Role of Agro-industry in Reducing Food Losses in the Middle ......estimated food losses by region,...
Transcript of Role of Agro-industry in Reducing Food Losses in the Middle ......estimated food losses by region,...
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Role of Agro-industry in Reducing Food
Losses in the Middle East
and North Africa Region
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Role of Agro-industry in Reducing Food
Losses in the Middle East and North Africa
Region
Prepared by:
Dr. Adel A. Kader
Professor Emeritus of Postharvest Physiology
Department of Plant Sciences
University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
Dr. Lisa Kitinoja
Postharvest Training Specialist
The Postharvest Education Foundation
La Pine, Oregon 97739, USA
Dr. Awad M. Hussein
Professor Emeritus of Postharvest Physiology
Alexandria Postharvest Center (APHC)
Department of Pomology
Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University
Alexandria, Egypt
Dr. Omar Abdin
Assistant Professor of Crop Science
Alexandria University
Alexandria, Egypt
Dr. Amer Jabarin
Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics
Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness
University of Jordan
Amman, Jordan
Dr. Ahmed E. Sidahmed
Associate Director for Development and Partnership
International Programs Office, CAES, University of California, Davis, California 95616; USA
Agro industry and Infrastructure
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Regional Office for the Near East,
Cairo, Egypt
February 2012
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Table of Contents
List of Authors……………………………………………………………………………………2
Executive Summary (Adel A. Kader)…………………………………………………………….5
1. General background on 19 MENA countries in terms of natural and financial resources, food
security and poverty index (Amer Jabarin)………………………………………………….9
2. Estimates and causes of losses during postharvest handling, processing, storage, and
distribution of locally produced and imported agronomic food crops (cereals, legumes). (Omar
Abdin)……………………………………………………………………………………………16
3. Estimates and causes of losses during postharvest handling, processing, storage, and
distribution of locally produced and imported horticultural food crops (fruits and vegetables).
(Awad M. Hussein)………………………………………………………………………………29
4. Estimates and causes of losses during postharvest handling, processing, storage, and
distribution of locally produced and imported animal source foods (dairy, meat, poultry, fish).
(Ahmed E. Sidahmed)……………………………………………………………………………36
5. Socioeconomic factors affecting postharvest losses and food waste, and scale appropriate
strategies for overcoming these factors. (Lisa Kitinoja) ………………..……………………….53
6. References……………………………………………………………………………………..77
Appendices
A. Biographical statements of authors…………………………………………………………...89
B. Background statistics on the MENA region…………………………………………………..93
C. The Gini Index………………………………………………………………………………100
D. Production and trade of animal source foods in the MENA region…………………………101
E. Morocco Traceability decrees……………………………………………………………….104
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Executive Summary
The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region includes nineteen countries spread over
Asia and Africa including Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, UAE, West Bank & Gaza, and
Yemen. In terms of natural resources, the vast majority of MENA countries suffer from severe
water shortage and deterioration of water quality due to many reasons including high population
growth rate, urbanization, traditional agricultural sectors which produce traditional low value
agricultural products that demand huge volumes of water, and inefficient marketing and food
processing systems. About seventy percent of water resources in the MENA region are used for
irrigation, with declining supplies.
The MENA region is characterized as one of the major food importers in the world. The
production of cereals, the major staple food, is the lowest among all of the major crops. Also the
harvested area of cereals represents only about 3% of the total harvested area of all crops. As a
result, the MENA region is considered as the main importer of cereals in the world. In 2008, the
value of imported cereals by MENA countries amounted to US$ 28.7 billion. Iran, Egypt,
Algeria and Saudi Arabia are the largest importers of cereals in the region. In 2008, cereals
imports formed 35 percent of the total agricultural imports of the MENA region. The region‟s
dependence on imports continues to increase. In general, it is difficult to find reliable data about
the agro-industries in the region and this situation must be changed to facilitate assessment of
needs to improve quality of the produced products and to plan future developments of agro-
industries to increase self-sufficiency within the region.
Postharvest technology is an inter-disciplinary science and includes techniques applied to
agricultural produce after harvesting for its protection, conservation, processing, packaging,
distribution, marketing and utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of
consumers. Preventing postharvest losses, improving nutrition and adding value to food products
will generate jobs, reduce poverty and enhance food security and the growth of economy by
improving the livelihoods of people. Studies of postharvest food losses can be based on surveys
or sampling at different points between the production and consumption sites. Both quantitative
losses (loss in weight) and qualitative losses (loss in sensory quality, nutritional value, and
market value due to reduced grade) should be determined in all MENA countries. Any attempt to
reduce food losses must begin with identifying the location, magnitude, and causes of the losses
to be able to select the most appropriate intervention to reduce the losses.
Although only limited data on the magnitude of food losses in the MENA region are available, it
is generally estimated that about 15% of cereals and legumes and 33% of perishable horticultural
crops are never consumed by humans. Gustavsson et al (2011) provide a summary of current
estimated food losses by region, and report losses for the food supply chain (FSC) in North
Africa, West and Central Asia during postharvest period (including handling, packaging, storage,
processing and distribution) to be 14 to 19% for grains, 26% for roots and tubers, 16% for
oilseeds and pulses, 45% for fruits and vegetables, 13% for meats, 28% for fish and seafoods,
and 18% for dairy products. A diagram of where losses occur in the food supply chain is shown
in Figure 0.1. Reducing these losses in order to increase food availability and food security for
the MENA population is much less costly than increasing production by expanding production
area and/or productivity per hectare and/or by increasing imports.
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Figure 0.1. Diagram of where losses occur in the food supply chain (developed by Lisa Kitinoja
and Adel Kader)
Storage practices and facilities in the MENA region on the whole remain woefully inadequate.
Strategies for reducing losses and waste of agronomic food crops include: (1) drying to reduce
moisture content to below 8 to 14%, depending on the commodity ; (2) effective insect dis-
infestation and protection against re-infestation; (3) storage temperature management (storage
potential doubles for every 5 ºC reduction in temperature); (4) maintaining storage relative
humidity in equilibrium with moisture content of the product to reduce the incidence of molds;
and (5) proper sanitation procedures to minimize microbial contamination and avoid mycotoxin
formation. International development organizations and governments should give highest priority
to improving storage facilities of agronomic food crops at the national, regional, village, and
household levels in all MENA countries.
Availability and efficient use of the cold chain for perishable foods (i.e. fruits, vegetables, dairy
products, meats and fish) is much more evident in developed countries than in developing
countries, including MENA countries. Unreliability of the power supply, lack of proper
maintenance, and inefficiency of utilization of cold storage and refrigerated transport facilities
are among the reasons for failure of the cold chain in developing countries. Cost of providing the
cold chain per ton of produce depends on energy costs plus utilization efficiency of the facilities
throughout the year. The extent of proper use of the cold chain is generally greater for exported
food products than for those that are handled through modern retail distribution channels, while
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food products that are handled through the traditional marketing channels are often exposed to a
broken or no cold chain.
Strategies for reducing postharvest losses and waste of perishable foods in developing countries
include: (1) application of current knowledge to improve the food handling systems and assure
food quality and safety; (2) removing the socioeconomic constraints, such as inadequacies of
infrastructure, poor storage facilities and marketing systems, and weak research and development
capacity; and (3) overcoming the limitations of small-scale operations by encouraging
consolidation and vertical integration among producers and marketers of each commodity or
group of commodities.
The following are some examples of the recommended scale-appropriate loss reduction
interventions for horticultural food crops: (1) improved containers to better protect produce from
damage; (2) providing shade to reduce temperature and provide a natural source of cooling; (3)
improved curing of root and tuber crops; (4) use of water disinfection methods and other
sanitation procedures; (5) use of cost-effective cooling methods, such as evaporative forced air
cooling, and hydro-cooling with well water; (6) effective insect control (dis-infestation and
protection against re-infestation); (7) improved small scale storage methods such as a cold room
with a CoolBot-controlled air conditioner; and (8) improved food processing and packaging
methods.
The following are highlights of actions and strategies that could assist in the reduction of waste
and loss of animal source foods: (1) Promote the development of effective value adding steps on
the commodity value chain (input, breeding, feeding, health improvement, technology adoption,
market information, micro-finance) that provide sufficient incentives to the producers through
enhanced competitiveness and access to markets; and (2) Adopt better technologies to enhance
the effectiveness and reliability of the food supply chain (processing, transport, distribution and
consumption). Much of the needed infrastructure, both physical and institutional, remains to be
developed before food losses and food waste will be reduced. Examples include weather
forecast messages to growers, fishermen and pastoralists; community supported rural roads, cold
chains and other kinds of appropriate infrastructure for linking producer to markets.
There are many socio-economic and cultural factors affecting implementation of changes in
postharvest technology aimed at reducing food waste along the value chain. How best to address
these factors while taking into account the social and cultural norms of the MENA region is a
key element in any agro-industrial development plan. Specifics will vary by country and by type
and market value of food product, so a first step will be to better characterize local food sector
development needs on a case by case basis.
Food security and food loss reduction efforts go hand in hand with promoting improved food
safety. Recommendations include: (1) assure consumer health and food safety through
compliance with public health, food safety and other sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS)
requirements; (2) establish policies and resources for control and prevention of trans-boundary
animal diseases (cross border control and certification and zoonotic; (3) training and awareness
building of the producers, food supply chain (FSC) stakeholders about food hygiene, handling
and safety measures; (4) animal feed improvement (i.e. quality, safety e.g. dry fish feeding for
cattle in southern Yemen and the coast of Oman, preparation of fishmeal for poultry feeding); (5)
creation of salmonella free environments for the poultry sector; and mastitis free environment for
the dairy sector; (6) promote the development of appropriate cold chain infrastructure; and (7)
establish and implement an effective traceability system for all food products.
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Future actions needed to reduce postharvest food losses and enhance food security in the MENA
region include the following:
1. Survey the magnitude and causes of losses in quality and quantity during harvesting and postharvest handling of major commodities and food products in each country in the
region (establish baseline data).
2. Encourage coordination and collaboration among FAO and other international organizations with national organizations in capacity building activities within the
MENA region.
3. Assess locally available tools and facilities for harvesting, packaging, transport, storage, processing and marketing of each commodity.
4. Simplify and harmonize food quality and safety standards and their enforcement within the MENA region.
5. Determine return on investment of application of improved technologies intended to reduce losses, maintain quality and food safety.
6. Disseminate information on scale appropriate postharvest practices and technologies to a wide range of target audiences and end users.
7. Identify problems in the agro-industrial sector which will need further problem-solving research to improve the quality of the products up to international standards and to
produce new products that meet consumer demands.
8. Support activities related to data collection, analysis, and evaluation aimed at continually improving the agro-industries in the MENA region.
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1. General background on 19 MENA countries in terms of natural and
financial resources, food security, and poverty index
1.1 Introduction
The MENA region includes nineteen (19) countries spread over Asia and Africa and includes
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco,
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, UAE, West Bank & Gaza, and Yemen. The region is
currently facing serious populist uprisings that are affecting the whole economic and social
structure of the region. The countries of the region share many common political and
socioeconomic characteristics, namely highly suppressive political systems led by long-serving
leaders and citizen anger against corruption. Demographic statistics show that about one fourth
of the population is poor and around seven percent are undernourished.
In terms of natural resources, the vast majority of MENA countries suffer from severe water
shortage and deterioration of water quality due to many reasons including high population
growth rate, urbanization, traditional agricultural sectors which produce traditional low value
agricultural products that demand huge volumes of water, and inefficient marketing and food
processing systems. About seventy percent of the water resources in the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) region are used for irrigation, with declining supplies.
This section of the report focuses on the general background of the 19 countries in terms of
natural and financial resources, food security and poverty index.
1.2 Natural and financial resources
The total area of the MENA region countries is 1,222 million hectares. There is a huge variation
among the 19 countries of the region in terms of area. Bahrain is the smallest country with only
76 thousand hectares, while Algeria is the largest country in the region with 238 million hectares
(refer to Appendix B for a complete list in table B.1).
The development in the area devoted to agricultural land in the targeted MENA region countries
during the last two decades shows a huge variation in the agricultural lands among the different
countries. In general, the total area of agricultural land increased from 371 million hectares in
1990 to 413 million hectares in 2008 (FAO, 2010). According to these statistics, Saudi Arabia
possesses the largest amount of agricultural land while Bahrain has the smallest. (Refer to
Appendix B for a complete list in table B.2).
Despite the huge area of agricultural lands, the total arable land consists of only one fourth of the
total agricultural lands. Arable land are defined as land that can be used for growing crops, has
good production resources in terms of water supply and richness in nutrients, and is located in an
area of suitable climatic conditions. The total area of the arable lands in the region is estimated
at 55.5 million hectares as of 2008 (FAO, 2010). Table B.3 (see Appendix B) indicates that Iran
has almost one third of the total arable land in the region followed by Morocco.
1.3 Demographic characteristics
One of the demographic characteristics of the MENA region is the high population growth and
fertility rates. The total population has increased from 285 million in the year 1995 to 380
million in 2010. The region‟s total population is expected to increase to new record number of
445 and 502 million, by the years 2020 and 2030 respectively. This would mean putting too
much pressure on the limited natural resources of the region to produce more food and to meet
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the increasing demand on water for the other purposes. Actual and projected population for the
19 countries of MENA region have been reported by FAO Stats (refer to Appendix B for a
complete list in table B.4). Egypt‟s population is the highest followed by Iran. The population of
the two countries represents 42 percent of the total population of the region.
Agricultural population in the MENA region represents about 21 percent of the total population
as of 2010. The ratio varies among the different countries based on the total area of arable lands
and the level of urbanization. Egypt has the largest number of agricultural population while
Bahrain and Qatar have the lowest (refer to Appendix B for a complete list in table B.5). One of
the major challenges facing the region in meeting food demands is the lack of the skilled
agricultural labor force needed for adapting new and advanced technologies. Agricultural
education, at all levels, is still lagging behind advanced education in the MENA region as it is in
most developing countries.
1.4 Employment and agricultural labor force
The level of unemployment is a major concern facing all countries and decision makers in the
MENA region, especially non-oil producing countries. FAO Stats provides the actual and
projected total economically active population distributed by country (refer to Appendix B for a
complete list in table B.6). In 2010, the total economically active labor force amounted to 135
million individuals. Over the next 10 years an additional 29 million new laborers are expected to
enter the labor market in MENA region which means additional challenges to the current
economies. Statistics show that in 2010 the agricultural labor force formed about 20% of the total
employed individuals in the region. Iran and Egypt are the leading countries in terms of labor
force. The two countries account for 42 percent of the total labor force in the region.
An alarming signal from the records of the International Labor Organization (ILO) indicates that
the MENA region witnessed the highest unemployment rates among the developing regions both
in the 1990s and during last decade. Despite the lack of detailed numbers on unemployment in
many countries of the region, the unemployment rate has been hovering around 12%. Although it
is hard to conduct direct comparisons among the different countries due to the differences in
measurement tools used, in some countries of disturbance (i.e. Iraq, Palestine and Lebanon) the
employment rate exceeded the 15% level as indicated in table B.7. (See Appendix B)
1.5 Agricultural Production
The level of agricultural production in the MENA region varies from one country to another
depending on the land and water resources, climatic conditions, skilled labor, capital investments
and other socioeconomic factors. The available statistics classify agricultural production in the
region into the following groups:
Hazelnuts, with shell
Cereals
Citrus Fruit
Coarse Grain
Fiber Crops Primary
Fruit excl Melons
Oil crops Primary
Pulses
Roots and Tubers
Vegetables & Melons
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Table 1.1 demonstrates the trend of agricultural production of the above mentioned agricultural
groups. The table indicates that the production of these groups increased from 153 million tons in
1995 to 233 million tons in 2009. Egypt, Iran and Morocco are the largest agricultural producers
in the MENA region. However, the pace of increase in agricultural production didn‟t increase at
the same rate of population growth and consequently the food gap was enlarging during the last
two decades.
Table 1.1. Total production of main agricultural commodities in MENA region during 1995-
2009 (1000 tonnes) 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Algeria 8,084 6,835 14,065 14,859 13,285 11,347 18,753
Bahrain 35 34 28 40 38 37 39
Egypt 44,023 55,042 62,486 64,405 64,525 67,287 70,145
Iran (Islamic Republic of) 46,191 47,793 68,180 67,621 70,909 55,671 66,563
Iraq 9,245 7,502 10,638 10,803 10,093 7,706 8,006
Jordan 1,853 1,475 2,030 2,036 1,860 1,894 2,034
Kuwait 121 207 271 288 290 284 293
Lebanon 3,268 2,526 2,876 2,650 2,900 2,937 2,986
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1,595 1,837 2,006 1,914 1,962 1,955 2,032
Mauritania 474 360 352 346 366 381 408
Morocco 8,808 11,175 16,140 24,147 14,835 19,184 26,860
Occupied Palestinian Territory 573 1,082 1,066 1,086 1,059 1,105 1,179
Oman 440 593 501 498 538 556 596
Qatar 70 89 59 73 89 86 93
Saudi Arabia 7,520 5,799 7,790 7,877 7,809 7,413 6,695
Syrian Arab Republic 13,036 9,705 13,457 14,887 13,214 10,393 13,659
Tunisia 3,636 5,217 6,977 6,623 7,293 6,630 8,344
United Arab Emirates 1,024 3,962 1,261 1,246 1,253 1,236 1,260
Yemen 2,675 2,938 2,854 3,488 4,068 3,564 3,468
Total 152,669 164,170 213,036 224,888 216,387 199,666 233,412 Source: Online FAOSTAT, 2011
Citrus fruits are the leading agricultural crop produced in the MENA region. As indicated in
figure 1.1, Citrus production forms 44% of the total agricultural production of the region
followed by primary oil crops. Cereals, the basic food staple in the region, are the least produced
crops. The majority of the citrus trees is under irrigation and consumes lots of water. Iran is the
leading country in citrus production (33%) followed by Egypt (26%) and then Morocco (13%).
Figure 1.1. Agricultural production in the MENA region in 2009 by product (in 1000 MT)
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Figure 1.2 shows the acreage of main crops produced in MENA region in 2009. As in the case of
production, citrus is the leading crop in cultivated area. Citrus occupies 29% of the total
cultivated area in the region followed by fiber crops with 11%.
Figure 1.2. Acreage of main crops in the MENA region in 2009 by product (in M ha)
The MENA region is characterized as one of the major food importers in the world. As indicated
above, the production of cereals, the major staple food is the lowest among all of the major
crops. Also the harvested area represents about 3 percent of the total harvested area in all crops.
As a result, the MENA region is considered as the main importer of cereals in the world. In
2008, the value of imported cereals by MENA countries amounted to 28.7 billion US$. Iran,
Egypt, Algeria and Saudi Arabia are the largest importers of cereals in the region. In the year
2008, cereal imports were 35% of the total agricultural imports of the MENA region. Figure 1.3
demonstrates the region imports trends of all agricultural imports over the period 1995-2008. It is
very clear from the graph that the region is becoming more dependent on imports, especially in
the recent years.
Figure 1.3. Total agricultural imports in the MENA region 1995-2008 (M$)
Courtiers of the MENA region also export some agricultural products (Figure 1.4). The total
exports amounted to 15.4 billion tones in 2008 of which fresh fruits and vegetables represented
about one third. The major horticultural exporters are Egypt, Morocco and Jordan.
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Figure 1.4. Total agricultural exports of the MENA region 1995-2008 (M$)
Using the same sets of agricultural trade data, the gap between imports and exports can be
estimated. Figure 1.5 shows that the gap has been widening during the last decade and reached to
a new record in 2008. The gap amounted to an alarming level of 66 billion US$ in 2008. The
main reason for this gap is the continuous increase in the pace of imports at a rate higher than the
increase in exports rate.
Figure 1.5. Total agricultural gap in the MENA region 1995-2008 (M$)
1.6 Poverty and Inequalities
The issue of poverty and inequality can be partially explained by analyzing income and
expenditure of a given country. However, there are other factors believed to play a role in the
level of poverty in the MENA region. Income and expenditure are monetary welfare measures
that require additional socioeconomic indicators of well being in order to fully understand the
situation and to draw conclusions. The indictors may include life expectancy at birth, maternal
and child health, nutritional status, access to health facilities, literacy, school enrollment, female
education attainment, etc. Published social indicators by many of national and international
organizations show that the situation in the MENA region has remarkably improved during the
last two decades.
Poverty is observed through the measuring the well-being of a population which depends on both
monetary and non-monetary variables. A justifiable measure of poverty should depend on
income indicators as well as non-income indicators that may help in identifying aspects of
welfare not captured by incomes.
Table 1.2 demonstrates the per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in constant prices of 2000
for all countries in the MENA region. The table shows a huge variation in the per capita income
between the different countries. On average of the period 2005-2009, Qatar ranked first with a
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per capita income of 34,700 US$ while the lowest was Mauritania at 473 US$. The shaded rows
in the table mark the oil producing countries in the region. It should be stated here, that the per
capita GDP does not correctly reflect the actual per capita income since it cannot take into
account the inequalities among the different individuals in the society.
Table 1.2. Per capita GDP for MENA countries in constant prices of 2000 US$ (1995-2009)
Country Name 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Average
(05-09)
Qatar
28,793 29,878 31,357 34,960 38,960 38,466 34,724
Kuwait 19,048 17,223 22,070 22,646 23,072
22,596
Bahrain 11,170 12,262 14,719 15,369 16,299 16,968
15,839
Saudi Arabia 9,085 9,128 9,816 9,887 9,854 10,035 9,863 9,891
Oman 7,749 8,271 9,024 9,334 9,763 10,779
9,725
Libya
6,340 7,009 7,272 7,554 7,685 7,692 7,442
Lebanon 4,605 4,576 5,085 5,064 5,403 5,859 6,342 5,551
Tunisia 1,651 2,033 2,407 2,518 2,652 2,747 2,805 2,626
Jordan 1,723 1,764 2,130 2,245 2,378 2,499 2,497 2,350
Algeria 1,662 1,796 2,117 2,128 2,159 2,177 2,190 2,154
Iran, Islamic Rep. 1,409 1,584 1,924 2,008 2,137 2,158 2,168 2,079
Egypt, Arab Rep. 1,214 1,423 1,539 1,614 1,697 1,786 1,836 1,694
Morocco 1,128 1,270 1,526 1,624 1,648 1,718 1,781 1,659
Syrian Arab
Republic 1,181 1,170 1,242 1,274 1,295 1,330 1,350 1,298
West Bank and
Gaza 1,246 1,369 1,056
1,056
Iraq
1,030 668 691 684 731 743 703
Yemen, Rep. 465 519 552 554 556 560 565 557
Mauritania 420 415 441 514 472 478 462 473
Source: Online World Development Indicators (WDI), World Bank 2011
The Gini index is usually used in economic and social research to measure income inequalities
within a country and to compare income inequality between countries and between separate
geographical regions of a country, where higher Gini coefficients indicate more unequal
distribution, with 100 corresponding to complete inequality. Appendix C provides more details
on the Gini index and how it is calculated.
The Gini index for some of the countries in the MENA region was obtained from the World
Development Indicator (WDI) database of the World Bank. The index is available only for a few
countries in scattered years. Table 1.3 shows the Gini index for Algeria, Egypt, Iran Jordan,
Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia and Yemen. The values of the index for these MENA countries
are all in the low to middle range, falling between 33.4 and 44.5.
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Table 1.3. Gini Index for some MENA countries
Country GINI Index
Algeria 35.3
Egypt, Arab Rep. 33.5
Iran, Islamic Rep. 44.5
Jordan 38.8
Mauritania 39.0
Morocco 40.0
Tunisia 40.0
Yemen, Rep. 33.4
Source: Online World Development Indicators (WDI), World Bank 2011a
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2. Estimates and causes of losses during postharvest handling, processing,
storage, and distribution of locally produced and imported agronomic food
crops (cereals, legumes)
2.1 Introduction
World demand of food is on the rise not only in order to cover the increase in population growth
but also to meet the needs of increased per capita consumption. In a report done by the
International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) "Bread and Protests; the return of high food
prices" (March 2011), it was noted that as a consequence of the limited resources of land and
water in the MENA region and the rise in demand due to population growth, the region imports
more food per capita than any other, accounting for 25–50% of national consumption. MENA is
now the world's largest cereal-importing area by tonnage (International Food Policy Research
Institute-IFPRI, 2010). Given an annual population growth rate in MENA region of 1.7% and the
limited available resources from land and water, the gap between food consumption and food
demand will widen unless measures are taken to maintain the gap at its current state or to work
on reducing it. Consumer habits are also shifting from staple food products to higher-value food
products, and given the limited resources of land and water, this will increase the region's food
trade deficit. This together with the recent climate changes that are happening across the globe
caused a surge in food prices in 2007-08 and again in 2010-11.
The increasing demand on food will have to be compensated with more production, however
given the sometimes limited resources of land and water this could be a challenge. Efforts to
close the gap between production and consumption have historically been focused on increasing
agricultural land area and increasing food productivity through improving the yield per unit area,
while reducing the losses that occur in the supply chain of food grain was a secondary approach.
Significant quantities of food produced in developing countries are lost pre-harvest and post
harvest. Securing food will require several strategic choices through better crop yields and
reduction in the postharvest handling losses of food along the supply chain until it reaches the
consumer.
Given the importance of grains and other field crops in production and food security and the
urgent need to cover the gap between supply and demand, MENA countries must adopt
measures to reduce the losses of locally produced and imported food crops. Reduction in the
postharvest losses not only will save on the availability of the food but will also improve the
efficiency of production. Given the partial liberalization of the market in the MENA region and
the rising food prices this will offer the private sector an opportunity to capitalize on the
opportunities to invest in the postharvest supply chain of grains (e.g. dryers, silos, mills, hermetic
storage facilities and trucks).
2.2. Estimates of Postharvest Losses
A study by the World Bank estimated food grain losses to be between 7-10% from the field to
the market, and another 4-5% along the full supply chain (World Bank,2011b). These losses in
the MENA region would translate to an annual loss of 12-16 million tons of grain, which is
enough to feed between 70 and 100 million people. The main causes of these losses were due to
the improper methods of harvesting, storage, transportation and processing of the crop.
According to Harris and Lindblad (1978) identifying new technology and improving existing
ones will be the key to reducing postharvest grain losses. The lack of finance and adequate
training are two key constraints as well as political and cultural constraints in some cases. As
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early as 1975 an FAO subcommittee identified four constraints that might hinder the use of
available technology to reduce on-farm losses: (1) Lack of arrangement for producing the
necessary inputs; (2) Inadequate distribution channels for the necessary inputs; (3) Lack of
purchasing power or credit arrangements for the farmers to buy the inputs; and (4) Inadequate
information for the farmer on how to use the inputs.
Despite some improvements, farm losses are still significant today. Losses vary by crop, variety,
year, infestation magnitude, storage type, drying method, handling techniques, transportation
method and distribution system. The diagram in figure 2.1 shows examples of postharvest losses
for grains at the farm level. Given such enormous variability, reliable statistics on the magnitude
of postharvest losses are not readily available.
Figure 2.1. Losses in the food grains system (Courtesy of American Association of Cereal
Chemists).
The value chain of field crops is composed of a series of interconnected activities that includes
harvesting, drying, threshing, storing, milling, storing, packing, transportation and marketing. A
loss in any link of the chain contributes to the total losses encountered. Postharvest losses can
be quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative losses are physical loss of a product in any part of the
chain. Qualitative losses are losses in quality, market value or nutritional value, or in the worst
case, of a having a non-marketable product that is not fit for human consumption.
Postharvest losses lead to losses in market opportunities and nutritional value through the
reduction in food quality and food safety. Good postharvest management can reduce food losses
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and can improve the quality and safety whilst enhancing supply-chain efficiencies, rural income
and employment.
There has been a tendency to overestimate storage losses, and figures of 30% or more are
commonly reported for humid countries in Asia. By contrast the results of detailed field studies
in the MENA region suggest that under traditional storage systems losses are typically around 5
to 10% over a storage season. Storage loss figures around the 5 to 10% level should not however
be considered insignificant.
Ahmad (2003) summarizing the status of production and losses of some major strategic crops in
Iran, noted that the total production of cereal group including wheat, maize and barley in 2006-
2007 agricultural year was about 24 million tons and based on expert estimates, relative
percentage of crop losses (qualitative and quantitative) of cereal crops was about 12.9%.
Therefore the absolute losses of this group of crops were 9.8 million tons. Considering the non
linear relationship between the amount of losses and increasing production in order to
compensate for those losses, an additional amount of 3.54 million tons has to be imposed on
cereal production systems.
In this section of the report, focus is on the three main cereal crops (wheat, rice and maize) and
pulses that are produced and/or imported in the MENA region; and on the magnitude of losses
encountered during their supply chain that have a big impact on the region's economy and its
state of food security.
The MENA region imports approximately 31 million tons of wheat, 20 million tons of maize
and 4.7 million tons of milled rice, totaling approximately 55 million tons of imported grain.
This quantity needs to be handled, stored and processed in line with good material handling
practices, good storage practices and good manufacturing practices to minimize losses happening
across the chain.
Elements and major causes of grain losses across the supply chain are almost the same regardless
of the type of grain and include improper practices related to time of harvest, method of
harvesting (manual or mechanical), threshing, packaging, storage, transportation and processing
methods.
2.2.1 Wheat
Major wheat producers in MENA region are Iran with a total production of 13.5 Million tons,
Egypt (8.5 million tons), Syria (3.7 million tons), Morocco (3.8 million tons), Algeria (3.0
million tons) and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2.0 million tons). The total MENA region local
production of wheat is approximately 35 million tons. If the wheat losses of 15% reported in
Iran and Egypt apply to the rest of MENA region then expected annual losses of wheat in the
MENA region could reach more than 5 million tons.
Wheat losses in Iran are estimated to be 2.38 million tons representing 15% of total wheat
production; given an estimated yield per acre of 2.38 tons an area of 1 million acres must be
planted to compensate for the grain loss.
El-Lakwah (1984) stated that the principle causes of losses in quality and quantity of stored
grains in Egypt were rodents, insects and birds. Estimated annual losses caused by rodents alone
are about 4-10% in weight of stored grain. Losses at the wheat grain collection centers at the
Principle Bank for Development and Agricultural Credit (PBDAC) ranged from 2 to 12% with a
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mean value of 6.5%. High loss values are obtained when wheat is heavily infested by
Trogoderma granarium or under heavy rodents attack. Figure 2.2 is a photo of stored wheat in
Egypt, where it is stacked outdoors, exposed to heat, pests and dust.
Figure 2.2. Stored Wheat produced from local farms in Egypt (Photo courtesy of the World Food
Program (WFP) of the United Nations (UN), Cairo)
Results also indicate that the longer the storage period the higher the losses. Wheat in Egypt is
typically stored for 4 to 8 months. Transport losses are generally due to spillage. Figures 2.3 and
2.4 illustrate two types of spillage, from bulk loads where wind carries loose grain away during
uncovered transport, and from poor quality sacks, which can tear and results in losses of grain
during handling. Uncovered loads can also easily be subject to losses due to theft.
Estimated losses at the farmer's and merchant's level ranges from 4-10% for grain and pulses and
equals 20-50 million $US annually (El-Lakwah, 1995 unpublished). Kamel, (1977) estimated
losses due to pest damage alone to be 3.7% of the annual production of cereal grains and 2.1% of
main pulses (broad beans and lentils).
Figure 2.3. Local transportation of wheat in Egypt (Photo courtesy of the World Food Program
of the United Nations, Cairo)
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Figure 2.4. A photo illustration of the amount of losses encountered in transportation of locally
produced wheat in Egypt (Photo courtesy of the World Food Program of the United Nations,
Cairo)
A report by Mansour and Iglesias (2011), noted that a recent study was conducted in Egypt
showing that total losses in wheat from harvesting until baking is estimated at 13 to 15 % of the
total amount of wheat consumed in Egypt, which is approximately 8 million tons. Therefore
losses could reach more than one million tons annually. According to the same report, another
important source of losses that could not be quantified is theft in the form of selling the
subsidized wheat flour in the black market to beef and dairy producers as they believe that
adding flour to the feed ration increases milk production. Low quality bread is another
contributor to loss, as it forces the consumer not to eat all the bread they buy. Some traders
collect the leftover bread, dry it and sell it by the kilo to the poultry, beef and milk breeders at
0.22$/kg.
2.2.2 Maize (Corn)
Egypt is the largest corn producer in the MENA region with an estimated 5.9 million tons of
grain followed by Iran at 2.3 million tons. The entire MENA region imports about 19.5 million
tons of maize according to the USDA, of which Algeria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia comprise more
than 57% of that figure. Any losses that could be identified and reduced will have a big impact
on availability of the corn.
Figure 2.5 shows a diagram developed by AGROTEC/UNDP/OPS in 1991 showing the type and
causes of losses along the postharvest pipeline for maize. Losses are traced back to exposure to
heat, rain, humidity and contamination which lead to a host of losses due to birds, insect and
rodent pests, spillage, molds, rancidity, sprouting, breakage and poor processing practices.
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Fig.2.5. The postharvest pipeline for maize (Mejia, 2003)
Scarce and very limited data are found on assessing maize losses in MENA region therefore this
study also draws on data from other similar regions to try to estimate the expected losses in
maize producing countries in the MENA region.
Although grains must be harvested at a moisture content of 13 to 15% in order to avoid microbial
spoilage, maize is harvested mainly at a moisture content of 18 to 20% in Lower Egypt and at
around 15% in Upper Egypt. This is mainly due to the hotter and dryer climate of Upper Egypt
which assists the corn in drying down to 15% in the field. At the 18- 20 % moisture level the
corn must be dried as fast as possible, but unfortunately due to the non-existence of corn dryers
in Egypt, the corn is left to dry in the open air either shelled or as cobs. This long drying period
causes losses in terms of quantity and quality of the grain.
Quantity losses are due mainly to insects and bird infestation in addition to spillage, while the
quality losses are due to higher mycotoxin levels which are detrimental for the feed industry. In
response to loss of locally produced grain quality after long term storage, the local feed mills opt
for imported corn grain rather than locally produced grains. Establishing corn grain collection
centers with proper drying and storage methods at the farmer's level or at the cooperatives level
will be crucial in minimizing the level of losses and increasing the value of the corn and hence
providing better income for the farmers.
According to Mejia (2003) in an FAO report on Maize Postharvest Operations, the magnitude of
the losses during field drying and harvesting is likely the highest in the entire postharvest supply
chain of maize as it is influenced by several factors. These factors include the time of harvesting,
maize variety, weather conditions, harvesting practices in terms of time period and whether the
harvest is done by hand or machine. The aforementioned factors also make the maize grain
vulnerable to infestation by pests during storage. The magnitude of losses will differ from one
country to another depending on climate and local pest populations, and losses could be as low
as 5% or as high as 50% in heavily infected areas. Mejia (2003) estimated that average losses
during this phase range from 7 to 12 percent.
In a report published by the FAO, "Discovering the Full Story" (Grolleaud, 2002) it was
mentioned that overall maize losses in Brazil were 17.7%, comprising 4.4% for harvest, 7.8% for
storage and the remaining postharvest operations accounted for 5.5%. According to the
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Postharvest Information System maize losses in Sudan and South Africa are 18 and 12.3%
respectively.
Ahmad (2003) reported that the estimated corn losses in Iran were a minimum of 11% of the
total maize production. Iran imported around 3.2 million tons in 2010, according to the USDA
figures, and produces locally around 2.3 million tons, so local losses could then reach
approximately 260,000 tons. Inevitably approximately 292,000 tons more production has to be
imposed to grain production system which will increase the cost of production by 12.3 percent.
Therefore through better management and reduction of losses of grain maize this increase in the
cost of production could be avoided and the extra land can be freed and allocated to other
strategic crops. In a recent study in Iran (Asadi et al. 2010) it was estimated that waste at the
harvesting stage was 0.5 - 2 %, plus there were cutter plane losses (0.5 - 1 %), masher unit
losses, (0.2 – 0.4 %) separator losses, (0.04 – 0.2 %), cleaner losses and other factors. During the
postharvest stage, waste was classified into four categories including transportation (5.5 %),
winnowing (0.2 %), storing (4 %) and converting wastes (5 %) respectively.
2.2.3 Paddy Rice
Major Rice producers in the MENA region are Egypt, Iran, Iraq and to a lesser extent
Mauritania. Figure 2.6 presents a diagram representing the main areas of losses during handling
of rice throughout the traditional and mechanized value chains.
Fig. 2.6 Rice losses across the supply chain (Hodges et al. 2010).
Several studies in Egypt documented the losses that occur in the rice supply chain. Abdelbary et
al (1981) declared that the average losses during harvesting, transportation and threshing on a
national basis were 25.3%. Estimated losses of paddy rice are 5% in Iran (Ahmad,2003). Even
this low figure translates to absolute losses of 130,000 tons; 138,000 tons more production is
required to compensate for these losses. This compensation will cost approximately 60 million
US dollars to plant the extra area.
In developing countries transportation of paddy rice from field to the processing areas is
performed mainly by humans and animals. These traditional methods of transport are related to
the harvesting and field drying activities, and very often result in high grain losses. Another
study (FAO,1982) concluded that camel shattering losses was about 4.4% for a distance of 2km.
However, threshing using tractors accounted for 3.5% losses in addition to the presence of mud
balls and a higher percentage of breakage of the milled rice according to Ramos (1982). A report
by El-Hissewy (1999) concluded that the harvest and post harvest losses in rice ranged from 8.16
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to 28.5% and differs according to the methods used. Most of these losses were due to the use of
traditional mills.
A recent assessment of rice postharvest losses showed that manual harvesting and tractor
threshing results in 2.5 percent losses compared to 1.4 percent with combine harvest. In addition
to that, the longer the storage period the higher the breakage percentage, they found that at three
months storage breakage was 2.9 percent and rose to 5.4 percent with 12 months storage.
Moisture content of the rice grain was another important factor in increasing the breakage. A
14% moisture breakage was 5.3% compared to 9.3% at 20% moisture. Therefore pre-harvest
conditions during rice harvest are a major factor for reducing losses in rice production. A well
aerated store improved the breakage percent by 1.2 points according to the same study.
It was shown in Proceedings of the 20th Session of the International Rice Commission (2002)
that grain losses range from 5.6 to 60% if harvesting is done one week to 4 weeks beyond the
maturity date. In general the correct time to harvest is one week before the maturity date.
Threshing is another contributor in rice losses mainly due to:
Some grains remain in the panicles and a repeat threshing is required
Grains are scattered when the bundles are lifted just before threshing
Grain can stick in the mud floor
Birds and domestic fowls feed on the grain
Rice grains must be kept at a moisture level between 12 to 14% for best results during milling
and storage. However, paddy rice is often harvested with moisture content of 24 to 26%
(typically if irrigation is not managed properly or it rains at the time of harvest), and therefore it
has a high respiration rate and is susceptible to attacks by microorganisms, insects and other
pests. The heat released during the respiration process is retained in the grain resulting in losses
in terms of both quantity and quality. Therefore harvested grain with high moisture content must
be dried within 24 hours to 14% for safe storage and milling. Losses due to poor drying
practices range between 1 to 5% and good drying is crucial for minimizing postharvest losses
during storage.
The cheapest source of drying is sun-drying; however heated-air dryers speed up the drying
process, reduce handling losses, maintain grain quality and provide better control during drying.
Main causes of losses during the drying process:
Grains shattering from stalks or spilling out from bags during transport.
Birds and domestic fowl.
Spillage outside the drying area.
Over-drying, especially during sun drying.
Delayed drying or no grain aeration, resulting in stack burning.
The main causes for losses during storage are:
Attack by insects, rodents and birds as a result of inadequate protection.
Spoilage due to high moisture content and improper drying.
Losses in farm storage have been estimated to be about 6.2%
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Unfortunately small scale farmers often lack the resources to store large amounts of grain and do
not have a large storage structure, they are therefore obliged to sell their rice to traders or buyers
immediately after harvest because of their need for cash. These factors create a lack of
incentives to dry the rice properly.
An FAO report on the International Year of Rice (2004) summarized an efficient approach to
reducing rice losses in that most of the rice losses were a result of inadequate storage and drying
operations. Efficient storage is critical for rice as 4 to 6 percent of the total rice crop is lost
during storage and that FAO recommended the use of small metal silos as means for reducing
small and medium scale rice losses. The rice postharvest systems should focus on both
preventing food losses and improving the efficiency of technology that are used to add value to
rice and its products.
2.2.4. Pulses
Faba beans (dry broad beans), chickpeas and lentils are among the most important food crops in
Egypt, Sudan and Yemen. The legumes are a major part of the daily diet and an important
source of protein. Faba beans are the most important pulse representing 80% of the pulses
produced in Egypt (Hassanein et al, 2000).
Production of these pulses does not meet the demand and hence the MENA region imports over
one million metric tons of pulses every year (FAOSTAT, May 2005). These include crops such
as broad beans, lentils, chickpeas, dry beans and dry peas (BenBelhassen, 2005). Major
importing countries are Egypt (36%), Algeria (16%), United Arab Emirates (8%) and Saudi
Arabia (7%). Pulses represent a major portion of the diet of many countries in the region as they
are a cheap source of protein and energy compared to meats. The MENA region produces
around 3.7 million tons of pulses comprising of chickpeas (29%), lentils (23%), dry broad beans
(20%), dry beans (15%) and other pulses (13%).
Despite legume seeds being classified as "durable", during storage they may be attacked by a
number of biological agents that can lead to a total loss of the stored crop. These agents include
fungi, rodents and insects (Dobie 1982). As with grains, pulses stored with excessive moisture
content and/or in humid storage conditions are vulnerable to fungal attacks that can rapidly result
in the complete destruction of the crop, and to prevent that the crop must be dried to below 14%
moisture content. In addition to that care must be taken to prevent subsequent wetting of the
product to prevent the rehydration of the seed.
Very limited data are available on the losses of pulses in the region. Rats and mice can cause
considerable losses during storage, in addition to the fact that seeds could be contaminated by
droppings and considerable spilling may take place through holes chewed into bags. Insect
infestations, mainly due to beetles of the family Burchidae, cause considerable damage due to
the tunneling activity of the larvae in the seed. Estimated losses of cowpea according to Brooker
(1967) are between 3.4 to 5.4 percent.
Hashem (1999) concluded from a study done in Egypt that dry weight losses in faba bean caused
by the burchid beetle after 3 months of storage ranged from 11% to over 38%, depending on the
variety. Exposing the seeds to a modified atmosphere of 85% CO2 for 3 days protected the seeds
from infestation and maintained good quality seeds for one year.
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2.3. Major Causes of Losses in Cereals and Pulses
2.3.1. Incomplete Drying
Most grains at harvest contain high percentage of moisture, at that level of moisture respiration is
high and hence deterioration is rapid. High moisture promotes the rapid development of insects
and molds that spoil the grains and pulses. Proper drying is therefore crucial to prevent the
deterioration during storage and minimize losses.
The purpose of drying in any grain or pulse is to reduce the moisture content to a safe level for
storage, it is very important to dry the grains or pulses quickly and as soon as possible after
harvesting, ideally within 12 hours to 13% or less for the safe storage from 8 to 12 months.
Grains and pulses stored at higher than 14% moisture will experience growth of molds and rapid
loss of viability.
Drying grains and pulses involves exposing the seeds to ambient air with low relative humidity
in order to evaporate the moisture from the grain or pulse. This process is crucial to the success
of the drying operation and reducing losses from this operation will depend mainly on how
efficiently this process is carried out. A common practice in some countries of the region is to
spread the grains and pulses in the open air for drying for number of days until the product is
dried to acceptable levels. This process lacks any control over the time required, the relative
humidity of the ambient air, the sanitary status of the drying grounds and hence more
contamination and higher losses due to molds, insects and rodents are to be expected. Should the
air not be dry enough the grains or pulses will never reach the desired moisture level or it will
take a longer time than the recommended maximum of 12 hours. This will give an opportunity
for mold to attack and higher levels of mycotoxins will be expected in the dried product.
According to the Agriculture Engineering unit of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
(2009)when exposing rice to ambient relative humidity (77%) and 32ºC air temperature paddy
rice will attain 13.9% moisture content which is safe for storage. If at the same temperature, the
relative humidity rises to 85% or higher, grain exposed to the ambient air over time will reach an
equilibrium moisture content of approximately 15.5% making the grain prone to quality
deterioration.
The same IRRI unit (2009) concluded also that grain moisture content of paddy stored in jute
bags will automatically increase in the rainy season to unsafe levels regardless of how well the
grain was dried before storage. Therefore, for long term storage of grain or seed in tropical
climates it is crucial to prevent re-wetting of grain by humid air by using moisture proof
containers.
Improper drying of the grains and pulses often leads to low quality after storage. Some of the
problems associated with the improper drying include:
(a) Buildup of heat in the grain, as wet grains or seeds will respire at a higher rate generating heat which will provide a good media for the molds and insects to grow thus deteriorating
quality.
(b) Mold development in the grain that will result in releasing toxins into the grain rendering the grain unfit for human or feed consumption. This constitutes a major barrier to the
sale of locally produced stored grains to the feed industry in Egypt where the feed mills
are now more strict regarding the levels of aflatoxins in the grain. (Personal
communication)
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(c) Insect infestation is higher with high moisture grain than with lower moisture, despite the fact that insect infestation will always be present even at lower moisture levels. A
combination of proper drying and storage will keep insect infestation to acceptable levels.
2.3.2. Inadequate Storage Facilities
The majority of farmers in the MENA region store grain under traditional conditions. In Egypt,
for example the storage capacity for the proper storage of wheat, corn, rice and legumes is very
inadequate. It is expected as per the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR)
announcement that the amount of received wheat in 2011 is expected to reach 4 million tons, that
is in addition to around 4 million tons of imported grain, totaling 8 million tons of wheat grain
channeled to produce the subsidized bread. Yet the total storage capacity in Egypt is only 2.1
million tons and these modern facilities are normally dedicated to the imported grain and not the
locally produced wheat. Therefore the locally produced wheat is being stored in jute bags and in
some instances in woven polyethylene bags in open storage areas throughout the country. It
would be expected that under these conditions of storage the infestation with fungi, insects and
rodents would be high. The proper grain storage facilities are not enough in numbers to handle
the quantity produced nor they are hygienically or physically compatible to store all the grain.
Under current Egyptian production levels, the country will need to build proper grain storage
capacity to accommodate four million tons of the locally produced wheat that are consumed at
the rate of 350,000 tons per month, in addition to a one million ton storage capacity for imported
wheat; therefore total capacity inside the country should be around five million tons of wheat to
store the 8 million tons needed for the subsidized bread. A three year plan to expand the storage
capacity is under way and 25% of the plan is already in place.
The same is true for maize as there are no drying facilities in which the maize could be dried fast
enough to reach 14% moisture and guarantee good and hygienic storage that is fit for animal
consumption and food consumption if mixed with wheat to make bread. Currently there are no
maize storage centers that have dryers or silos to store the locally produced grain. Available
silos are only used for the imported corn with low moisture content; while the local product is
sold as fast as possible to avoid deterioration during storage.
Lack of proper storage facilities for grain and pulses contributes to losses that currently cannot
be quantified due to a lack of data from MENA countries. More research on postharvest losses
of grain and pulses must be performed in the region in order to be well informed regarding the
magnitude of the losses.
As noted before complete drying of grain and pulses to reach 14% moisture or below is key to
saving the crop. It was always noted that countries like Egypt have enough sunshine to warrant
any investment in drying facilities but since the market does not put any trading specifications,
putting up a drying facility was not a priority. It is well known that the faster the grain is dried
the better the storability and the lower the losses. The growth of the poultry sector in Egypt is
putting pressure on the local suppliers to conform to certain grain standards that will be very hard
to meet unless the grains are properly dried, handled and stored. Having grain laying in the sun
for a long period of time give the fungi an opportunity to attack and aflatoxin contamination
becomes a serious issue in the poultry industry. Grain processors and feed millers realize this
matter and would prefer importing grain from abroad than using the locally grown grain to avoid
the aflatoxin risk. Apart from a few private sector individuals who realize the importance of this
process in selling or using the grain drying facilities for grain, drying facilities are very
inadequate in Egypt.
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In general the damage caused by insects is much higher than those caused by other agents like
rodents and micro-organisms. Twiddy (1994) reported that fungi are the major microorganisms
causing spoilage in stored grains and seeds, resulting in significant losses to farmers, traders and
food and feed manufacturers, and the major storage fungi are Aspergillus, Fusarium and
Penicillium spp.
2.3.3. Processing
According to a study by the World Food Program and TNT (personal communication, 2010),
Egypt has about 158 wheat flour mills processing over 13 million tons and about 17,000 bakeries
processing "Baladi" bread from approximately 9 million tons.
Processing of rice in the MENA region is mainly done in Egypt and, Egypt has over 600
registered rice millers that process over 2 million tons of paddy rice. When approached to
discuss the subject of rice losses during the milling operation, most millers attribute the losses to
quality of rice, moisture percent and the type of milling machine used. Some machines yield low
quality rice with lots of breakage and other modern mills can achieve high quality rice with
minimal losses. Mills vary in size and capabilities according to the amount of investment made.
Losses due to milling could be lower if new machines and well trained personnel are available.
The main causes of losses during milling operations can be attributed to poor technical
performance of the milling machines or low capabilities of the operator that results in yield
conversion losses. For example some rice milling machines are notorious for breaking the grain
in the milling process and yielding only 53% milled rice compared to the desired 67%. It is
sometime difficult to distinguish losses during the milling operation that are caused by the drying
process and those due to the milling process itself, it would be important to differentiate to avoid
double recording of the losses.
Regarding the processing of corn in Egypt there are only two processing companies that perform
wet milling to extract glucose, starch and corn syrup. They mainly use imported yellow corn
which has better conversion characteristics than the locally produced white corn, according to an
industry expert. The rest of the corn is used by feed mills either directly or mixed as
concentrated feed. Egypt imports close to 5 million tons of corn annually. A few companies
import de-germed corn grits for snack purposes and it is estimated that 10,000 tons are used for
that purpose (personal communication). Losses during corn processing used to be due to the
unavailability of proper storing capacities at the ports of arrival, where the corn would be
dumped on the ground in the open air until the processor picked it up, and losses due to the
weather, birds, insects and rodents were high. However in the past years many modern grain
storage facilities were established at the ports and the corn is currently being handled properly
and losses are estimated to be between 1 to 1.5% according to the leading corn
importer/processer.
Information on losses occurring inside the factories is limited. The following are data collected
through the Egyptian Chamber of Food Industries (CFI) regarding a count of the companies
working with cereal grains in Egypt. A total of 216 companies process wheat, 362 companies
process corn mainly as feed, snacks, oil starch and sugars and 86 companies are processing and
milling rice. All companies process in excess of 30 million tons from wheat, rice and corn.
According to industry interview losses from imported grains are less than those from the locally
produced crop due to better product handling at source and at port of destination, however no
figures are available to document this statement.
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2.4. Recommend Actions for Loss Reduction
1. Harvesting at the proper grain moisture; low moisture ( 8 to 13%, depending on the commodity) reduces significant loss of product due to deterioration in the quality of the product.
2. Drying facilities are considered particularly important in light of climate change that has sometimes caused wet spells just before harvest resulting in inadequately dried grain leading to
mycotoxin formation and poor quality.
3. Encouraging the development of an on-farm, low-cost drying process that is able to bring down the moisture content of grains to 13% as fast as possible to reduce losses.
4. Encouraging the establishment of grain collection centers where farmers can outsource the drying operation to a third party service provider, be it a farmer's cooperative or a totally private
enterprise.
5. Governments should have installed in their silo storage facilities dryers capable of drying large quantities of grain at the municipality, governorate or region level.
6. With adequate investment and training, food losses could be drastically reduced. Good practices include proper drying and storage to avoid rotting and contamination of the grains with
mycotoxins for example. Heated-air dryers are means of achieving less grain losses both
quantitatively and qualitatively and reducing the risks inherent in the sun-drying process where
the product is subject to the weather conditions that are not stable. Low cost hermetic storage
systems can protect grains, beans and pulses from moisture, insects and oxygen during storage,
greatly reducing postharvest losses while extending the storage period.
7. Encouraging the collaboration between the private and public sector to jointly reduce food waste and share responsibility (Hodges et al 2010).
8. Providing true estimates of the national grain waste and information on where to target resources to reduce the losses (Hodges et al 2010)
9. Developing a realistic cost-benefit analysis for postharvest interventions, in order to guide policy making and the efficient use of resources (Hodges et al 2010).
10. Educating farmers on the causes of postharvest losses and the economical benefits of addressing those issues leading to the losses.
These recommendations are very challenging to achieve in developing countries, and any
improvement in storage will only be attractive to farmers, traders or governments if the
perceived benefits substantially outweigh the costs. Technical superiority is generally
insufficient and farmers and traders are likely to tolerate quite higher storage losses before
undertaking complex or expensive changes to their storage systems. Given the current and
future pressure on availing more food to a growing population in our regions, governments must
educate, train and avail financial and technical incentives to all the parties involved in the supply
chain to invest in methods of better handling of grains to save on losses that could be crucial for
evading hunger.
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3. Estimates and causes of losses during postharvest handling, processing,
storage, and distribution of locally produced and imported horticultural food
crops (fruits and vegetables)
3.1 Introduction
Available data and accumulated experience of many authorities and authors indicate that one-
third of food produced for human consumption is lost and wasted globally which amounts to 1.3
billion tons per year. Other sources report that worldwide food losses that up to 50% of food
grown and produced for human consumption is lost and wasted along the value chain “from farm
to fork”. More of the losses occur between production and retail sites in developing countries
while in the developed countries more of the losses occur at the retail, food services, and
consumer sites (Gustavsson et al, 2011). Losses of foods reflect also loss of water, land and
energy used to produce them, along with wasted calories as a significant contribution to global
greenhouse gas emissions.
Given the limited availability of natural resources, it is more effective to reduce food losses than
to increase food production in order to feed the growing world population. Consumer behavior,
food storage, distribution infrastructure, packaging, and transport practices are factors to be
considered when planning for food losses reduction. It is also worth mentioning that a sixth of
the world's population is undernourished and therefore losing food at this high rate should be
unacceptable.
Fresh fruit and vegetables plus roots and tubers should receive greater attention since these crops
experience the highest wastage rates of any food. From a review of the available data and
consultation with local and international experts regarding the postharvest losses of fresh fruit
and vegetables in MENA countries, it can be concluded that a common array of problems lead to
such losses, and these are shared by most of the countries in most cases.
There are no exact figures to report of how much is lost each year in the MENA region due to the
fact that the causes and magnitude of losses differ according to the commodity, production
region, year, weather and other circumstances. Our approach in this report is to present the
available data and follow the flow of the commodities from the production phase, harvesting, and
postharvest handling system until it is consumed by humans. Indication of the problems at each
stage which are contributing to the losses will be discussed across the MENA region.
Constructing a database and map for the magnitude of losses in perishable commodities from
production to consumption in developing countries is the first step toward reducing the severe
losses in fresh produce. It is extremely necessary to identify the key factors leading to losses
across all production steps as well as at harvesting and during postharvest handling in order to
conduct zonal management for each challenge according to crop type, environmental factors, and
socioeconomics conditions.
3.2. Magnitude of losses in fresh fruit and vegetables: Although postharvest losses range from 20 to 50% in perishable commodities, only 5 percent of
the total funds for international horticultural development projects was allocated to postharvest
projects (FAO, 1981; Kader, 2003 & 2005; Kitinoja et al., 2011; and National Academy of
Sciences, 1978). In Egypt it was estimated that the average postharvest losses in fresh fruit was
20 percent while it was 30 percent of fresh vegetables (Blond, 1984). In Oman losses in fresh
produce were reported to be 3 to 19 percent (Opara, 2003), and in Jordan losses in tomato,
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eggplant, pepper, and squash are 18, 19.4, 23, and 21.9 percent, respectively (El-Assi, 2002 &
2004).
Table 3.1. Examples of reported postharvest losses of fresh fruit and vegetables in selected
MENA countries
A study funded by IFAD and conducted by ICARDA on pomegranate and winter onion in Upper
Egypt (Tolba et.al., 2009) indicated that percentages of unmarketable fruits in pomegranate for
early, mid and late season harvests averaged 23%, and the accumulated percentage of
unmarketable bulbs in onion was 18.8% calculated at three levels (at harvest, after 15 day field
curing, and a windrow storage period of 30 days). The results of this study reconfirmed the
findings of the ADS study in the 1980s (Blond, 1984). Official estimates of losses in some
commodities in Iran are six-fold the world‟s mean (table 3.1), and the non-official estimates of
losses ranges from 35 to 70 percent from the 44 million ton of produced commodities, which if
saved can be used to feed approximately 20 million humans (Jowkar et al., 2005). In Saudi
Arabia, the postharvest losses during marketing of tomato, cucumber, figs, grapes and some date
varieties were 17%, 21.3%, 19.8%, 15.9 % to 22.8%, and 15% respectively (Al-Kahtani and
Kaleefah, 2011).
Prigojin et al., (2005) reported that fruit quality and postharvest losses in tomato and table grapes
produced in several Middle Eastern countries differed across the postharvest handling chain in
each country depending on the available commercial postharvest technology as well as on the
experience and education level of producers.
3.3. Pre-harvest factors affecting losses in fresh commodities
A broad spectrum of pre-harvest and postharvest factors such as cultural practices, climatic
conditions, plant material and other on-farm factors, harvesting systems, and postharvest
handling procedures each play a role in determining crop yield and nutritional and flavor
qualities, as well as the postharvest-shelf life of fresh produce (de Jager and de Putter, 1999;
Ferguson et al., 1999; Lee and Kader, 2000; Sams, 1999; Sió et al., 1999; Tomala, 1999).
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In most MENA countries, the agricultural sector is the major user of water with a share of up to
85% of the total demand of water. The per capita share of water in 2006 was 850 m3/capita/year
which is expected to drop to 600 m3/capita/year in 2025-- a figure that according to international
standards is below the water poverty limit for a country. It is estimated that by the year 2017
Egypt needs to reclaim more desert lands of approximately 3.5 million acres using the same
available water resources in order to reduce the gap between food production and consumption
and to be able to meet the socio–economic and environmental needs of the country (El-Beltagy
and Abu-Hadid, 2007). This goal can be partially achieved when using the on-farm modern
principles of controlled irrigation management, improving the water use efficiency in
horticulture, and obtaining high quantity and quality production per unit of water applied and
unit of water consumed (El-Ansary and Okamoto, 2007a&b; El-Ansary et al., 2005). An
environmental and health concern is rising up in developing countries such as Egypt due to the
use of untreated wastewater to produce fruit and vegetables which contain high levels of heavy
metals above the maximum allowed daily intake by humans (Mahdy et al., 2009).
Optimizing organic and/or mineral fertilization programs under local environmental and cultural
conditions is crucial to increase productivity and quality of fresh produce (Abul-Soud et al.,
2010a&b). Research conducted in Egypt on sweet potatoes indicated clear effects and
interactions of pre-harvest fertilization program, harvest time (early and late), and curing were
observed on total sugar content, dry matter, weight loss, crude fibers and decay incidence during
storage. Balanced fertilization programs as well as good curing after harvest increased the
marketable sweet potatoes (Feleafel et.al., 2004a, 2004b, 2005).
Sometimes tomatoes are left un-harvested in the field during summer due to low market price
and high harvest and transportation cost. We have evaluated the sun drying of newly introduced
processing tomato varieties in Egypt as a useful tool to reduce losses in tomatoes and can provide
recommendations regarding the profitable varieties (Hussein, unpublished data, 2009-2010).
3.4. Harvesting and postharvest factors affecting losses in fresh commodities
In most MENA countries you can observe that there are examples of modern and well managed
postharvest handling facilities and technologies (with very good sanitation, temperature
management, quality sorting, quality and safety awareness and assurance, and adhering to quality
requirements and market regulations) but it is always the case for export markets (El-Saedy et
al., 2011). On the contrary, you can observe very poor examples of handling which lead to many
possible causes of losses and lack of produce safety (fig 3.1 and 3.2). As indicated in table 3.2, it
is clear that quantitative and qualitative losses occur in horticultural corps between harvest and
consumption. In order to reduce such losses we must understand the causes and apply the proper
postharvest technologies to maintain their quality and safety after harvest (Hussein, 2005).
Qualitative losses such as loss of edibility, nutritional quality, caloric value and consumer
acceptability of the products are much more difficult to assess than quantitative losses. Standards
of quality, consumer acceptability of the products and purchasing power (affordability) vary
greatly among countries and cultures. Elimination of defects from a given commodity before
marketing is much less rigorous in developing countries than in developed countries. It may be a
good approach to introduce some applied standards of the horticulture crops to each country with
the emphasis on food safety first i.e., to classify any commodity into safe and unsafe categories
and eliminate of the unsafe food from marketing and use only the safe food for consumption.
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Figure 3.1 Over-loading of transport vehicles is a common cause of postharvest damage in Egypt
(photo credits Awad Hussein)
Figure 3.2. Wholesale market in Tunis, Tunisia (photo credit Soad Kader)
Table 3.2. Causes of losses in fresh produce occurring from production until consumption in
developing countries
Operation Causes of losses
Relative
contribution to
total losses (%)
Pre-harvest
1- Unsuitable site and variety selection 2- Poor crop management (irrigation, fertilization, Pest management, etc.)
Unknown
Harvesting
1- Immature or over-mature harvesting 2- Direct exposure of commodity to sunlight 3- Inadequate field containers 4- Mechanical damage due to improper picking and packing 5- Delays before delivery to packinghouse or transporting to market or to processor plant
4 – 12 %
Preparation for market
(in the field or at the
packaging house)
1- Failure to pre-sort defected and decayed commodities and inadequate cleaning
2- Inappropriate handling, and inadequate ventilation and cooling
3- Lake of precooling prior to shipment 4- Lake of sanitation
5 - 15
Transport
1- Rough handling leading to increased mechanical damage 2- Improper management of temperature, relative humidity, and ventilation during transit
3- Mixing non-compatible commodities in the transit vehicle (different types of containers, commodities with
2 - 8
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different temperature requirements and ethylene
production rates)
4- Delays during transport
Handling at destination
1- Rough handling during loading and unloading 2- Exposure to undesirable environmental conditions 3- Delays in getting the commodity to the consumer 4- Improper ripening and storage practices 5- Over packing in unsuitable containers 6- Contamination due to lack of sanitation
3 - 10
Handling at home 1- Delay before consumption 2- Improper storage
1 - 5
Total Most causes of losses are additive 15 – 50
Adapted from Kader (1979)
Cosmetic quality factors as shape, color, size etc. should be given less value as quality standards
in developing countries. Cosmetic defects may be allowed to get in the marketing channels from
developed counties to developing countries packed in reasonable good packaging but less fancy
(economical consumer package). It may be suggested to direct cosmetic rejects to find its way to
food industries whenever possible to be processed either at the origin or in the receiving
countries.
Lack of knowledge regarding the optimum safe temperature for cold storage of fruit and
vegetables grown under local micro-climatic conditions can lead to appearance of several
profound postharvest physiological disorders such as chilling injury during cold storage,
shipping or marketing (Hussein et al., 2002).
3.5. Biological and environmental factors affecting fresh produce
Losses in fresh fruit and vegetables could be due to biological and environmental factors. The
biological factors (internal) causes of deterioration of fresh produce are known (respiration,
ethylene production, water loss, and growth) which are affected by environmental factors
(external) under which the produce is handled. Temperature outside the optimum range during
postharvest handling can cause rapid deterioration due to the following disorders freezing,
chilling injury, and high temperature injury (sunburn and sun scald). Relative humidity can
influence water loss, decay development, incidence of some physiological disorders and
uniformity of fruit ripening, condensation of moisture (sweating). Fruit require 85 to 95% RH,
most vegetables 90 to 98%, dry onion and pumpkin 70 to 75%, carrot and radish 95-100%. RH
can be modified by providing air movement and ventilation, adding moisture (water mist, spray,
or steam), humidification, dehumidification, maintaining temperature within about 1°C of air
temperature, provide moisture barriers (storage walls and transit vehicles), use of polyethylene
liners in containers, wetting the floor, adding crushed ice (for commodities not inj