%e 7a%%i%tant dictator8 M.Minuciu% Ru/u%- ho had #een im"o%ed u"on him #, the comitia centuriata. Minuciu% a% ra%h-im"u%i3e- and %tu##orn. He entire, acCed the "atience hich +a#ian tactic% demanded. Whenthe comitia centuriata met to eect the con%u% /or !1& )$- Minuciu% ur'ed the eection o/con%u% dedicated to the %"eed, de%truction o/ Hanni#a- ar'uin' that Hanni#a had ,et to meetthe /u ei'ht o/ Roman miitar, mi'ht.

The comitia centuriata re%"onded to Minuciu% #, eectin' $. Terentiu% arro and L.Aemiiu% Pauu%. arro a% a no3u% homo and %omethin' o/ a dema'o'ue- Pauu% a% a"atrician and a mem#er o/ the %ame /action a% +a#iu%. The ne con%u% had 92-222 men#eteen them and marched %outh to do #atte ith Hanni#a. The, made contact ith the enem,at $annae- a %ma /ortre%% in A"uia. Pauu% ur'ed caution- #ut hen #oth con%u% %er3ed in the/ied to'ether each commanded the entire arm, on aternate da,%- and arro ordered an attacC onone hen he a% in command. Hanni#a arra,ed hi% arm, in an etreme, unu%ua a,. Ece"t/or the ca3ar, on hi% in'%- he had hi% S"ani%h and $etic troo"% in a cre%cent /ormation that#u'ed toard% the Roman ine%. On either %ide o/ the cre%cent- and %omehat #ehind it- ereHanni#aK% eite in/antr, /rom North A/rica. arro %ent hi% in/antr, direct, a'ain%t the #u'e o/the cre%centF thi% %o, 'a3e a, unti it #u'ed in the o""o%ite direction. The Roman in/antr,a% concentrated ithin thi% #u'e e3en a% the Numidian ca3ar, routed their Roman

counter"art% a% u%ua. Hanni#aK% hor%emen #ocCed the Roman rear- and hi% A/rican% rein/orcedthe %ide% o/ the #u'e. The North A/rican% then attacCed the Roman% on #oth /anC%- co%in' iniCe the 4a% o/ a 3i%e. The Roman% ere tra""ed and cru%hed iCe %o man, e''%he%. Pauu%a% Cied- a% ere numerou% %enator% and %on% o/ %enator%. The con%u arro and the ,oun'erSci"io /ou'ht their a, out o/ the carna'e and e%ca"ed. When arro returned to Rome- the%enate 3oted him it% thanC% /or Gnot de%"airin' o/ the Re"u#ic. Thi% a% an au%ion to the /actthat a $artha'inian 'enera in %imiar circum%tance% oud ha3e #een cruci/ied u"on hi% return.

The a/termath o/ $annae- Hanni#aK% tactica ma%ter"iece- %eemed $artha'eK% /ine%t hourand RomeK% darCe%t da,. The "anic that had %e"t throu'h Rome a/ter Tra%imene #ecameoutri'ht h,%teria a/ter $annae. Women o/ no#e #irth coud #e %een %ee"in' the /oor% o/tem"e% ith their on' hair. The cit, a% %o /ied ith mourner% that an im"ortant rei'iou%/e%ti3a had to #e canceed #ecau%e tho%e in mournin' coud not attend. E3er, mae o3er the a'e

o/ %iteen a% dra/ted into the arm,- and e3en to %a3e e'ion% ere rai%ed. )ut or%e ne%a% ,et to come. Roman aie% #e'an to de/ect to Hanni#a in %outhern Ita,F Hiero o/ S,racu%e%itched %ide% and #ecame Hanni#aK% a,F =in' Phii" o/ Macedonia decared ar on Romeand made "re"aration% to in3ade Ita, and a%%i%t Hanni#a.

)ut the Roman%- iCe cornered anima%- ere ne3er more dan'erou% than hen the, ere%tarin' de%truction in the /ace. De/eat on, /urther increa%ed their determination and de%ire /or3ictor,F it a%o made them more cunnin' and re%ource/u. I/ Hanni#a had #een a#e to attacCRome it%e/- he mi'ht ha3e on the ar- #ut a'ain hi% acC o/ %ie'e eui"ment #ede3ied him.

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The Roman %enate tooC /u char'e o/ the ar e//ort and e3o3ed a ne %trate',: Hanni#a oud#e #otted u" in %outhern Ita, and con%tant, %u#4ected to +a#ian tactic%F hi% ne aie% in Ita,oud #e /orced #acC into the Roman /odF S,racu%e oud #e ca"tured and Macedonia CnocCedri'ht out o/ the arF and Rome oud 'o on the o//en%i3e in S"ain.

The Roman "o%ition a% in /act much %tron'er than it %eemed. Hanni#a a% %ti cut o//

/rom recei3in' rein/orcement% and %u""ie% /rom S"ain- $artha'e- Macedonia- or S,racu%e #,the Roman na3,F RomeK% aie% in centra Ita, remained o,a and %ti "ro3ided her ith%u"erior man"oer. Hanni#a acCed %u//icient /orce% to "rotect hi% ne aie% /rom Roman3en'eanceF he had to concentrate on Cee"in' hi% arm, intact a% the Roman% reca"tured thede/ectin' citie% one #, one. Thou'h Hanni#a remained on Itaian %oi /or another thirteen ,ear%-he #ecame e%% ree3ant to the ider conduct o/ the ar. The Roman% ca"tured S,racu%e in !1!)$ and u%ed a %hred miture o/ /orce and di"omac, a'ain%t Phii" to #o' him don %omuch in ;reeC a//air% that he coud "ro3ide no a%%i%tance to Hanni#a. Wor%e /or Hanni#a- theRoman% /ound their on miitar, 'eniu% in the /orm o/ the ,oun'er P. $orneiu% Sci"io- the heroo/ Ticinu% and %ur3i3or o/ $annae.

;eniu% in an, /orm i% un%ettin' to mo%t "eo"e- #ut it i% mo%t aarmin' hen it a""ear% inthe 'ui%e o/ a chari%matic miitar, eader- /or %uch a man i% a"t to turn him%e/ into a miitar,

dictator. No one Cne thi% #etter than the Roman%- ho had created a miitar, %,%tem thatreuired commander% o/ no more than norma com"etence and hich a% in%tead "redicatedu"on the di%ci"ine- %Ci and 3aor o/ the e'ionarie% them%e3e%. Un/ortunate,- hencon/ronted ith a miitar, 'eniu% norma com"etence #ecome% a#norma ine"titude- hiche"ain% h, Hanni#a made a %ucce%%ion o/ com"etent Roman commander% %eem a %trin' o/ %oman, /oo%. When the miitar, 'eniu% o/ the ,oun'er Sci"io #ecame a""arent- hoe3er- itunner3ed the Roman% amo%t a% much a% the $artha'inian%.

The Second Punic War a% a% much o/ a /ami, a//air /or the Roman Sci"io% a% it a% /orthe $artha'inian% )arcid%. A/ter the #atte o/ the Ticinu%- Sci"ioK% /ather- the /ormer con%u- andhi% unce ere #oth %ent to S"ain. In !15 )$ the, de/eated Ha%dru#a- the #rother o/ Hanni#a.Ha%dru#a em"o,ed the %ame tactic% a'ain%t the #rother% Sci"io a% Hanni#a did a'ain%tarro and Pauu% at $annae- #ut on thi% occa%ion the Roman% #roCe throu'h the center o/ the

$artha'inian cre%cent and de/eated #oth ha3e% in turn. ), !11 the Sci"io% ere co%in' in on$artha'o No3a 7modern $arta'ena8- the ca"ita o/ $artha'inian S"ain. Their ta%C had #eenrendered ea%ier #, the reca o/ Ha%dru#a to ue an u"ri%in' in North A/rica- #ut Ha%dru#ano returned to /ace the Sci"io% once more. Sudden, de%erted #, their S"ani%h aie%- #othSci"io% ere Cied in #atte. In !12- at hi% on reue%t- the comitia centuriata 3oted the"rocon%uar command in S"ain to the ,oun'er Sci"io- thou'h he a% on, tent,6/i3e and hadhed no hi'her ma'i%trac, than the curue aedie%hi"and had hed e3en that e #eo thenorma minimum a'e. In !2*- Sci"io aunched a #od a%%aut on $artha'o No3a and ca"tured it.Thi% a% the #e'innin' o/ the end o/ $artha'inian S"ain. ), !29- Sci"io had dri3en Ha%dru#aout o/ S"ain ato'ether. Un/ortunate,- he dro3e him in the direction o/ Ita,.

I/ the armie% o/ Ha%dru#a and Hanni#a had inCed u"- Rome oud ha3e "ro#a#, o%tthe ar. )ut the Roman% interce"ted a me%%a'e /rom Hanni#a to Ha%dru#a- read it- and then

%ent it on to Ha%dru#a. The me%%a'e aoed the con%u $. $audiu% Nero to %et a tra" /orHa%dru#a at the Metauru% Ri3er. Ha%dru#aK% arm, a% utter, annihiated and Ha%dru#ahim%e/ a% Cied. A /e da,% ater- the Roman% either thre or cata"uted a %acC intoHanni#aK% cam". In%ide the %acC a% a toCen o/ a//ection and re'ard /rom the Senate andPeo"e o/ Romethe head o/ hi% #rother Ha%dru#a. The ar in Ita, continued to dra' on- #uttime a% runnin' out on Hanni#a.

Sci"io a% eected on the con%u% o/ !25 )$ and immediate, "re%%ed /or an in3a%ion o/North A/rica- #ut he a% continua, o""o%ed #, the +a#ian /action- hich a% 4eaou% o/ thi%

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,oun' u"%tart and /a3ored the continuation o/ RomeK% cautiou% %trate',. E3entua,- Sci"ioK%"an a% a""ro3ed- #ut the %enate "ermitted him to taCe on, 3ounteer%. Ne3erthee%%- Sci"iorai%ed man, troo"% in Ita, and Sici, and- in !20- anded in North A/rica. He %oon %cared ama4or cou" hen he "er%uaded the Numidian% to de%ert $artha'e and #ecome aie% o/ Rome.Thi% not on, 'a3e Sci"io the %er3ice% o/ the out%tandin' Numidian ca3ar, #ut a%o "er%uadedthe $artha'inian 'o3ernment to o"en "eace ne'otiation% ith him. The re%ut a% a treat,

a""ro3ed #, #oth the $artha'inian %enate and the comitia centuriata in Rome. $artha'e a% to'i3e u" S"ain- reduce her na3, to tent, ar%hi"%- and "a, an indemnit, o/ 5-222 taent%. )utHanni#a tooC ad3anta'e o/ the armi%tice #eteen Rome and $artha'e to %i" out o/ Ita, ith15-222 o/ hi% 3eteran% and return to $artha'e. U"on hi% arri3a in North A/rica- the$artha'inian% di%a3oed the treat, and the ar re%umed.

+ortunate, /or u%- the ar did not a%t much on'er- /or in the %ummer o/ !2! )$ thearmie% o/ Sci"io and Hanni#a met at ama. Each %ide had %ome 5 to 02-222 men. Hanni#a"aced hi% ca3ar, on the /anC% and hi% ee"hant% in /ront. )ehind the ee"hant% he arra,ed hi%in/antr, in three ine%. The /ront ine a% com"ri%ed o/ 1!-222 $etic- Li'urian and A/ricanmercenarie%. Hi% %econd ine o/ in/antr, a% %ta//ed ith con%cri"ted $artha'inian% andLi#,an%. Hi% 3eteran% o/ the ar in Ita, /ormed the third ine. Hanni#a 'a3e him%e/ too"tion%. The /ir%t a% to u%e hi% ee"hant% to #reaC u" Sci"ioK% e'ion%- hereu"on hi% ca3ar,

and in/antr, oud /a u"on the %hattered e'ion% and utter, de%tro, them. I/ thi% "an /aied-hi% %econd "an a% to ao the Roman% to en3eo" hi% /ir%t to ine% o/ in/antr, and then hitthe enem, ith hi% 3eteran%. Sci"io antici"ated Hanni#aK% tactic%. In%tead o/ arra,in' hi%mani"e% in the u%ua Roman checCer#oard /a%hion- each mani"e a% direct, #ehind the one in/ront o/ it. When the ee"hant% mounted their char'e- Sci"ioK% i'ht in/antr, or 3eite% %armedout to meet them. The 4a3ein% o/ the 3eite% Cied the mahout% 7ee"hant dri3er%8 and oundedthe "ach,derm% them%e3e%. The ee"hant% either %treamed harme%%, throu'h the 'a"% #eteenSci"ioK% mani"e% or turned around and char'ed into Hanni#aK% /ir%t ine. With the ee"hant%no e%%entia, out o/ the "icture- Sci"io aunched a counterattacC ith hi% in/antr, and ca3ar,.The $artha'inian /ront ine a% dri3en #acCard toard% their %econd ine. Man, o/ the$artha'inian con%cri"t% #e'an to "anic. Thi% /orced Hanni#a to commit hi% 3eteran% to #atte"remature,. Meanhie- the Roman and Numidian hor%e de/eated Hanni#aK% no in/eriorca3ar, and attacCed hi% rear. Hanni#a no had a ta%te o

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