Eyewitness

ROBOT

Robug IIIeight-legged robot

Clockworktoy robot

Lego Mindstormshumanoid robot

Koala ready-made robot

PeopleBotready-made

robot

Hobo bomb-disposal robot

Evolution ER2home-help robot

Written by

ROGER BRIDGMAN

Toy robot

Eyewitness

ROBOT

Labels text

LONDON, NEW YORK,MELBOURNE, MUNICH, AND DELHI

Amigobots

Wakamaru

Swarm robots

Flakey

Robotic hand

Asimo

Lego Artbot

Senior editor Fran JonesSenior art editor Joanne ConnorManaging editor Linda Esposito

Managing art editor Jane ThomasProduction controller

Rochelle TalarySpecial photography Steve Teague

Picture researchers Julia Harris-Voss, Jo WaltonPicture librarians Sarah Mills, Karl Stange

DTP designer Siu Yin HoJacket designers Simon Oon, Bob Warner

ConsultantProfessor Huosheng Hu

Department of Computer Science, University of Essex

With special thanks to the Department of Cybernetics at ReadingUniversity for allowing us to photograph the following robots:

4tl, 4tr, 6bl, 6–7bc, 14–15bc, 16clt, 16clb, 17tl, 17c, 17br, 17cr, 21bc, 29tl, 29br, 32–33bc, 33cl, 34bl, 56–57c, 59tr, 70tc

This Eyewitness ® Guide has been conceived by Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard

First published in Great Britain in 2004 by Dorling Kindersley Limited,

80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL

Copyright © 2004 Dorling Kindersley Limited, LondonPenguin Group

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN X XXXX XXXXX

Colour reproduction by Colourscan, SingaporePrinted in China by Toppan Printing Co., (Shenzhen) Ltd.

See our complete catalogue at

Contents

6What is a robot?

8Fictional robots

10Robot ancestors

12The beginnings of real robotics

14Robots on the move

16Robot senses

18Artificial intelligence

20Robots in industry

22Remote control

24Ready-made robots

26Robots in the classroom

28Playing with robots

30Battle of the bots

32Sporting robots

34Robots in the lab

36Robots in medicine

38Helping around the home

40Going where it’s hard to go

42Flying and driving

44Underwater robots

46Robots in space

48Robots and art

50Musical robots

52Animatronics

54Machines with feelings

56Teams and swarms

58Cyborgs

60Humanoids

62Into the future

64Did you know?

66Timeline

68Find out more

70Glossary

72Index

Banryu

66

What is a robot?

MECHANICAL MOVIE STARSThis mechanical woman was one of the firstrobots in film. She was created in the 1926 silentfilm Metropolis by German director Fritz Lang.Film can make almost anything seem real, andfiction and fantasy have helped inspire thedevelopment of robots in the real world.

Main chassis

Main circuit board

Power supply unit

Screws for thefront wheel

Front wheel

Infraredemitters

FINISHED PERFORMERWhen assembled, the basicunits form a simple butagile robot (left). It canmove around by itself andavoid obstacles withouthuman help. It was built to show off the art ofrobotics at Thinktank, theBirmingham Museum ofScience and Discovery, UK.

Infraredreceivers

BASIC BITSThe simplest mobile robots are madeup of several basic units that providethem with movement, senses, andintelligence. This robot moves onelectrically driven wheels and usesinfrared light for sensing. Itsintelligence comes from a tiny on-board computer housed on the main circuit board.

A TRUE ROBOT IS any machine that can move about and do different tasks without human help. It does not have to look like a human being. In fact, a machine that actuallylooks and behaves just like a real person is still a distant

dream. Remote-controlled machines are not true robots because they need people to guide

them. Automatic machines are not truerobots because they can do only onespecific job. Computers are not true robots because they cannot move. But these machines are still an importantpart of robotics. They all help to developthe basic abilities of true robots:movement, senses, and intelligence.

ENTER THE ROBOTThe word robot was coined by Czechplaywright Karel Capek in his play Rossum’s Universal Robots, about human-like

machines. Robot comes from the Czechword robota, which means hard work orforced labour. Capek wrote the play in1920, but robot did not enter the English

language until 1923, when the play was first staged in London.

Robot characterfrom Rossum’s

Universal Robots

7

FACTORY WORKERSMost of the world’s million or so robots are not true robots, but fixedarms that help to make things in factories. The arms that weld carbodies led the way for industrial robotics. Cars made this way arecheaper and more reliable than those made by humans, becauseindustrial robots can work more accurately and for longer.

SHEAR SKILLLike most robots used inindustry, the Universityof Western Australia’ssheep-shearing robot isdesigned to be flexible.It can safely shear thewool off a live sheep. It needs power to work fast, as well assensitivity to avoidhurting the sheep.

7

Back wheel

Back wheel

Infrared receivers

Motor chassis

Cable to link circuitboard with power

supply

Battery pack

Nuts and bolts

Powerful, flexiblelegs enabled P2 towalk, push a cart,and climb stairs.

HUMANOID ROBOTSP2, launched in 1996,

was the first autonomous(independent) humanoid

robot. Many people thinkthat all robots should look

like humans, but robotsare usually just the best

shape for the job they arebuilt to do. Robots of the

future, however, willneed to work alongside

people in houses andoffices, so a humanoid

body may be best.

With a body packed full of computers, motordrives, and batteries P2 stood over 1.8 m (6 ft)tall and weighed in at a hefty 210 kg (460 lb).

8

Fictional robotsIN THE WORLD OF robotics, there is a close relationship between imagination and technology. Many people get their first ideas about robots from books, films, and television.Authors and film-makers have long been fascinated by the idea of machines that behave like people, and have wovenfantasy worlds around them. Improbable as they are,these works of fiction have inspired scientists andengineers to try to imitate them. Their attempts have so far fallen short of the android marvels of science fiction. However, robots are gettingmore human, and may inspire even moreadventurous fictional creations.

C-3PO as he appeared inThe Empire Strikes Back,

Episode V of the Star Wars saga, 1980

ClockworkRobby theRobot toy,made in

Japan

8

BOX ON LEGSIn the 1956 film Forbidden Planet, Captain Adamslands on a distant planet and is greeted by Robby the Robot. “Do you speak English?” Robby asks. “If not, I speak 187 other languages and theirvarious dialects.” Robby the Robot’s box-on-legslook became the model for many early toy robots.

THE FUTUREMENGrag, the metal robot, is one of the crew in a series of book-length magazines calledCaptain Future, Wizard of Science. The serieswas created in 1940 by US author EdmondHamilton, and it ran until 1951. CaptainFuture’s crew, the Futuremen, also includesOtho, the synthetic humanoid robot, andSimon Wright, the living brain.

His golden outer shellwas added by Anakin’smother Shmi. Before that he had to put up with being naked,with all his parts and wires showing.

KEEPING THE PEACE C-3PO, the world’s best known humanoid robot,first appeared in the 1977 film Star Wars. In thefilm, he was built from scrap by a nine-year-oldboy called Anakin Skywalker on the planetTatooine. C-3PO was designed as a “protocoldroid” to keep the peace between politiciansfrom different planets. He understands theculture and language of many colonies.

The shell helped to protecthis inner workings from

sand storms on the planet Tatooine.

9

Johnny FiveAlive, a robot

on the run

ULTIMATE COPRobocop first appeared in 1987, in the futuristic film of the same name. Robocop is created when the brain of police officer Alex Murphy (killed by a gang) iscombined with robot parts to produce the ultimate “cop”.Robocop works with terrifying effectiveness 24 hours aday and can record everything that happens, providingunshakeable evidence to convict criminals.

ROBOT RULESUS writer Isaac Asimov

published a collection ofshort stories called I, Robotin 1950. Among the stories

is one called Liar! It sets out three laws of robotics. The laws are intended to

ensure that robots protecttheir owners, other humans,

and also themselves – as far as possible.

STAR STRUCKRobot Number 5, or Johnny Five

Alive, is the star of the 1986film Short Circuit. The comical

robots for the film were created bySyd Mead. Johnny Five Alive is a military

robot who gets struck by lightning,develops human-like self-awareness, and

escapes to avoid reprogramming.

ON A MISSIONThe British television seriesDoctor Who (1963–1989) featured a race of mutantcreatures called Daleks. Eachwas encased within a gliding,robotic “tank”. With theirmetallic cries of “Exterminate,exterminate!” their missionwas to conquer the galaxy and dominate all life, but theirplans were always foiled bythe Doctor. Doctor Who alsofeatured a robotic dog called K-9 and ruthless androidscalled Cybermen, but it wasthe Daleks who made thegreatest impression.

9

10

MECHANICAL creatures, wind-up toys,and dolls that move have all played a part in the development of robotics. The earliest models were not true robotsbecause they had no intelligence and could not be instructed to do differenttasks. These machines are called automata,from the same Greek word that gives usautomatic. From the 16th century onwards,

automata were made followingmechanical principles originallyused by clockmakers to produceactions such as the striking of bells.These techniques were adapted,particularly in Japan and France, toproduce moving figures that wouldastonish anyone who saw them.

Robot ancestors

10

FAKE FLAUTISTOne of the 18th century’s most famous automata wasa flautist, or flute-player, created by French engineerJacques de Vaucanson. Built in 1783, the automaton’swooden fingers and artificial lungs were moved by aclever mechanism to play 12 different tunes on a realflute. It worked so well that some people thoughtthere must be a real player concealed inside.

The handle is turned tooperate the pipe and bellows

mechanism of the organ.

Openings at the top ofthe organ pipes allow

sound to escape.

EARLY BIRDThe first known automatonwas an artificial pigeon builtin about 400 BC by ancientGreek scientist Archytas ofTarentum. The pigeon waslimited to “flying” around on an arm driven by steamor air. Archytas probablybuilt his pigeon as a way offinding out more about themathematics of machines.

TIPPOO’S TIGERThis mechanical wooden tigerdoubles as an elaborate case for a toy organ. It was built in about1795 for the Indian ruler TippooSultan, whose nickname was The Tiger of Mysore. When thehandle on the tiger’s shoulder is turned, the model comes to life. The tiger growls as it savages a British soldier,and the soldier feebly waveshis arm and cries out. Thesounds are produced by the organ inside the tiger.

Air pumped into the bellows is

expelled as a shriekand a roar.

11

TEA MACHINEBetween 1615 and 1865, puppets called Karakuriwere developed in Japan. They included dollsthat served tea. The host would place a cup on a tray held by the doll. This triggered the doll to move forwards. It would stop when a guestpicked up the cup. When the cup was put back

on the tray, the doll would turn around and trundle back to its starting place.

11

The Turk, with its possible secret revealed

When the largecat turns the

handle, the smallcat kicks its legs.

MODERN DESCENDANTSThe Barecats is a modern

wooden automaton designedby Paul Spooner. Turning a

handle on its base makes thecats move. Spooner loves toget lifelike movement from

simple mechanisms. As in its16th-century ancestors, gear

wheels transmit power, whilecranks and cams (shapedrotors) create movement.

When the smallcat kicks, the

large cat turns and watches.

An operatorhidden inside may have playedThe Turk’s moves.

The tiger is almostlife-size, and measures71 cm (28 in) tall and 178 cm (70 in) long.

The doll is drivenby clockwork with aspring made frompart of a whale.

Keys for playingtunes on theorgan are behinda flap in thetiger’s side.

CHESS CHEATThis 18th-century illustration showsa fake chess-playing machine knownas The Turk. German inventor

Wolfgang von Kempelen built thechess-playing automaton in

1769. It could play chesswith a human and win! It seems certain, however,

that the movements ofthe chess pieces were

controlled by ahuman player.

1213

RODENT RACEMaze-running mice are still used as learning tools

in schools, and competitions form part of some universityelectronics courses. Today’s mice have on-board computers andthe maze is usually just painted lines that the robots track usingoptical sensors. The mouse that navigates the maze fastest wins.

The beginnings of real roboticsTHE RAPID DEVELOPMENT of electrical technology andelectronics in the 20th century meant engineers couldbegin to build more sophisticated machines. Thesemachines were hampered by their limited ability to handle information. They were not truerobots, but gave a hint of things to come.As electronics continued to develop at an amazing pace, the simple circuits of pioneer devices evolved intoelaborate computer-controlledsystems. These would eventuallylead to robots with enoughintelligence to find their wayaround in the real world.

ELMER AND ELSIEGrey Walter developed a robottortoise with two amplifiers, a

light sensor, a bump sensor, and two motors. It showed

unexpectedly complexbehaviour. It seemed toexplore its environment as most real animals do.Walter built the tortoise

a mate and called thepair Elmer and Elsie.

The idea of gettingcomplex behaviour

from simple electronicsis still being explored.

A headlightattracts other

tortoises.

The motorizeddriving wheel

allows the tortoiseto change direction.

A sensor detectswhen the case is

rocked by bumpinginto something.

WORLD FIRSTW. Grey Walter was born in 1910 inKansas City, USA, and educated in England. He was an expert in the usually separate fields of biology and electronics. In 1948, while working at the Burden Neurological Institute, Bristol, UK, Walter developed the first truly autonomous robot animal – a tortoise.

Elektro

Operators programming Eniac

Modern maze-running robot

Sparko

BIG BRAINThe earliest programmableelectronic computer wasEniac. It was built by USscientists Presper Eckertand John Mauchly in 1946.Computers now providethe brain power for mostrobots, but Eniac was notquite ready to fit inside arobot. It was a monstermachine that barely fittedinside a room!

Photosensitive cellsreact to light given off

by other tortoises.

ONE MAN AND HIS DOGElektro, a 3D version of the imaginary robot of earlyfiction, came to life in 1939. This early humanoid was a star exhibit at the New York World’s Fair in the USA.Elektro appeared with his electric dog Sparko, and his jobwas to give Mom, Pop, and the kids a vision of the future.

W. Grey Walter’srobotic tortoise

MOUSE MANIn 1952, US engineer Claude Shannon built a robot mouse that could find its way around a metal maze using magneticsignals. The mouse was guided by datastored in circuits under the maze, andcould quickly learn to navigate a new maze. It was one of the earliestexperiments in artificial intelligence.

FREE WHEELINGShakey was among the first robots

to move freely without help. It wasdeveloped at the Stanford Research

Institute in the USA between 1966and 1972, and was the ancestor of

today’s Pioneer robots (pp. 24–25).Shakey was connected by radio to

a computer. It worked – but thename tells you how well!

14

TRUE ROBOTS ARE able to move around toperform their designated tasks. Their motionneeds to be more flexible and complex thanother moving machines, such as cars, so theyoften require something more sophisticatedthan wheels. Arms and legs are one answer,but moving these effectively demands a roboticequivalent of muscles. Scientists and engineershave adapted existing power devices to createrobot muscles. They have also invented newtypes of muscles. Some make innovative use ofair pressure, while others are based on exoticmetal alloys that shrink when heated.

Each leg is controlled

by a separatemicroprocessor.

Robug III’s top walking speedis 10 cm (4 in) per second.

ALL WIRED UPMuscle wire creates the movement for some miniature robots, like this

solar-powered butterfly. Musclewire is a mixture of nickel andtitanium, called Nitinol. When

heated by an electric current, thewire gets shorter and pulls withenough force to flap the robotic

butterfly’s lightweight wings.

14

Robots on the move

When the foot is placed on a

surface, a pumpin the leg draws

air from underthe foot to create

a vacuum.

It always hasthree legs onthe ground.Elma moves three

legs at a time.

Beam (Biology ElectronicsAesthetics Mechanics)

robotic butterfly

Humanbone andmusclestructure

IMITATING INSECTSHexapod, or six-legged, robots like Elma can mimicthe way insects move. Each leg, powered by its own

computer-controlled electric motor, has to move inthe right sequence, while adapting its action to the

terrain. When Elma is switched on, it stands, limbers up, then sets off with jerky determination.

CREEPY CRAWLERSOne way of making robots move is for them to imitatespiders or insects. These creatures have the advantage

that, even if some of their legs are off the ground,they still have enough legs on the ground to keep

their balance. Some roboticists are workingon systems like this, despite the challengeinvolved in controlling so many legs.

LOTS OF LEGSMany robots need to travel over roughground. The Robug team at PortsmouthUniversity in the UK came up with the design for Robug III by studying the movements of crabsand spiders. This giant pneumatic, or air-powered,eight-legged robot can cope with anything. It canwalk up walls and across ceilings, and can drag loads twice its own weight.

14

Red-kneedtarantula

PRIME MOVERHuman muscles are naturalmotors that get their energyfrom glucose, a kind of sugar.Even the most advancedrobot is a long way off beingable to move like a human.

1515

THREE WHEELERCybot, designed for Real Robots magazine,

uses wheels to get around. The wheelslimit it to travelling over smooth surfaces,but offer the advantage of simplercontrol. This frees up the robot’s tinybrain for more important tasks like

working out where to go next,making it more independent.

It repeats the samesequence over and

over again.

It leans forwards tohelp itself balance.

It can clamber overuneven ground.

These tubes link to an air compressor, whichprovides the power behindRobug III’s movements.

Most of Robug III’s body is madeof light, strong carbon fibre.

Each leg has fourjoints, which canoperate separatelyor as a group.

Cybot is equippedwith an array of sensors.

The hand can make24 different powered

movements.

A whole group of muscles isneeded to move the fingers, as

in the human body.

The air muscles in the forearmconnect to tubes in the upper arm.

15

Shadowrobotic arm

The front wheelcan swivel,which helpswith steering.

PULLING POWERAir muscles were invented in the

1950s for artificial limbs (p. 36), and rediscovered by UK robot company

Shadow. Each air muscle is simply a balloon inside a cylindrical net

cover. When inflated, the balloonstretches the cover sideways,

making it shorter and creating a pulling action. Air muscles arerelatively cheap and lightweight

compared to other pneumaticsystems used to move robots.

16

Robot senses

Close-upmodel of

human skin

POWER GRIPWhen people grip an object likea hammer, they curl their fourfingers and thumb around it.They can exert great force, butcannot position or move theobject precisely. Robot handscan mimic this power grip well.

MECHANICAL MIMICGripping strongly does not demand arefined sense of touch, which makes it easy forrobots to copy. This robotic hand, designed for medicalresearch at Reading University, UK, is able to mirror theposition of the fingers and thumb used in the humanpower grip. It is driven by several small electric motors.

EXPERT GRIPThe ability to grip delicately with the thumband index finger has made humans experttool-users. The full complexity of the humanhand, with its elaborate system of sensors,nerves, and muscles, is only just beginningto be imitated in the robot world.

GENTLY DOES ITGripping an object delicately ishard for a robot. The electronics thatcontrol the hand need feedback fromsensors in the fingers. This is so that the motorscan stop pushing as soon as they make contact with what they are gripping. Without this, the handwould either grip too weakly or crush the object.

SENSITIVE ALL OVERRobots cannot compete with the all-over sensitivity of animals, whose skin containsa dense network of sensitivenerve endings. These act astouch and bump sensors, andalso detect heat or cold. Insome animals, such as cats,long whiskers with nerveendings at their bases act asproximity, or nearness, sensors.

16

Rubbery pads on the fingertipshelp prevent the

pen slipping.

The hand wouldbe attached to an

artificial arm.

The robotic handcannot curl upas tightly as ahuman hand.

The circuitboard controlsthe motors.

The fingers arejointed in thesame places ashuman fingers.

TO SURVIVE IN THE real world, robots need to be able to see, hear,feel, and tell where they are. Giving a robot the power to understandobjects in the world around it is one of the most complex challengesof modern robotics. Machines already exist that can respond to touch,avoid bumping into things, react to sounds and smells, and even usesenses, like sonar, that humans do not have. A robot that can senseas fully and reliably as a human, however, is still a long way off.

17

LIGHT WORKThis image shows two

circular circuit boards and a fully assembled LED system

designed for an interactivegroup robot. With the LEDsin a ring and positioned on

top of the robot, it is well-equipped for infrared

communication.

CLOSE ENCOUNTERSInteractive robots that travel in groups need arange of senses. One of the most basic of these,touch, can be provided by a bumper. When the robotruns into something, the bumper makes an electricalcontact that sends a signal to the robot’s computer.The robot then backs off a little, changes direction,and carries on. Infrared signals allow robots in a group to communicate. Light-emitting diodes(LEDs) are used to release waves of infrared lightthat tell robots how near they are to each other.

FAR OR NEARThis police officer is usinga radar gun to detect how

quickly cars are movingtowards him. Some robotsuse similar technology tosense their distance from

walls and other objects.They emit sound wavesthat bounce off objects,

indicating their distanceand speed of approach.

ARTIFICIAL EYESReal guide dogs use their sight to help their blind owner to get around. The GuideCane detectedobjects using pulses ofsound too high to hear.It was invented byJohann Borenstein at the University of Michigan in theUSA. When it sensedsomething in its path,it steered its ownersafely around the obstruction.

SENSE OF HISTORYThe first robot equippedwith anything like humansenses was Wabot-1, built at Waseda University, Japan,in 1973. It had artificial ears,eyes, and a sense of touch in its robot hands. Wabot-1could walk and also, using a speech synthesizer, hold a conversation in Japanese. Its makers claimed that it had the mental ability of an 18-month-old child.

17

Three swarm robotsdesigned for the ScienceMuseum, London, UK

Pulses of infrared light emitted bythe LEDs can be detected by theother robots in the group.

The rubberybumper containsbump sensors.

This LED systemis fully assembled

and ready to beput to use.

The LEDs form acircle so their light

can be detectedfrom all around.

18

Artificial intelligencePEOPLE AND ANIMALS are intelligent. They can work things outfrom incomplete information. A machine that could do this wouldhave artificial intelligence. Scientists have had some success withAI. For example, computers can now help doctors tell what iswrong with patients. Experts still do not agree, however, onwhether a truly intelligentmachine can be built, orhow to build one. Complexcomputer programs have sofar failed to provide robotswith truly effective brains.It is now hoped that lots ofsmall, simple programs canwork together to create areally intelligent robot.

BRAIN POWERThe human brain has 100 billion nerve cells. These combine informationfrom the outside world with storedmemories to produce actions that help its owner survive. Other animalbrains do this too, but only humans canmaster tasks as complex as speech andwriting. Today’s robot brains operate at the level of very simple animals.

“It’s possible that our brains are too complicated to be understood

by something as simple as our brains.”AARON SLOMAN

Professor of Artificial Intelligence, Birmingham University, UK

18

CHESS CHAMPOn 11 May 1997, a chess-playing computer called Deep Blue forced worldchess champion Garry Kasparov to resignfrom a game. It was the first time that areigning world champion had lost to acomputer under tournament conditions.Although Deep Blue had managed tooutwit a human in an intellectual contest,it would not be able to answer the simple question “Do you like chess?”

COOL CALCULATORDesigners are now trying to makeordinary home appliances a little

brainier. Computers and sensors insideeveryday gadgets allow them to makesmart decisions. This fridge, as well as

bringing the Internet right into thekitchen, can also help its busy user bycoming up with ideas for meals based

on the food currently stored in it.

Deep Blue displaysits response on

a screen.

Kasparovthinks out his

next move.

INTELLIGENT FANTASYThis scene from Steven Spielberg’s 2001 film AI

shows David, a robot child, at an anti-robot rallycalled a Flesh Fair. David is programmed to form

an unbreakable bond of love with a human mother.When abandoned, he begins a quest to become a

real boy. Intelligent behaviour like this is a longway from the capabilities of real robots.

BABY BOTRobot orangutan Lucy,created by Steve Grand,represents an animal that isless intelligent than an adulthuman. Grand’s aim is forLucy to learn in the way a human baby does. Forexample, Lucy will find outhow to speak, use its arms,and interact with people.

CLEVER COGCog is an attempt at a highlyintelligent robot. The project

was developed at theMassachusetts Institute ofTechnology in the USA aspart of AI research. Cogcan pinpoint the source of a noise, make eyecontact with humans,and track a moving

object. Cog’s intelligencecomes from many small

computer programsworking together, rather

than a single large program.

THAT’S LIFEArtificial life researcher Mark Tilden designed this robot insect.He believes robots can evolve like natural organisms. This kindof AI coaxes complex behaviour from simple components. The idea is used in computer programs that simulate nature to produce virtual creatures that learn, breed, and die.

Cog uses its handsto interact withreal objects.

Multiple video cameras give Cog stereoscopic, orthree-dimensional, vision.

20

Robots in industryTHE WORD ROBOT was originally used to describe factory workers, and that isjust what the majority of real-life robotsare. Unlike human workers, they havelimitless energy, little intelligence, and no feelings. This makes them ideal fortiring, repetitive, or dangerous jobs. Theearliest industrial robots simply helpedordinary machines by bringing themmaterials, or stacking the finishedproduct. Many are still used in thisway, but many more have becomeproduction machines in their ownright, assembling cars or electronics,and even doing delicate jobs withplants or food. Although robots cannot yet replace all human workers,they have made the world’sfactories much more productive.

20

Industrialwelding

robot

RURAL ROBOTSThis imaginary scene

shows steam-driven robotscultivating farmland. In the

19th century, as industryattracted workers off the land

and into factories, inventorsbegan to dream of mechanizing

farm work. Although today’sfarms are highly mechanized,they use special-purpose

machines operated byhuman beings, not robots.

Cables supplypneumatic powerand electricity.

WELL WELDEDA robot-built car is a safer car, because

robots never miss out any of the thousandsof welds it takes to assemble a car body.Today’s cars are built on assembly lines,

where rows of robots wield heavy weldingguns in a shower of sparks. Because therobots cannot see, both the cars and the

welding guns have to be positioned withgreat accuracy to ensure that all the

welds come in the right place.

21

FACTORY FIRSTThe first industrial robot, Unimate, started

work at General Motors in 1961. Unimate wasoriginally designed to help make television

picture tubes, but was used to stack hot metalparts. It followed step-by-step commandsstored on a magnetic drum, and could lift

nearly 2 tonnes. The robot was created by USengineers Joe Engelberger and George Devol.

HANDMADE SUSHIMaking sushi is a skilled job because customers like

their sushi to look like a work of art. Strips of fish arecombined with cooked rice, seasoned, and formed

into rolls or balls. Hygiene is also important becausethe fish is served raw. This is where robots can

make the greatest contribution.

SEEDS OF THE FUTUREThis robot in a US agriculturallab is gently teasing out babypotato plants so that they can beput into individual pots. Theywill then produce seed potatoes,which will, in turn, producecrops of potatoes. Using robotsin this way allows plantbreeders to cultivate newvarieties more quickly.

21

Humans canspread germs

on hands, hair,and clothing.

Unimate can beprogrammed to positionparts with great accuracy.

Electrodes at the tip of the welding arm apply anelectric current that fuses

together pieces of metal.

1980sUnimate

model

UNTOUCHED BY HAND Sushi is now a popular dish outsideits original home in Japan, androbots are helping to meet demand.This sushi robot is in the USA. It canbe reprogrammed to make manydifferent varieties.

Robots welding carson an assembly line

2222

Remote controlMANY OF TODAY’S robots are unable to make their own decisions.They would be helpless without a human sending them a constantstream of instructions by wire or radio. Strictly speaking, they arenot robots at all, just machines that obey orders. Remote control is a way of getting round the problem of providing a machine with theknowledge and skill it needs to deal with the real world. It allowsrobots with little intelligence to do valuable jobs in science, industry, police work, medicine, and even archaeology.

COMMAND AND CONTROLHobo is controlled through this tough, portable console,which transmits signals to the receiver mounted on the back of the robot. Using the pictures from Hobo’scameras, a bomb-disposal expert can move the robot, its arm, and its tools until the threat is neutralized.

Hobo’s low centreof gravity enablesit to balance atsteep angles.

The drive camera isfixed in one position.

Claw used tograb objects

Probe used tobreak

windows

Disrupterused todisarmbombs

ONWARDS AND UPWARDSHobo can go almost anywhere a human soldier could. Specially designedwheels and axles mean that kerbs, steps, and bomb debris are no obstacle.It can turn in a small space and lift weights of 75 kg (165 lb). Hobo’sadvanced electronics stand up to rough handling, while its batteries areautomatically managed to ensure they do not go flat at a critical moment.

From a safe distanceThe Hobo remotely operated vehicle was developed in the 1980s to disarm terrorist bombs. It needed to be strong, reliable, and versatile to do its job. Thesequalities have since made it useful to the police, army,customs services, and private companies. Hobo gives

its operator essentialfeedback through its

built-in video cameras.It also comes with a

range of attachmentsfor various tasks.

The arm camera takesclose-up images.

Hobo’s shotgunattachment can beused to gain access tobuildings by shootingthrough doors.

DOMESTIC DUMMYOmnibot 2000, launched in 1980 by the Tomy toy company,was an early domestic robot. It hadlittle intelligence, so its owner hadto use remote control to make themost of its limited capabilities.These included flashing its eyes,wheeling about, and opening and closing one gripper hand.

The disrupter firesblasts of water into thebomb to disarm it.

23

NET EFFECTCoWorker is the first off-the-shelfrobot designed to be controlled via the Internet. Equipped with acamera and phone, it will trundlearound factories and offices oncommand, allowing an expert toassess a situation or take part in ameeting without travelling to the site.

REALLY REMOTERobots can be controlled

from almost any distance.Sojourner, part of the NASA

Pathfinder mission, was the firstrobot to be controlled from Earthafter landing on Mars. Becauseradio waves take seven minutesto get to Mars and back again,Sojourner’s controller could giveonly general instructions. For

the detail, the robot was on itsown and worked independently.

CRATER NAVIGATORDante 2 looked like a huge

robotic spider. It had sensors in its legs that allowed them tooperate automatically, but was

also remote-controlled. In thesummer of 1994, amid smoke

and ash, it descended the craterof the Mount Spurr volcano inAntarctica on an experimental

mission. Unfortunately, its legsbuckled when it hit a rock, and

the badly damaged robot had to be rescued by helicopter.

23

A speakerphone andvideo camera arelocated in the head.

The rear videocamera can be

used to aim the shotgun.

Souryu is equippedwith a camera andmicrophone to helpit locate survivors.

Hobo’s remote controlunit receives messagesfrom its operator.

Each wheel is drivenby a separate motor.

FLEXIBLE FINDGetting a camera into a pile of rubble to search forearthquake victims is a job for Souryu, which means Blue Dragon. It is a remote-controlled, snake-like robotdevised at the Tokyo Institute of Technology in Japan.

The sections of its body can swivel independentlyto almost any angle, while its caterpillar tracks can get a grip on even the rockiest surface.

24

Ready-made robotsWHAT IF YOU HAVE an idea that demands a robot, but do not have the time or ability to design and makeexactly what you need? An off-the-shelf model may bethe answer. Today, ready-made robots come in varioussizes, with accessories to adapt them for many purposes.They can be used for research, as exhibition guides, and

in industry, where they carry products anddocuments around factories. Most of thesemachines are descendants of the first trulymobile robot, Shakey, completed as long ago as1972, but are much smaller, lighter, and cheaper.

24

READY-MADE FAMILYFlakey was one of a line ofmobile robots starting withShakey and ending withtoday’s ready-mades. It wasdeveloped by Kurt Konolige atthe Stanford Research Institutein the USA. A heavyweight at 140 kg (300 lb), Flakey had twoindependently driven wheels,12 sonar rangefinders, avideo camera, and severalon-board computers.

CHEAP CHAMPPioneer I is a descendant of Flakey, via Erratic, a lower-cost research robot. Kurt Konolige developed Pioneer 1 as a commercial version of Erratic. The result

was a robot that cost ten times less, and universities could at last afford toteach robotics. Pioneer 1, fitted with football-playing accessories, won theRoboCup Soccer Championship in 1998. It was succeeded by Pioneer 2.

TEAM PLAYERDesigned for home-help and education, as well as

professional research, Amigobot is based on Pioneer.Teachers like this robot’s sturdy reliability and its

versatile programming options. It is also designed to work in teams (pp. 56–57) with other Amigobots

and can be adapted to play football.

Powerbot at work in a

printer factory

FACTORY FRIENDRobot heavyweight

Powerbot is anindustrial successor

to the Pioneer robots. It can travel at 10 kph (6 mph),

carry 100 kg (220 lb), and is waterresistant. Powerbot can find its way

around using its own intelligence,but it allows manual override.

Uses include delivery, collection,inspection, and surveillance.

2525

The aerial receivesmessages from theradio control unit.

Accessories can be mounted on

Amigobot’s back.

Amigobot isequipped withsonar sensors.

A colour cameratakes snapshots of

what the robot sees.

SMALL BUT CAPABLEThe Swiss-made Khepera, popular

with experimenters and hobbyists, isperhaps the best known ready-made

robot. It measures only 55 mm (2 in) indiameter and weighs just 70 g (2 oz).

Using the same software as other robotsdescended from Shakey, it is often a

player in robot football matches.

BIG BROTHERAt 30 cm (1 ft) across, withsix rugged wheels, Koala isKhepera’s big brother andis capable of proper work. For example, it can cleanfloors with a vacuumcleaner when a special armis attached. It is similar toKhepera, so any new ideasfor it can be tried out on the smaller robot first.

ONE OF THE PEOPLEPeoplebot is anotheroffspring of the Pioneerrobots. It is specificallydesigned to interface withpeople. It has a waist-highmodule, which contains amicrophone and speakers forvoice interaction. Peoplebotcan act as a tour guide,receptionist, messenger, or security guard. The cameras, which look like

eyes on stalks, can tilt to geta panoramic view of the

robot’s surroundings.

26

Robots in the classroomWHEN YOU USE A computer at school, it is usually just a box on a table. However, some school computershave now sprouted wheels or legs and can roamaround. They have become robots. Robots designed for classroom use are a fun way of learning basic maths. They can also be used to introduce students tocomputer programming and help them discover howmachines are controlled. Some classroom robots areused by young children, who enjoy this playful,interactive approach to learning. At a much higherlevel, in colleges and universities, a classroom robot is essential for teaching the art and science of robotics to potential robot engineers of the future.

MATHS TEACHERSouth African mathematician Seymour Papert started interest ineducational robots in the late 1960s.He had the idea of teaching childrenmaths by letting them play with acomputer-controlled turtle that movedon a sheet of paper to draw shapesand patterns. He invented a simplebut powerful programming languagecalled Logo for the turtle.

ROAM AROUNDRoamer is a round robot with

concealed, motorized wheels. It canbe programmed simply by pressingbuttons on its cover, so it is popular

in primary schools. Children can useRoamer to improve basic skills such

as counting and telling left fromright. The robot trundles around the

classroom as instructed or moves apen across paper to draw patterns. It

can also play tunes. Teachers oftenencourage children to dress up their

class robot as a pet or a monster.

26

HI-TECH TEACHERIn the 1980s, a robot called Nutro,operated remotely by a humanteacher, toured the USA to teachchildren about the importance of a healthy diet. Real robots are notyet clever enough to do all thework of teachers themselves, but a remote-controlled one canmake a lesson more memorable.

Children program Roamer to follow a path

TURTLE POWERTurtle robots are now commonly used tointroduce children to computer programming.This remote-controlled turtle, made by ValiantTechnology, converts infrared signals from acomputer into moves, turns, and pen action.

Roamer robotdecorated with eyes

27

CLASS KITRug Warrior is a small, intelligent mobile robot that can

move around by itself. It comes as a kit that users have toassemble, and can easily be programmed from a PC, so

is ideal for learning robotics. Rug Warrior is based on a robot developed for teaching robotics to university

students. It is now one of the best-selling robot kits.

SUMMER SCHOOLIn the USA, the Carnegie Mellon UniversityMobile Robot Programming Lab runssummer courses for students interested inrobotics. The students build and programmobile robots, which they are allowed totake home and keep when the course is over.

27

MISSING LINKRobix construction kits are used to build robots that can walk, throw balls,and even make cups of tea. The kits arepopular in the USA for teaching roboticsand engineering at all levels, from highschool to university. The kits consist of metal links, which are joined withcomputer-controlled motors.

The links are the bonesof the robot and the

motors are its muscles.

Freddy’s brain is a tinycomputer programmedusing a PC.

The plastic disc protects theelectronics in caseof a collision.

Rug Warrior prototype madeto clean floors

MIND GAMESFreddy is a humanoid robot createdusing a kit called Lego Mindstorms.The kit allows children to design,build, program, and use their ownrobots. It was developed by SeymourPapert and Danish toy company Lego.

IT’S A WIND UPThe first toy robots wereoften made from cheapprinted metal, powered byclockwork, and wound upwith a key. Toy-makers hadbeen producing movingfigures using this methodsince the 19th century,but toys shaped likerobots only becamepopular in the 1930s.

A green light flasheswhen the robot isswitched on.

WALKIE TALKIE This 1950s toy robot was highlysophisticated for its time. It movedalong, guided by a remote-controltether. It also showed the shape ofthings to come by being able to talk.But it was still a long way from beingable to respond to human speech.

The legs aredriven by anelectric motor.

Playing with robotsTHE IDEA OF A toy that appears to have a mind of itsown would appeal to most children. Although earlymodels were no more than plastic shapes withflashing lights, the latest toys can see, hear, andrespond to commands from their owner, as well as exhibiting a range of emotions. Some even fall asleep at bedtime. Whatever the level of their abilities, designing robot toys is more than child’s play for roboticists. It hasprovided them with a challenge to

create better robots thatcan then be adapted formore serious purposes.

BATTERY BOTBy the 1960s, when cheap plastics, efficient electric motors,

and good batteries had been developed, more sophisticated toy robots began to appear. The use of plastics allowed more

elaborate body shapes, while battery power made it possible to add extras like flashing lights and beeping sounds.

Early plastic,battery-powered

toy robot

29

PERFECT PETSSony’s robotic dog, Aibo, is programmed with basic instincts to sleep, explore, exercise, and play. It can also express joy,sadness, anger, surprise, and fear using a combination of lights, sounds, and gestures. Aibo first went onsale in 1999. Since then, Sony has developed the toy to make it less expensive and morereliable. The latest models have anamazing range of abilities. They caneven respond to the sound oftheir name and recognizetheir owner’s face.

29

The speaker is locatedbehind the switch onFurby’s tummy.

FURRY FRIENDFurby is a furry robotic creature with movingears, eyes, and mouth. It can talk, sing, dance,and respond to its owner. It demands constantattention, but automatically sleeps when nightfalls. Furby was launched by toy designerDave Hampton and Tiger Electronics in 1998 and was hugely popular.

A selection of the many Furby varieties

The dog can obeybasic commands.

Aibo playing with its ball

Two Aibo dogsinteracting

Furby without its fur coat

“Toys like Aibo ... will come to populate ourworld more and more.”

RODNEY BROOKS Robot – the Future of Flesh and Machines

1999 ERS-110 Aibo model

Its behaviour mimicsthat of a real dog.

Aibo communicatesby flashing coloured

lights on its head.

30

Battle of the botsTHE MACHINES ENTER the arena. Engines roar and metal flies. The battlebots are in action and the crowd goes wild. The challengeis to design and build a remote-controlled machine (not a truerobot) that can travel quickly and reliably over a wide area and canoutdo the others in strength and agility. It can be dangerous if youdon’t know what you are doing, but is great fun both to compete in and to watch. Many serious robotengineers regard combat roboticsas a way of improving their skills.It is a rewarding and fun way of developing the components that are also part of moreeveryday, practical robots.

WARRIORS GREAT AND SMALLCombat robot contestants are dividedinto classes according to their weight to ensure fair fights. This competitor isworking on a robot for a lightweightclass. The classes range from monstersweighing 177 kg (390 lb) to sozbots, or sixteen-ounce robots, which weighless than 0.5 kg (1 lb). There are alsorestrictions on the size of the robots and the weapons they carry. Explosives are not allowed!

IN IT FROM THE STARTOne of the first robot combat events was BotBash,which started in the USA as two robots fighting in a chalk circle – much simpler than this recentBotBash arena. Today, events are organized bygroups all over the world. Most follow rules laid down by the US Robot Fighting League.

Matilda’s tuskweapons are powered

by hydraulics.

The armoured shell is made fromlight but toughfibreglass matting.

Repairs may beneeded in between

competition rounds.

FIGHTING FOR FUN Battling as entertainment has beenpopular since Roman times, whengladiators fought in arenas. Their

fighting techniques are now copiedby robots. Like gladiators, robotwarriors need both strength and

skill. The robots may have power-driven weapons and titanium

armour, but humans still providethe skill – by remote control.

31

Building a battle robotThe challenge of finding solutions to technical problems is asinteresting to many combat robot builders as the actual battles.British robot team Shredder is typical. It uses careful design and

precision engineering to turn basic ideasinto successful robotic fighting machines.

Any failure is immediate and obvious –electrics may fail, motors may burn out,or armour may not withstand attack,

so the learning curve is steep. Butlessons learned the hard way can

be put to use in other projects.

31

TV SPECTACULARSRobot Wars is a television show in which robots built by competitors, likeDreadnaut, do battle with each other and with the show’s resident robots,including dinosaur-like Matilda. Other fearsome resident robots are Shunt,which carries an axe that can cut opponents in half, and Dead Metal, whichhas pneumatic pincers and a circular saw. Battling robots make great TV!

The body ismade of light,

strong titanium.

Two powerful liftingarms act as weapons.

Dreadnaut has a lowground clearance toprevent other robots

from flipping it over.

The wheels are solid, not air-filled, to

avoid punctures.

Shredder is controlled byan adapted model aircraftremote-control console.

Each disc hastwo cutting

teeth.

2 BUILDING THE BOTA team member bolts on the

robot’s cutting discs, which rotatein opposite directions. The teeth onthe edge of the discs are designedto cut through the tough armourof other battlebots. This is justpart of the long and painstakingbuilding process.

3 INTO BATTLEThe final challenge is to test the

robot in battle. It has no intelligence of its own, but relies on radio signalsfrom its driver. It takes a lot of skill towin a fight. The remote-control unitworks a bit like a video game console.One thumb makes the robot move,while the other operates the weapons.

1 VIRTUAL ROBOTThe Shredder team first considers the

weight of the components, what materialsto use, how much power is required, andwhere to put the large batteries that willsupply this. The team uses a computer to plan the design of their robot.

Batteries

Weapon

Wheel

32

Sporting robots

32

THERE IS much to learn – andlots of fun to be had – buildingrobots to play human sports.Robots already compete insimplified games, but matching

the speed and skill of a human is proving to be a muchtougher task. It is a worthwhile goal, though, becausebuilding a successful player will teach roboticists howto design better robots for everyday use. Today, a robotcan walk across a pitch and kick a ball into an opengoal. When it can run towards a goal defended byhumans, and still score, the robot age will be here.

SIMPLE SOCCERThe game of football has beenreduced to its bare essentials to allowfor the limited capabilities of low-cost,experimental robots. A robot team canconsist of just one player. The robot simplyhas to gain possession of the ball and get itinto the opponent’s goal. Most football-playingrobots navigate using infrared sensors. They havetiny brains, and cannot see well, so matches areoften abandoned when both teams get lost!

The raisedkicking armwill flick theball away fromthe other robot.

The robot ismoving in to tryto take the ball.

The controlpanel can be

used to selectvarious game

programs.

US footballer Mia Hammdribbling a football

LONG-TERM GOALRoboCup is a project thataims to develop a team ofrobots to beat the human

world football championsby 2050. The robots will

have to mimic the smooth,balanced movements of ahuman footballer, seen in

skills such as dribbling,and use these intelligently.More than 3,000 people in

35 countries are workingon RoboCup projects.

The robot’s bodyposition mimics

that of the humanfootballer.

Humanoid robotSDR-3X dribbling

a football

Lego football-playingrobots designed by

cybernetics students

19th-century illustration showing a steam-powered

robot baseball pitcher

33

GETTING PUSHYIn Robot Sumo two robots wrestle in a ring

154 cm (5 ft) across. Unlike battlebots, which arearmed, they rely on strength and skill alone. The

bout ends when one robot is pushed out of thering or breaks down. Sumo robots can beautonomous, with an on-board computer,

or controlled from the ringside.

WORLD CLASSMore than 60 teamscompeted in the 1998 Robot Football World Cup in Paris, France. The robotsplayed 20-minute matcheswithout human help,controlled by on-board or remote computers andsensors. Since 2002, thecompetition has includedhumanoid robots. Theycannot yet play games, butsome can dribble and passballs, and even score goals.

The ball emitsinfrared signalsso that the robotscan locate it.

The robots arepowered by batterieshoused near thecontrol panel.

Football-playing robots aboutto clash in a struggle for

possession of the ball

The ball is lightand large to make

the game easier.

The robot manoeuvres the ballusing a curved gripper bar.

Robot FootballWorld Cup, 1998

Robot Sumocompetition,Japan, 1992

The wheels aredesigned to work onsmooth, flat surfaces.

Football-playingrobots passing

the ball

34

Robots in the labSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH depends heavily onlaboratory work where the same painstaking but tedious procedure has to be repeated over and over again. This is exactly what robots aregood at. They do not get bored and their actionsnever vary, so they can do repetitive choreswithout making mistakes. Robots are ideal for

work like developingnew drugs, whichrequires a huge numberof tests to be repeatedwithout any randomvariations. They are also immune to bugs,radioactivity, andchemicals, so can do things that are toorisky for humans.

34

KEEPING IT CLEANThe manufacture of drugs,

genetically modified organisms,and gene treatments is usuallycarried out in sealed-off areascalled clean rooms. Even in a

protective suit a human couldcontaminate such a room, but

a robot arm can do much of the work without introducing

any such hazard.

AT ARM’S LENGTHThe first laboratory robots were arms like these. They were connectedmechanically to their human operator,whose movements they copied directly.They were used for the remote handlingof hazardous materials in the nuclearindustry. Newer arms are electricallypowered and connected to their operatorvia electronic control systems.

ROBOT TECHNICIANThe simplest type of laboratory robot is a fixed arm. If everything is within reach, it can measure out liquids, stack specimens,and so on. A robot like this, controlled by a computer, can pick up andplace things where needed as well as supply chemicalmeasuring devices withsamples for analysis.

The protective suit isan extra guard againstcontamination.

The operatorprograms the robotic

arm from outsidethe clean room.

The fixed armhas a smoothtipping action.

3535

TESTING, TESTINGWhen a doctor sends blood to the lab for

tests, the sample is often handled by a robot.Thousands of specimen tubes flood into clinical

laboratories every day, and a robot can keeptrack of them all. In one hour the robot may

pick up 2,000 tubes, read their labels, and putthem in the right rack for the tests they need.

All windows anddoors are sealed toprevent airborneparticles from enteringthe clean room.

The arm canmix, pour, andsort substances.

The arm is fixed,so everything itneeds must beplaced within its reach.

Cell culturesgrowing inpetri dishes

GROWING CELLSSelecT is an automatic cell-culturingmachine used in biomedical research.This involves growing cells in laboratoryglassware for developing medicines,biological compounds, and genetherapy. SelecT was designed with the help of major drug companies. It improves on the speed, accuracy, and consistency of manual methods.

36

The surgeonviews a 3Dimage of theoperation siteand controlsthe robot arms.

A patient’s meal is delivered from

Helpmate’s hatch.

ELECTRIC FINGERSPeople unfortunate enough to lose an arm once had littlechoice but to accept a rigid replacement with an ineffective,hook-like hand. With technology derived partly fromrobotics research, things are improving. Patients may now have an electric hand with battery-powered fingers that move in response to the movements of muscles in the remaining part of their arm.

HOSPITAL HELPERHelpmate is a robot designed for use in hospitals. It is a mechanicalporter that carries meals, specimens,drugs, records, and X-rays back andforth between different parts of thehospital. Helpmate can find its wayaround corridors and even use lifts.Built-in safety devices stop it fromrunning into the patients.

36

BEDSIDE MANNERNursing is hard work for 24 hours a day so robot nurseswould have much to offer,even if they lacked the humantouch. This French magazineillustration dates from 1912,but the reality of roboticnursing is still a long way off.

X-rays of the patient’s chestprovide additional guidance.

Robots in medicineTWENTY YEARS AGO it would have been unthinkableto let a robot loose in an operating theatre. But withtoday’s more powerful computers and improvedmechanical techniques, it is possible for a closelysupervised robot to wield the knife in a number ofcritical procedures. Human doctors remain in control,of course, but in another 20 years the face of medicinemay look very different. Robotics also promises torevolutionize artificial limbs. Knowledge gainedduring research into walking robots is now being

used to develop ways of helping people with spinalinjuries recover movement in their legs.

Modern artificial hand

showing internalmechanics

SMART HEART SURGERYIn 2002, US surgeon Michael

Argenziano used a robot calledDaVinci to repair heart defects that would normally require the

patient’s chest to be opened up.Using DaVinci, Argenziano made the

repairs through four holes, each just 1 cm (0.4 in) wide. The procedure was

successful for 14 out of 15 patients.They were fit to go home after three

days instead of the usual seven.

37

A close-up viewof the operationguides thesurgeon.

SPREADING SKILLSThe first long-distanceoperation, when a surgeonin one country operated on a patient in another, was performed in 2001. The patient was in Franceand the surgeons were inNew York. A live video link allowed them tomanipulate robot arms 4,800 km (3,000 miles) away.The robot even understoodspeech commands such as “up” or “down”. Thistechnology makes surgeons’skills more widely available.

PRECISION BRAINWORKNeuroMate is the first robotic system developedspecifically for a type of brain surgery in whichinstruments are positioned precisely before being used.It reduces theatre time by allowing surgeons to plan

procedures in advance. NeuroMate also shows the surgeons what is going on during the

operation, so that they can stay in control.

37

Powerful lightingis needed, as in all surgery. Live images of the

operation site areshown on the screen.

A number ofrobot armswork togetheron the patient.

The patient isanaesthetizedand must bekept very still.

38

AT LONG LAST, engineers are buildingrobots that are capable of helping withsome of the boring chores that fill ourlives. We do not yet have a robot thatcan do the ironing or put out therubbish, but domestic robots can now clean the floor or mow thelawn while we get on with moreinteresting things. Floors andlawns are fairly simple spaces.Progress in the complicated,

three-dimensional environment of an entire homehas been much slower. Tasks that seem easy to us, like climbing stairs or sorting rubbish fromprized possessions, present a real challenge torobots. It looks as if people will have to domost of their own chores for years to come.

Banryu looks like afuturistic dinosaur.

38

GUARD DRAGONBanryu, whose name means guard dragon, can walk at 15 m (49 ft) a minute and step over a 15 cm (6 in) threshold. It can smell burning, see, and hear. If Banryu detects danger it reports by mobile phone to its owner, who can control it remotely.

AHEAD OF ITS TIMEUS company Androbot

launched Topo, a toy-likeplastic robot, in 1983. Nolan

Bushnell, Topo’s designer, sawit as a helpful friend rather than aservant. The 91 cm (3 ft) robot was

controlled by a PC via a radio link.Topo is now a sought-after antique.

Helping around the home

1929 illustration from Le Petit Inventeur showingthe servant of the future

cleaning its master’s shoes

TALKATIVE TECHNOLOGYWakamaru is the first robot designedwith the care of elderly people inmind. It transmits pictures of itsowner to watching relatives using abuilt-in mobile phone and web cam.It also knows 10,000 words, so cantalk well. If its owner remains quietfor any length of time, Wakamaruasks, “Are you all right?” and, ifnecessary, calls emergency services.

Wakamaru sees the worldthrough twocameras.

3939

CLEVER CLEANERLaunched in 2001, the Electrolux Trilobitewas one of the first domestic robots to go

on sale. It is simply an intelligent version ofa traditional vacuum cleaner. The Trilobitenavigates using ultrasound, and magneticstrips across doorways stop it wandering

off. It cleans without help for an hour, then returns to its battery charger.

MAGIC MOWERRobomow is one of a number of robot lawnmowers

that have appeared over the last few years. Poweredby a rechargeable battery, it mows the lawn withouthuman help. A wire buried around the lawn’s edge

keeps the robot on the grass, while bump and liftsensors stop it from giving the cat a haircut!

WISHFUL THINKINGThis imaginary robot from 1927 is

doing the work of a valet, whose job is to look after clothes. After World War I,

wealthy people found it hard to getdomestic servants, which promoted

interest in labour-saving gadgets.

The five keyscan be usedto control the robot.

ON GUARD!Japanese guard robot Maron-1, made by Fujitsu, is 36 cm (14 in) tall andruns on wheels. It has a built-in mobilephone so that it can take instructionsfrom its owner, and sensors to detectmovement. If someone breaks in whenMaron-1 is on guard, it sounds an alarmand phones its owner, who can see what is going on through Maron’s two rotating camera eyes.

40

The body is jointed in themiddle, which allows

Robug II to move fromvertical to horizontal

surfaces, and vice versa.

Vacuum suction grippers are locatedon the underside of each foot.

MINI MIMICUS company iRobot is working on a miniaturerobot that mimics the gecko lizard. The robotshould be able to climb walls that defeat larger

machines. Its multiple legs will probably haveclaws for soft surfaces and sticky pads forharder ones, just like a real gecko. Jobs for

the robot could include surveillance and mine detection.

WINDOW WALKERWall-climbing robots have obvious uses for jobs such as cleaning large

buildings, where it is difficult to provideaccess for humans. The Ninja series of

four-legged climbers was developed atthe Tokyo Institute of Technology in

Japan from 1990 onwards. Despite theirclumsy appearance, the robots can climb

walls at 7.5 m (25 ft) per minute.

NUCLEAR EXPLORERClimbing walls to aid the inspection of nuclear powerplants is all in a day’s work for Robug II. It is one of aseries of spider-like robots developed by UK companyPortech. Robug II moves in stages, resting between stepsto seek out fresh footholds. Vacuum suckers on therobot’s feet enable it to scale almost any surface. Extrasuckers underneath the body lock it onto the surface togive a stable working position once it has climbed to theright spot. Its brain is a PC, connected by a cable.

40

Pneumaticcylinders power

the limbs.

The movement of each limb iscontrolled by amicroprocessor.

Going where it’s hard to goROBOTS ARE ideal for situations where humanoperators would be exposedto danger, could not actuallyreach the work, or would findthe job so tedious or unpleasantthat they would not do it well. In these cases, the typical robot’snon-human shape is a distinctadvantage – feet that grip wallslike a lizard, wheels that can steer through slimy pipes, or a body that can tolerate huge doses of radiation make these adventurous automataindispensable. Robots are hard at work as window-cleaners, sewer inspectors, and even fire-fighters, leaving humansfree to undertake less risky and unpleasant tasks.

Tokaygecko

41

FIRE-FIGHTERIf fire breaks out ina nuclear or chemicalplant, a Telerob MV4may be needed. The robot can be operated at a safe distance bysomeone watching a televisionscreen, and can douse flameswithout endangering life.

RESISTING RADIATIONRobin the robot was

designed for use in thenuclear industry. Robots are used in parts of this

industry because they areunaffected by levels of

radioactivity that wouldkill human workers.

Robin’s four legs can stepover obstacles, enabling itto move nuclear material

around in a workplacethat may be cluttered

with cables and pipes.

41

Robin can seal radioactivewaste in containers,

making it safer for humansto handle and dispose of.

The robot reports anypipes in need of repairand any blockages.

The camerarelays images to the personoperating the robot.

ART WORKMost visitors to Paris, France, know the glass pyramidoutside the Louvre art gallery. But few will have realized how it is kept clean. Following earlier experiments, seen here,the pyramid is now cleaned by a robot built specially for thejob by inventor Henry Seemann. The robot climbs using threelarge sucker feet and delivers pressurized cleaning solution.

DOWN THE TUBESKurt is a German sewer-inspection robot.Sewers are often inspected by remote-controlledrobots, but the control cables can get tangledon tight bends. Kurt doesn’t need a cablebecause it has enough intelligence tofollow every twist on its own. Using adigital map of the system and a setof known landmarks, it can findits way to any given point togather information on the state of the pipes.

Twin lasersguide Kurtthrough thesewer pipes.

Caterpillar tracksmake light work

of uneven ground.

4242

IMAGINE A ROBOT car that could whizz youthrough the traffic to anywhere you wanted.Unfortunately, despite years of research, basicdriving skills that most humans can learn remainbeyond the reach of robots. The race to build a

car that can drive itself is still on. High abovethe roads, however, where there are fewer

things to bump into, great progress hasbeen made. Pilotless planes of all

sizes now fly the skies to makemeasurements, take pictures,

or relay radio signals.

BIGGER AND BETTERPathfinder’s successor

Helios is larger and canfly higher. In 2001, it

broke the world altituderecord. It navigates using

GPS. Later models willbe able to fly by night

as well as day, offeringserious competitionto communications

satellites.

SERIOUS SNAPSGlobal Hawk is a US military robot plane

that can provide continuous images of abattlefield. Its development began in

1995. By 2002, it was being used in Afghanistan. It produced

more than 15,000 high-resolution

images.

GIANT MODELPilotless planes are now in regular use for surveillance. One of the most successful,Aerosonde, comes from Australia. It made itsfirst independent flight in 1997, and the followingyear crossed the Atlantic Ocean. With its 3-m (10-ft) wingspan and 24 cc engine, Aerosonde israther like a giant model aircraft. After launchingfrom a car roof rack, it navigates using the Global Positioning System (GPS).

AUTO PILOTPathfinder is a pilotlessaeroplane that is drivenby solar-powered electricmotors. It was developedby US companyAeroVironment in1971. Pathfinder-plus,a later version, hasflown to 25,000 m(82,000 ft).

A DAY’S WORKAerosonde has many uses. Here its

shadow crosses desert terrain as it collectsmeteorological, or weather-forecasting, data. It can also monitor traffic congestion or spy

on illegal activities. It flies regularly in Alaskato measure the temperature of the sea ice. In

2003, Aerosonde was deployed duringpeacekeeping operations in the Solomon

Islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

SLOW BUT GOINGOne of the more famous robot vehicles was the Stanford Cart, devised by Hans Moravec of theStanford Research Institute in the 1970s. A computerdrove the Cart through cluttered spaces. It used

3D vision to locate objects and plan a path to avoid them, which it updated as it sawnew obstacles. It worked, but only at 4 m (13 ft) an hour. Moravec is stillworking on improved systems that makeuse of lessons learned from the Cart.

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Flying and driving

“Mobile robotics may or may not be the fastest wayto arrive at general human competence in machines,

but I believe it is one of the surest roads.”HANS MORAVEC

Stanford Research Institute, USA

The streamlinedcowling houses the

electronics.

Obstacle courseset up for theStanford Cart

LEARNER DRIVERThis human learner stands a farbetter chance of passing a drivingtest than Alvinn, a robot drivercreated in 1985 at CarnegieMellon University. To train itsbrain, Alvinn made a video of aroad, which it studied carefully. It then drove along the road –badly. Alvinn was a brave, butunsuccessful, attempt at creatinga robot that could drive.

THE PRICE OF SUCCESS

In March 2004, the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) held a contest

for autonomous land vehicles. The route was from Los Angeles to Las Vegas, and the prize $1 million. The purpose of the challenge was to accelerate the

development of robot vehicles for military use.

Long, narrowwings help toreduce drag.

LAND BATTLEIt is more difficult to make a robot travel over land

than through air or water because there are moreobstacles. A successful land vehicle not only needs to

find its way to its destination, but also has to copewith bumpy surfaces, dangerous features such as

rivers, and other vehicles that might get in its way.

Large wheels helpthe Cart to copewith rough ground.

A radio antennakeeps the Cart intouch with base.

Artist’s impression of a DARPA

Challenge vehicle

A graphite tailboomsupports the tail.

The fibreglasstail stabilizes

the plane.

A pressure tube measuresthe plane’s speed.

The Cart movescautiously throughthe clutter.

A televisioncamera acts as

the Cart’s eyes.

The Stanford Cart

4444

Underwater robotsTWO-THIRDS OF OUR planet is covered by water, andmost of this watery world is unexplored. Robots arenow an essential tool for ocean explorers. Some areremote-controlled vehicles towed behind ships. Othersare miniature submarines carrying a human crew butequipped with robot arms. However, many are fullyautonomous. They can navigate to a given point andautomatically carry out a survey using video, sonar, or other devices. Even the best of today’s underwaterrobots, though, are crude compared with the seacreatures they meet. The latest research imitates the abilities of these creatures, giving the robots

improved intelligence, speed, and endurance.

BEACH BABYAriel is a robot crab that maysoon be used to clear mines fromseashore minefields. Walking justlike a crab, Ariel can scrambleover obstacles and crevices thatwould defeat a wheeled robot.Even if it gets flipped over by a wave, Aerial simply carrieson walking – upside down!

TREASURE HUNTERThe French submarine

Nautile is not a robot. It hasa three-person crew – pilot,

co-pilot, and observer – who work in a compartment only 2.1 m (7 ft) indiameter. Nautile does, however, have a robot arm and can even launch its

own little remote-controlled sub. As one of the few submarines that canoperate at a depth of 6,000 m (3 miles), it was used to recover treasuresfrom the wreck of the Titanic, which sank in the North Atlantic in 1912.

The fibreglass bodyis jointed to allow

Roboshark to swim.

Part of the ship’s equipmentis retrieved by the arm.

4445

CAMERA SHARKFilming sharks without disturbingtheir natural behaviour wasdifficult until Roboshark camealong. Originally designed for the BBC, the fibreglass fish isprogrammed to swim among realsharks, carrying a TV camera tocatch them in action. Roboshark isbased on a Pacific Grey reef shark.It is 2 m (6 ft 6 in) long and canswim at 5 kph (3 mph). The presentmodel is remote-controlled, but roboticists hope that one day it will make its own decisions.

SHIPWRECK AHOYOne of the main uses of undersea robots is to explore the seafloor. True autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) navigateindependently over long distances, returning with recordeddata. Others are controlled from ships on the surface. Here, ashipwreck is under investigation by Hyball. A cable suppliespower and control for the robot and carries pictures of thewreck to the surface. Powerful lights are needed, because it is completely dark at depths beyond about 100 m (330 ft).

Stretch fabric coversthe robotic fish.

Electric thrusters movethe robot around.

EXPERIENCED EXPLORERAutosub, an AUV developed in the UK, is an independent robotsubmarine that has completed morethan 200 scientific missions. Theseinclude checking up on herrings in the North Sea and locatingvaluable metals on the floor of a Scottish lake. Autosub has evenbeen to Antarctica, where itdived beneath the ice of the Weddell Sea.

EFFICIENT FISHHow do fish glide so smoothly

through the water? John Kumph of the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology has created arobot fish that may help to

answer the question. Itsbody, a fibreglass spring

covered with Lycra, flips and turnsin the water as easily as a real fish.

The springybody is full of complexmoving parts.

SUPER SUBMARINESEvery year, a number of US universities compete to find the fastest, mostintelligent robot sub.Operating entirely undertheir own control, therobots look for bar-codedboxes in a deep pool. Theyhave to decipher the codeon each box, measure itsdepth, and report this backto base. In 2002, CornellUniversity’s AUV, seenhere, came second. It foundone more box than thewinner, but took longer.

Cables conveysignals tocomputers.

All the equipmentis mounted on aninternal frame.

UNDERWATER ACTIONOrdinary robot arms have

problems under the sea. Positioningthem accurately is time-consuming,

and their movements stir up sediment,obscuring vision. A new type of arm,

developed at Heriot-Watt University inScotland, has flexible rubber sectionsmoved by air instead of metal parts.

The principle of this Parallel BellowsActuator (nicknamed the Elephant’s

Trunk) could also be used to propel asubmarine fitted with flexing fins.

A conventionalrobot armsupports theElephant’s Trunk.

46

The spacewalkeruses the arm tosteady himself.

SPACE IS A HOSTILE environment. There is no air and, withlittle or no atmosphere for protection, everything getsvery hot when the sun shines and very cold whenit doesn’t. Robots can handle these conditionsmuch better than astronauts can. They are alsocheaper to operate, because they require no life-support system and can be left behindafter a mission. Everything they have foundout can simply be sent back to Earth by radio. But robots that explore remote planetssuch as Mars need a lot of intelligence.Remote control is not possible becauseinstructions from Earth take severalminutes to reach them. Oncethey have landed, they are on their own.

Robots in space

PICTURE THATAercam Sprint is a free-flying robot TV

camera. The football-like camerawas first released during a 1997

Shuttle flight. As this earlymodel could easily havefailed, it only flew aroundinside the Shuttle, remotelycontrolled by pilot SteveLindsey. Future versions of the flying camera maynot need remote control.

STRONG ARMThis robot arm is an important part of theInternational Space Station. Repairing or modifyingthe outside of the station is difficult because theslightest push on a tool sends its user spinningbackwards. The arm, controlled from inside thestation, is used to carry materials to where they areneeded, as well as to steady or tether spacewalkers.

MOON WANDERERIn 1970, the Russian explorer Lunokhod became the first robot to land on the Moon. Lunokhod weighed more than 750 kg (1,650 lb) on Earth.The solar-powered vehicle, manoeuvred by a team on Earth, took 20,000 photographs and sent back data from 500 lunar soil samples.

The lander hadeight wheels.

Solar panels lined theinside of the lander’s lid.

The camera isprotected from

collisions with otherequipment by the

cushioned surface.

Joints in thearm make it flexible.

47

SPACE SPIDERNASA researchers have

created Spider-bot, a six-legged micro-robot that

may one day exploreremote planets. Unlike

wheeled rovers, a robotwith legs can cope with

rocky and furrowedterrain. The prototypefits in the palm of thehand. Future versionscould be even smaller.

IN A FLAPScientists are currently working on an entomopter, or robot insect,that they think could one day fly on Mars. Because of the thinatmosphere on Mars, a fixed-wingplane would have to travel at morethan 400 kph (250 mph) to stayairborne, making explorationdifficult. An entomopter couldmove slowly on flapping wings,studying the landscape from the air and landing to collect samples.

The long neck givesthe rover a good

vantage point. Four cameras arepositioned at the topof the rover’s neck.

Solar panels ontop of the bodyprovide power.

THE BEAGLE HAS LANDEDBeagle 2 was launched on board the European

Space Agency’s flight to Mars in June 2003.Designed at the Open University, Beagle 2’s

mission is to seek life on the red planet. Thesolar-powered robot is autonomous, but also

responds to remote control. Its flexible armcarries a range of instruments and cameras.

The entomopter comesin to land on its

refuelling platform.

SPIRIT AND OPPORTUNITY The latest Mars rovers, Spirit and

Opportunity, were launched in June and July of 2003 and scheduled to land in

January 2004. The two robots are identical,but will explore different regions. They willbe able to travel 100 m (330 ft) in a Martian

day (24 hr 40 min) – almost as far as the firstUS Mars rover, Sojourner, did in its entirelife. More robot rovers designed to study

Mars and try out new landing technologymay be launched as early as 2007.

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Robots and artPAINTING A PICTURE seems like a uniquely human activity,but it is not. Some robots can do it. They may either use atelevision camera as an eye to look at someone and drawtheir portrait, or recall images stored in a computer memoryto create a picture from their robot imaginations. Perhapsbecause of this, some human artists have given up paintingpictures and taken to building robots. Some weld togetherjunk parts to build amusing robot-like sculptures. Others

build real robots that areprogrammed to put on artisticperformances ranging from the

poetic to the downright scary.

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JUST JUNKClayton Bailey buildsfriendly, robot-like creaturesfrom junk. He uses old homeappliances, cooking pots,and car parts to create life-size models of peopleand pets. The robots do notmove, but they have blinkinglights and sometimes workas clocks or radios. Baileyexhibits his robot art at the Wonders of the Worldmuseum in California, USA,which he started in 1976.

The joints are all fixed.

The solar cell powersthe robotic sculpture.

GETTING FEEDBACKAutopoiesis, which means “selfmaking”, is a robotic sculpture.It was installed by US artistKenneth Rinaldo at the KiasmaMuseum in Helsinki, Finland,in 2000. Its 15 modules changetheir behaviour as they getfeedback via infrared sensorsfrom visitors to the exhibitionand from each other. Theyexchange information througha language of telephone tones.

JITTER BUGCreepy is a work of art thatalmost convinces you it is arobot. It was created by US artist Dug North from a solarcell, some electronics, and thevibrator from a mobile phone.Just when you least expect it,Creepy starts buzzing andjittering about on its spindly,spider-like legs.

ALARMING ART US performance artist

Christian Ristow’s showsfeature huge, destructive

robots like Manipulatrix, seenhere. Ristow’s shows are an

exploration of the aggressionhidden in machines. Hisremote-controlled monstersrampage about menacingly,destroying and setting fire

to as much as possible.

Manipulatrix is armed with a fearsome array of weapons.

ARTISTIC TEMPERAMENTThe German group Robotlab aims to increase people’s awareness of robots. The group demonstrates its portrait-paintingrobot, a standard Kuka industrial arm, inpublic places. The robot, equipped with TVcamera vision and special software, drawsportraits that are usually a good likeness. As soon as a drawing is finished, though, the robot rubs it out in a gesture of defiance.

Aaron mixespaints to theexact colourrequired.

The camera ispositioned on top of

the drawing arm.

The arm is jointedto allow a full rangeof movement.

Harold Cohenwatches Aaron

at work.

A robot’s-eyeview of the work in progress

ROBOT REALISTAaron is not a true robot, but

a computer connected to a largedrawing machine. British artist

Harold Cohen has been workingon Aaron since 1973. It makes

several original sketches, Cohenselects one, then Aaron paints the

final picture. Its paintings havebeen hung in several art galleries.

The robot isbolted to thefloor, just asit would be

in industry.

A boy sits to have his portrait drawn

by a Robotlabindustrial arm.

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Musical robotsPLAYING A MUSICAL instrument demands acombination of movement and senses that presents a real challenge to robot engineers. Music has to beplayed with feeling, not just mechanically. Despitethis, sophisticated robot pianos and other automaticinstruments were available as long ago as the early

20th century. Some of the first tests of modern robotsinvolved music, precisely because playing an instrument

requires such careful coordination. Musical robots have not yetreplaced human musicians, but they have put a few drummersout of a job. Drum machines controlled by computers nowunderpin the backing tracks of much of pop music.

WF3-RIX playing a flute

WF3-RIXplays with a humanflautist

The violinist from the Mubot trio

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CUTE FLUTEAtsuo Takanishi ofWaseda Universitybelieves that music, with its combination ofmechanical and emotionaldemands, can help us find out what it takes to build a better humanoid robot. His robotflautist WF3-RIX can play a real flute in an expressive way. But theexpression does not really comefrom the robot. It simply does as it is told by a human programmer.

The flute needs nomodification.

Mubot playsan ordinaryviolin.

The paper ispunched as the

musician plays.

Robot hasrealisticfingertips.

VIRTUAL VIRTUOSOMubot was a set of robots that could play a realrecorder, violin, and cello. Japanese engineer MakotoKajitani started work on the project in the late 1980s.His idea was not only to produce a robotic trio, but also

to improve his expertise by studying a difficult problem.Kajitani also thought that Mubot would be a useful tool

for scientists studying musical instruments.

RECORD PLAYERSRobot bands were popular in Paris,France, in the 1950s. They were not real robots, but simply moved in time to music from a gramophone record.This trio was created by French inventorDidier Jouas-Poutrel in 1958. It couldplay any tune the dancers requested – as long as the record was available.

ROLL MODELIn the 1920s, robot pianos brought “live”music into some homes. Musicians playedon a recording piano that captured theiractions as holes in a paper roll. This wasplayed back on a reproducing piano thatrepeated every detail of the performance.

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The robots haveconcealed wheels.

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ALL TOGETHER NOWIn 2002, US roboticist James McLurkin developednew ways of controlling swarms of small robots. To demonstrate these, he created the SwarmOrchestra, 35 robots that play music together.Using swarm behaviours, like forming groups andnaturally keeping in time, McLurkin found hecould get appealing music from his robot orchestra.

James McLurkin with his SwarmOrchestra

Monitor connectedto Wabot-2’scontrol computer

FAMOUS FINGERSOne of the better known

musical robots is Wabot-2. It was developed at Waseda

University from an earlierhumanoid robot. Playing akeyboard from sheet music

was an ambitious goal, but by1984 Wabot-2 was sitting atan electronic organ, reading

music with its camera eye,and playing simple tunes. It

could also accompanysingers, by listening

to their voices andkeeping in time.

Sound wavegenerated by arobot musician

Wabot-2 plays anormal keyboard.

The screen relayswhat the robot sees.

Wabot-2 playing a keyboard

52

AnimatronicsTHE CREATION OF robotic actors isknown as animatronics. It is a modernextension of the ancient craft of puppetry.Animatronics uses advanced electronicand mechanical technology to bringastonishing realism to films, television,and exhibitions. Some animatroniccharacters are controlled with rods liketraditional puppets. Others work byelaborate remote control, which convertsthe movements of a human directly intothe movements of the animatroniccharacter. Animatronic creatures inexhibitions are usually programmed to repeat a sequence of movements.

How it is doneBringing an extinct animal like this2-m (6.5-ft) tall Megalosaurusback to life is a real challengefor artists, engineers, andcomputer programmers.The creature is based on a clay model made bysculptors. Mechanicalengineers create theskeleton that will allow itto move. Painters are calledin to add colour to its skin.When all this work is done,animatronics programmers will finally bring movement to the mighty Megalosaur.

1 MOVING PARTSThe animatronic frame is the most important part

of the character. Engineers first create virtual modelson computers and build small-scale prototypes.When the design is finalized, the metal frame ismade in pieces then carefully bolted together.

52

Fibreglass is used forthe sub-skeleton

because it is light and strong.

The frame has numerousmoving joints.

The claws are fitted aspart of the sub-skeleton.

Pneumaticcylinderspower thecreature’smovements.

The mechanicsof the frame haveto be workingperfectly beforethe sub-skeletonis added.

2 SHAPE AND STRENGTHFibreglass mouldings, called

the sub-skeleton, are added togive the basic frame extra shapeand strength. The sub-skeleton is cast in a mould taken from the clay model. The pneumaticcylinders are protected by theframework of the skeleton. These cylinders will later beconnected to cables so that theycan be controlled electronically.

The sub-skeletonprovides supportfor the skin.

The metal frame andfibreglass mouldingscombine to create the

dinosaur’s skeleton.

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3 SCALES AND WRINKLESThe skin is made of silicone rubber.

It is cast from the same detailed mouldas the sub-skeleton so that the two fit together perfectly. The textured,rubbery skin is stretched over theskeleton. It has to be flexible enoughto allow for realistic movement.

ALL UNDER CONTROLSome animatronic characters are brought to life with systems like the Neal Scanlan Studio PerformanceAnimation Controller (PAC). It allows one person to controlseveral actions by converting hand and finger movementsinto electronic signals that bring the creature to life.

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Babe with Ferdinand – a duckwho thinks he’s a cockerel.

Power cables andhoses enter throughthe dinosaur’s feet.

The skin is about 1 cm (0.4 in) thick.

The teeth aremoulded fromplastic resin.

The skin is paintedby hand with lifelike colours.

4READY FOR ACTIONWhen the whole of

the skeleton has been coveredwith skin, details like the teeth

and tongue are added. Thetextured skin is then painted.Finally, the pneumatic hosesand electronic control cables

that will provide the dinosaurwith power are connected up.

PROBLEMATIC PIGLETAuthor Dick King-Smith’s book

Babe the Sheep-Pig – about a talkingpiglet that could round up sheep –presented a real challenge when it

was made into a film in 1995. It tookspecialists two years to develop an

animatronic piglet with a full range of facial expressions.

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Machines with feelingsWE OFTEN ATTRIBUTE emotions to machines, saying perhapsthat the car is behaving badly when it will not start. Can aninanimate object really have feelings? Modern roboticists aretrying to answer this question by building machines that simplyact as though they have feelings. This is a response to the factthat, as machines become more complex and powerful, theyneed richer ways of interacting with human beings. People are more likely to accept robots as part of their lives if they can communicate emotionally with them.

Kismet pullinga sad face

The eyes areopened wide.

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SIMPLE SOULJakob Fredslund andLola Cañamero from Lego-Lab in Denmarkcreated Feelix. It isprogrammed to reactwith anger, happiness,or fear when its feet are touched in different ways. Feelixis a simple robot, but it has taught people a great deal about howhumans interact withrobots that seem to show feelings.

FACE TO FACEKismet is a robot capable of face-to-face interaction. It responds to human facialexpressions and hand gestureswith signals that include gazedirection, facial expression,and vocal babbling. Kismethas mobile ears, eyebrows,eyelids, lips, and jaw. It wasdesigned by Cynthia Breazealat the Massachusetts Instituteof Technology, and has had ahuge influence on the worldof robotics. Kismet is retired at the Institute’s museum.

Kismet interacting with Cynthia BreazealComplex mechanicsare needed to produceKismet’s facialexpressions.

Kismet expressessadness by lowering itseyelids and brows anddrooping its ears.

Kismet looking surprisedKismet’s earscan move tocontribute toits expression.

The eyebrowsare raised.

Feelix smiles and raises its eyebrows

when it is happy.

The mouth isopened wide.

The mouth isclamped shut.

5555

FRIENDLY GUIDEThe robot Sage was used as a tour guide at the CarnegieMuseum of Natural History inthe USA. When its batteries gotlow, Sage behaved as if it wastired, and a lack of visitorsmade it lonely. If people got inSage’s way it became angry, butanyone in the way of a lonelySage made it happy – it waspleased to see them! If museumvisitors paid it attention, it grewcheerful and told jokes. The robotwas developed in the 1990s byUS engineer Illah Nourbakhsh.

FEELING AT HOMEThe Evolution Robotics ER2

was designed to help aroundthe home. It doesn’t have a

humanoid face, but it has beenspecifically created to interactwith people. Its vision system

is good at recognizing facesand gestures, and it comes

with basic software thatdesigners can customize to

generate different emotions.

SHY MACHINESince Kismet appeared, other researchers havedeveloped similar robots.Waseda University hasproduced WE-4 – a morerealistic, but perhaps less appealing, machine. WE-4’s face is covered withplastic sheeting that lightsup in a blush when therobot is embarrassed.Unlike Kismet, WE-4 has a sense of touch and canalso detect the smell ofammonia and cigarettes.

REALISTIC BABYMy Real Baby was developed in2000 by US toy maker Hasbroand Rodney Brooks, director ofthe US company iRobot. It hadan expressive face and voice,and also touch and motionsensors. The doll knew when it was being fed, rocked, orignored and reacted with one of 15 human-like emotions.

The lips areextremelyflexible.

Flexible skin and motors modelledon human facial muscles gave My Real Baby hundreds of different expressions.

WE-4 can blinkas quickly as

a human.

A set of mechanicallungs makes WE-4

appear to breathe.

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JOINT EFFORTSwarm-bots are under development in Belgium.

They are robot colonies that are made up fromsmaller, autonomous units called S-bots. The idea

is that 30 or so of these will communicate witheach other and join together as a Swarm-bot.

Unlike a single S-bot, the Swarm-bot will be ableto lift heavy objects and bridge chasms.

Teams and swarmsTHE CLEVEREST OF today’s robots is only about as intelligent as an ant. This lack of brains could be less of a disadvantage than it seems. Ants, despite their limited intelligence, are highlysuccessful animals. Their secret is to act not as individuals, but

as a team. Many other animals, including birds andbees, also benefit from this type of group behaviour –

forming flocks or swarms increases their chances of survival. Roboticists are beginning to work on

this idea, hoping that the group intelligence of a team of small, simple robots can replace the

individual intelligencethat has proved so

elusive for theirlarger cousins.

BULLY BOTSA robot swarm knownas the Seven Dwarfswas created in the 1990s.The small, highly mobilerobots could communicatewith each other using infraredlight. Realistic group behaviourwould often emerge from theirvery simple programs. On oneoccasion, a robot blundered intoa wall and got stuck. The otherscrowded round and pushed it back whenever it tried toescape, just like the worst ofplayground bullies! The SevenDwarfs are still used to teachrobotics at Reading University,where they were developed.

MILITARY MILLIBOTSPradeep Khosla at Carnegie Mellon Universitybelieves that a team of specialized robots canoften do better than a single, larger robot. He is working on a robotic team for militaryreconnaissance and surveillance. Each littleMillibot carries a different sensor, such as acamera or temperature probe. The Millibotscan also join together to cross gaps.

SHARED KNOWLEDGETupperbots – robots made with kitchen containers – werebuilt in the 1990s to see if a group of robots could evolvelike natural organisms. When they get together, the robotsexchange sections of their computer programs. This maycreate a new program that works better, so that its owneris more likely to survive. Research of this kind is ongoing.

ACTING TOGETHERA robot theatre created by Ethno-Expotoured Switzerland in 2000–2002. The

actors, four Koala robots, could find theirplaces on stage, interact, speak, and movetheir arms and mouths. Kids and parents

loved the play, which was called Small Children – Joy and Burden.

Some of theelectronics aremounted on a“piggy-back”circuit board.

The foam actsas a buffer.

The robot can be switched off

when not in use.

The sonar sensorspoint in threedirections.

Each robot isnamed after acharacter fromSnow Whiteand the SevenDwarfs.

Pradeep Khoslademonstrates

a Millibot

Papa using a laptop

computer

Mamaanswering the

telephone

Team ofMillibots

The wheels arerubbery to givea good grip onsmooth surfaces.

The switchescan be set to

alter behaviour.

The chassis ismade from sturdyaluminium.

The foam headis mounted ona wire frame.

The memorychip holdsthe robot’sprogram.

BEE TEAMBees are great teamworkers; they use smelland waggling dances to communicate withmembers of their hive. Communication isan essential part of teamwork, even whenthe team is made up of robots.

CyborgsIF YOU CAN’T MAKE machines more like people,you can try making people more like machines.The word cyborg (cybernetic organism) was coinedby the Austrian scientist Manfred Clynes in 1960.His original meaning, of an ability-enhancingpartnership between human and machine, haschanged to mean something that is part human,part machine. There have been several attempts to make this a reality. The main problem is thathumans and machineswork differently. However,both human nerves andcomputers use electricity toconvey their messages, so it is possible to link peopleand machines electrically.

QUITE AN EYEFULCyborg technology is now available to the public. The NomadAugmented Vision System is designed for people who have to use a computer while doing jobs that need both hands. It allows them towork freely without the problems created by a fixed computer. Nomad

creates an overlay, or transparent computer screen, that seems to floatin front of the user wherever they look. It does this by using the eye’sown lens to focus the image from a laser right onto their retina.

VIRTUAL VIEWNomad lets engineers view

calculations, such as voltagemeasurements, without

putting down their tools to use a computer. Pilots

can also use thesystem to access

flight informationwhile keeping

their eye onthe job.

CYBORG MANNThis model is wearing a computer called WearComp. It was developed by Steve Mann, a Canadian engineerand artist, who wears one day and night. WearCompallows him to transmit to the Internet, block unwantedsights, and turn his world into hyperlinks. Mann couldbe described as the first cyborg – the first person to live in intimate contact with a computer, seeingeverything, including himself, through its eyepiece.

Cockpit overlay used by a pilot

Nomadheadgear

A laser projectorproduces the images.

The headgearcontains abattery pack.

The userlooks througha transparentscreen.

A cap holdsWearComp

in place.

The videodisplay isplayed to theleft eye only. Sunglasses

help supportthe electronics.

Engine overlay used by an engineer

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VISION OF THE FUTUREThe Terminator is a fictional characterthat could, perhaps, be a vision of thedistant future. Created in 1984, thecyborg surfaced for the third time in 2003, played as ever by ArnoldSchwarzenegger. In the film, he triesto stop evil robot network Skynet

destroying humanity,and, of course,

succeeds.

The bracelet could betaken on and off, butthe chip could only beremoved by surgery.

An externaltransmitter sendssignals to the implant.

Electronics pickup and translatemuscle signals.

The hand iscontrolled bysignals fromStelarc’smuscles.

The electronics communicatewith the implanted chip.

CYBORG ARTISTStelarc is an Australian artist whouses robotics and the Internet toexperiment with extensions to hisbody. Stelarc has performed with a third hand, a virtual arm,and a virtual body. For one

performance he developed a touch-screen muscle

stimulator that enabledpeople to operate his

body remotely.

ELECTRONIC EARCyborg technology can helpsome people who cannot hear.A device called a cochlearimplant is embedded in theskull and connected to anexternal microphone andsound processor. The implantelectrically stimulates thenerves in the inner ear,partially restoring the sounds of everyday life,including speech.

Stelarc demonstrates his third hand

NERVE LINKIn March 2002, roboticist KevinWarwick had a microchip implanted inhis forearm, with electrodes connecting it to a nerve. He wanted to find out if acomputer could make sense of his body’ssignals, allowing man and machine to worktogether. Research like this could eventuallyhelp people paralysed by spinal cord damage.

Marchingmachines from

Terminator 3, Rise of theMachines

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HumanoidsA MACHINE THAT looks, thinks, andbehaves like a human being has been adream of artists and engineers for centuries.One reason for this could be that in theprocess of building such a machine, theywould learn a lot about how people work.There are also some practical reasons. A robot shaped like a human being canadapt quite easily to stairs, chairs, and allthe other parts of an environment designedfor humans. The human body is extremelycomplex, however, and creating a robot thatis capable of simply walking effectively is an enormous challenge.

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The hands are notjointed and cannot

perform tasks.

A battery packcarried on SDR-3X’sback providesit with power.

HONDA WONDERAsimo is a robot designed to help inthe home. It was launched by Hondain 2000 after 14 years’ work. Asimo isa non-threatening 120 cm (4 ft) tall.

It walks well and turns corners byshifting its centre of gravity like a real person. Recent models

can recognize human faces and gestures, and can also walk faster than their predecessors.

JUST FOR FUN After thesuccess of theirrobot dog, Aibo, Sonylaunched a humanoidentertainment robot called SDR-3X in 2000. It could get up and walk, balance on one leg, kick a ball, and dance. Its successor, SDR-4X, appeared in 2002. This robot can recognize faces and voices and,with the help of a computer, can talk or even sing.

SDR-3X demonstrating its dancing skills

STREET SMART?When Tmsuk 04 was let

loose on the streets of Japanto see how people reacted,

things went seriously wrong.The robot was kicked to

“death” by members of thepublic, suggesting that people

are not yet quite ready to live alongside robots.

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Morph3 can stand,crouch, and walksmoothly and swiftly.

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HELPFUL BUILDERMorph3 is a 38-cm (15-in) robotintended as a construction kit for thedevelopment of humanoid technology.It was made in Japan by Hiroaki Kitano.Morph3 is light in weight, and itsmotors, gears, and sensorscan fit together in a variety of different ways.

BARGAIN BOTLow-cost humanoid Robo Erectus is the

work of Singapore engineer Zhou Changjiu.The robot, which was designed to walk and

kick balls, came second in the 2002 RoboCupHumanoid Walk League. But Changjiu’s realgoal is to build a more affordable humanoid.

The joints areextremely mobile.

Pino stands just 75 cm (30 in) tall.

PERSONAL PLAYERHiroaki Kitano developed Pino for RoboCup.

Kitano sees its human shape as more than an aid to playing football. He thinks that in

the future, humans will be more likely towork alongside humanoid robots if they like

them. That’s why Pino has an appealingshape and a totally unnecessary nose.

Pino has a longnose, like its

namesakePinocchio.

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Into the futureNO ONE CAN TELL where robotics is leading us.Even experts cannot agree on what the future withrobots might be like. Some say we may become

dependent on intelligent machines that thinkfor themselves. Others say that robotswill never be that sophisticated. Thisuncertainty centres on a basic question:what is intelligence? If we can find out

enough about intelligence to reproduceit with a computer, then we may soonhave machines that are cleverer than weare. If understanding intelligence provesto be beyond us, however, the sci-fifuture of humanoids and cyborgs may elude us forever.

INSECTS ADVANCENew knowledge is making new kinds of robot possible. Scientists

have recently worked out exactly how insect wings work, whileengineers are developing nanotechnology – ways of making verysmall objects. Together, these could produce insect-sized robots in

the future – some as fearsome as this computer-generated wasp.

MIGHTY MECHAThis could be the workerof the future. Seen here inits 2003 Mecha costume,HRP-2 is being developed byKawada Industries in Japan.Their aim is to build a robotthat can operate on a realbuilding site. HRP-2 stands154 cm (5 ft 1 in) tall, and isone of only two humanoidrobots that can get upunaided if it falls over.

IN THE BLOODNanotechnology couldpromise great medicaladvances for the future.Nanorobots smallenough to pass throughblood vessels, and armedwith chemical weapons,could seek out anddestroy deadly bacteriaand viruses. The robotscould even be trained togroup together after thejob was done and exit ata chosen point so thatthey could be used again.

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HRP-2’s “clothes”can be changed

if required.

Harmful organisms inthe path of the nanobot

The wings may be madefrom ultra-thin metal.

Jointed anklesgive it a smoothwalking action.

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MAGIC MORGUIK-28, or Morgui (Chinese for magic ghost), a newrobot at Reading University, is a scary skull whosegaze really does follow you around the room. It caneven make a video recording of you while it doesthis, which for under-18s requires parental consent.But K-28 has a serious purpose. Equipped withsight, hearing, infrared, radar, and sonar, it is beingused in research that will enable future robots tocombine all these senses much more effectively.

HOME HELPHome robots of the futuremay look humanoid, likethis computer image, butare just as likely to look likefridges on wheels. They areunlikely to wield a normalmop and bucket, but theyshould be able to do morethan today’s robot vacuumcleaners and lawnmowers.

“We're going to see machinesthat are more intelligent than we are perhaps by

2030 ... how are we going to cope with that?”

KEVIN WARWICK Professor of Cybernetics, Reading University, UK

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Sonar transmitters andreceivers are located on

the front of the head.

Microphonesare positionedwhere humanears would be.

Videocameras aremounted in

the eyesockets.

The parts arelinked bymagnets.

The smaller parts are referred

to as “female”.

Infrared sensorsare positioned on the top lip.

SHAPE SHIFTERSWhat shape will tomorrow’s robots be? They will

be whatever shape they need to be, if Daniela Rus of Dartmouth College, USA, gets her way. She is

one of several roboticists working on robots that canchange their shape for different jobs. Their bodies are

made of separate parts that can slide and link invarious ways to change shape in seconds.

FUTURE FEARSome authors

have suggested that robots could

become as intelligent as humans in the not too

distant future. Unlesswe take urgent action,they claim, the robots

might take over. Butthis is just one view. Other

experts dismiss it as fantasy,saying that while computers are

advancing rapidly, our knowledge ofhow to use them lags far behind.

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The world’s largest robot is 75 m(246 ft) tall. It is a crane that worksin a coalfield in Australia, and

which uses laser vision to shovel up morethan 4,000 tonnes of soil per hour.

The world’s fastest robot handsbelong to a machine developedin 2002 at Tokyo University in

Japan. The robot produces 1,000 imagesand does 1,000 calculations each second,allowing it to catch a ball falling at 4 m (13 ft) per second.

Ika-saku, a robotdeveloped by Japanesecompany Mayekawa

in 2003, can cut up squid, aJapanese favourite, hygienicallyand quickly. It removes thesquid’s insides and cuts itstentacles and body intostrips, which are theneither dried or smoked.

An advancedversion of theintelligent

Honda humanoidAsimo (an acronym for Advanced Step inInnovative Mobility) can nowaccess information via the Internet.This means that Asimo can be ready with news and weather updates, for example, in response to people’s queries.

Robots are beginning to take over from fire-fighters in the most dangerous situations.

Carlos, designed in the UK, is smallenough to be carried in a van but strongenough to drag up to 50 m (165 ft) ofwater-filled hose deep into the heart of a fire.

One of the longest-lived fictionalrobots is Astroboy. He was createdin 1951 by Japanese cartoonist

Osamu Tezuka, and was originally calledTetsuwan Atomu (Mighty Atom). Recentappearances of Astroboy include atelevision series in 2003 and a film in 2004.

An Australian shellfish could help to improve a robot’s ability toexplore distant planets. Scientists

are studying a freshwater crayfish knownas the yabby. It has limited intelligence, butexplores its environment using sensitiveantennae, grasping pincers, jointed legs,and a powerful paddle tail. Researchershope to mimic the yabby’s simple controlsystems in robots that are built to explorethe planet Mars.

A kit is now available that converts any laptop computer into a robot. The kit consists of a

wheeled platform on which the laptop ismounted, plus a camera for vision, andsoftware to provide intelligence. Once thelaptop is converted, it will trundle aroundits environment under remote control andwill even respond to spoken commands.

The most successful chatterbot, or conversational robot, wascreated way back in 1966.

Eliza, a computer program written by Joseph Wiezenbaum, was a virtualpsychotherapist that used simple tricks to produce convincing dialogue. Manypeople preferred talking to Eliza to talking to a real therapist.

In 2001, US artist Paul Guinancreated a website revealing hisdiscovery of a steam-driven

mechanical soldier. The robot, calledBoilerplate, was supposedly invented in1893. It was, of course, a hoax. Victoriantechnology was not that advanced, butmany people were fooled.

Boilerplate, a hoax Victorian robot

FASCINATING FACTS

Did you know?

HondaAsimo

humanoid

Ika-saku squid-cutting robotRobotic crane, Australia

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QHow many robots are there in the world?

A It depends on what is meant by arobot. The number of small mobile

and experimental robots is not known. The current estimate of the number ofrobots in industry – mostly fixed arms onproduction lines – is about one million,and rising fast. That’s about one robot for every 6,000 people in the world.

QWill artificial intelligence (AI) everbe of any use?

A It already is. If you shop on the Internet, watch out for robots!

Guessing what people might like to buy,based on their previous choices, is one wayin which artificial intelligence helpsbusiness. The AI market is growing at arate of 12 per cent a year and could beworth £13 billion by 2007. At present, robotintelligence is limited to specific problems.The capacity for solving less specificproblems is harder to program.

QWhich currently available robot isthe most human?

A In terms of how human a robot looksand how well it walks on two legs,

Honda’s Asimo or Sony’s SDR-4X areprobably the winners. Less human-lookingrobots, such as Mitsubishi’s Wakamaru,may be more human in other ways.Wakamaru was designed to care for elderlypeople. It knows 10,000 words and reactsappropriately to situations in the home,even calling 999 for help if necessary.

QCan robots have feelings orexperience emotions?

AThis is a very difficult question, andone that is getting a lot of attention

from researchers at the moment. It iscertainly possible to make a robot thatseems to display emotions and behaves as if it has feelings. This is achieved bywriting a computer program that takesaccount of what is happening to the robot and makes it react as if it is happy, sad, angry, or shy.

QHow long does it take to build acombat robot? Is it expensive?

ACombat robots have to be extremely well designed and built if they are

to survive for long in the arena. They cantake up to four years to create, although six months is more typical. Unfortunately,it does cost a lot of money to build a reallygood battlebot. On average, the bill comesto about £3,000, although robots that havebeen built for far less have gone on to win competitions.

QHow difficult is it to design a robot?

AFamous robots like Asimocan take hundreds of

people several years to design.But interesting robots can alsobe designed by one person in a few weeks. If you want todesign your own robot, it isbest to start by building onefrom a kit. You can later usewhat you have learned tobranch out on your own.

Q Do robots steal jobs from people?

AThis would be true ifrobots simply replaced

people in industry. In reality,robots make production moreefficient, which saves factoriesa lot of money. Much of thismoney is spent on expandingthe business, which createsnew jobs for people doing allthe things that robots cannot.

QWill robots become moreintelligent than people?

ASome scientists believe it could happen by 2050.

The effects of this depend onthe kind of intelligence therobots have, and what safetyfeatures are built in. Robotscould take over the world, buthumans might see this comingand do something about it.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Amoebot, the world’s

slowest robot

Record Breakers

Monsieur II-P, the world’s smallest robot, withand without its outer shell

WORLD’S SLOWESTAmoebot, created in Singapore, is made up of balloons that inflate and deflate,pushing it slowly through water. With atop speed of 1 cm (0.4 in) per minute, it is the slowest-moving robot in the world.

BIGGEST BRAINThe largest robot brain so far belonged toRobokoneko, a virtual robot kitten devisedby Hugo de Garis in 1999. The on-screencat had 37.7 million artificial brain cells.

LOWEST COSTThe record for low cost construction is held by a robot called Walkman. It was made for£1.10 out of parts from a personal stereo atthe US Los Alamos National Laboratory.

WORLD’S SMALLESTThe world’s smallest commercial robot is Monsieur II-P, developed by Japanesewatch company Seiko in 2002. It weighs12.5 g (0.4 oz), and can travel at 15 cm (6 in) per second. It can even dance.

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TimelineTHE STORY OF robotics began thousands of years ago with basic ideas such as thewheel. Many more years passed beforepeople began to make machines thatimitated life. Early robotic animals andmusicians were built to entertain. Later,the development of electronics allowedinventors to make intelligent robots,which could cope with some aspects of the world as well as a human. A robot with all the abilities of a realperson, however, is still a distant dream.

C. 3500 BCWHEELED VEHICLEIn Mesopotamia (now Iraq), the potter’swheel is adapted for use on vehicles. Priorto this, vehicles were pulled on runners.

C. 400 BCROBOT BIRDPhilosopher Archytas of Tarentum builds a wooden pigeon that simulates flight. It is carried through the air on a rotatingarm powered by water or steam.

C. 270 BCPNEUMATIC POWERGreek inventor Ctesibius of Alexandriadiscovers that compressed air can be used to make machines move.

C. 1500AUTOMATIC MUSICThe first instruments that can play tuneswithout a human musician start to appear.They use a rotating barrel carrying pinsplaced to strike the keys of a harpsichord.

1533LEGENDARY FLYERSIn his Nuremberg workshop, Germanscholar Johann Müller, also known asRegiomontanus, creates an iron insect andan artificial eagle. It is alleged that both ofthese mechanical creatures can fly.

C. 1600AUTOMATIC CONTROLDutch engineer Cornelis Drebbel inventsthe first automatic control, the thermostat.It is a mechanical device for controlling the temperature inside a furnace.

1725ANIMATED ACTORSIn Heilbrunn, Germany, craftsman LorenzRosenegge creates a mechanical theatre. It features 119 animated figures thatperform a play about village life to theaccompaniment of a water-powered organ.

1726VISION OF THE FUTUREIn his book Gulliver’s Travels, Anglo-Irishwriter Jonathan Swift imagines (and makesfun of) a future in which books are writtenby machines.

1739VAUCANSON’S DUCKFrench inventor Jacques Vaucanson createsa mechanical duck that can drink, eat,paddle, and seemingly digest and excrete.

1801PATTERN-WEAVING LOOMFrench inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquardperfects a loom, based on the ideas ofVaucanson, that automatically weavescloth in patterns that are determined by a set of punched cards.

1820CALCULATORFrench insurance agent Thomas de Colmarinvents the first practical calculatingmachine. It can add, subtract, and (with difficulty) multiply and divide.

1854LOGICAL ALGEBRABritish mathematician George Boolepublishes An Investigation into the Laws ofThought, which contains the logical algebralater used to design computers and robots.

1921THE WORD ROBOTCzech author Karel Capek uses the word robot for the first time in his playRossum’s Universal Robots.

1941LAWS OF ROBOTICSIsaac Asimov writes three laws of robotics.1) A robot must not hurt a human, or,through inaction, allow one to come to harm; 2) It must obey orders from ahuman, unless this conflicts with the firstlaw; 3) It must protect itself, as long as thisdoes not conflict with the other two laws.

Illustration showing Vaucanson at work on his mechanical duck

The Perspex shell protects the mechanics.

W. Grey Walter’srobotic tortoise

A robot fromKarel Capek’splay Rossum’s

Universal Robots

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1945MODERN COMPUTERMathematician John von Neumann creates the first computer design in whichprograms and data are stored in exactly thesame way, giving the speed and flexibilitywe know today.

1948GREY WALTER’S TORTOISESAt the Burden Neurological Institute inBristol, UK, pioneer William Grey Waltercreates two robot tortoises, Elmer andElsie. They produce lifelike behaviour from very simple electronic circuits.

1950TURING TESTBritish mathematician Alan Turing says that if people converse with a hiddenhuman or computer, and cannot tell whichis which, the computer must be consideredintelligent. To this day, no computer haspassed the Turing Test.

1956ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)US mathematicians Marvin Minsky andJohn McCarthy organize a conference thatcoins the phrase artificial intelligence.

1960NEURAL NETWORKUS researcher Frank Rosenblatt developsthe first artificial neural network, called thePerceptron. Its electronics imitate the way a human brain deals with information.

1961INDUSTRIAL ROBOTUS engineers George Devol and JoeEngelberger create the first industrialrobots, sold under the name Unimate.

1973INTELLIGENT VISIONThe AI department of EdinburghUniversity demonstrates Freddy II, a robotthat can assemble an object by picking upthe right components from a random heap.

microchip implanted in his left arm. Theimplanted chip allows machines in his laboratory to respond to his presence when he goes near them.

2003MARS EXPLORATION ROVERSIn June and July, NASA rovers Spirit andOpportunity are launched towards Mars.The pair of Mars Exploration Rovers(MERs) will make geological explorationsof the red planet, using special tools toanalyse the surface rocks, soil, and dust.

Genghis negotiating rough ground

LOOKING FORWARD

Honda P3 humanoidrobot, launched in 1997

Professor Kevin Warwick with themicrochip that was implanted in his arm

The future of robotics isextremely difficult to predict.Technology is advancing sofast that almost anythingcould happen in the next 50years. Here is a possibleview of some things thatmight happen beforeyou reach 80.

2010 A robot takes itsGCSE exams and passes.

2020 Crawling, flying, andswimming nanorobot spieswork together to gather top-secret information.

2030 There are more robotsthan people in some countries.

2040 Robots are as clever aspeople and begin to evolve on their own.

2050 A team of humanoidrobot footballers beats thereigning human worldchampions in the ultimateRoboCup game.

1984CYCUS researcher Doug Lenat, realizing thatrobots know nothing about the real world,starts the Cyc project. The ambitious aim of the project is to create a computerdatabase containing the whole of human common sense.

1989GENGHISOne of the first hexapod robots, Genghis, is developed at the US MassachusettsInstitute of Technology AI Lab. Each of itslegs has two motors. Feedback from thesetells the robot if a leg hits something.

1997HONDA P3Honda unveils humanoid robotP3, ancestor of Asimo.P3 can walk, climbstairs, shake hands,and get up from akneeling position,but it is slow by today’sstandards.

1997ROBOCUPThe city of Nagoyain Japan plays host to the first RoboCupfootball tournament.

1999AIBOThe world’s first robotdog, Aibo, is launched by Sony. It has moreadvanced capabilitiesthan earlier robot pets,such as Furby, but alsocosts a great deal more.

1999FIRST CYBORGProfessor Kevin Warwickof Reading University,UK, claims to havebecome the world’s firstcyborg when he has a

Six infraredsensors helpedGenghis to findits way aroundin the real world.

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ROBOTICS IS A HUGE and growing subject, so there arealways new things to learn. You can find out more bygetting involved in practical activities, such as buildingand operating robots or writing your own computerprograms to control them. It is sometimes possible to visit robots in museums, or even in factories andresearch laboratories. There are also robot societies and clubs you can join,plenty of robot booksto read, and hundredsof robot websites toexplore. The more youfind out about them,the more fascinatingrobots will seem.

VISIT MUSEUMS AND EXHIBITIONS

Look out for advertisements andweb information about temporaryrobot exhibitions at museums and

science centres. Some museumshave robots on permanent

display, but they may removethem for maintenance at short

notice. It is a good idea to checkbefore making a special visit.

Robots at the TelecommunicationsMuseum, Berlin, Germany

● A gallery that shows lots of home-made robots, andcould even show yours. www.acroname.com/robotics/gallery/gallery.html

● University of Birmingham site with information on robotpets, robot football, robot building, and much more. www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/robotics/cbbc/index.php

● Robots in the news, robot kits, robot toys, robot links,robot galleries, and an online shop.www.robotcafe.com

T-rex at the Natural History

Museum, UK

The animatronicdinosaur baresits sharp teeth.

LOOK OUT FOR ANIMATRONICSYou can see animatronic robots in films, or in museums,science centres, and theme parks, where they are often usedto bring extinct creatures to life. When you look at one ofthese creatures, watch how it moves and see if youcan imagine the mechanism inside

USEFUL WEBSITES

Find out more The robotic shell was madefor a mutant creature

known as a Dalek.

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CALIFORNIA SCIENCE CENTER,LOS ANGELES, USATop attraction:• A 15 m (50 ft) animatronic body simulator

called Tess. She can move her lips, blink, and turn her head. At the end of the show,she raises her hand to turn off the lights.

NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM,LONDON, UK Top attraction :• Terrifying, three-quarter size Tyrannosaurus

rex, standing 4 m (13 ft) high, incorporatingall the latest animatronic technology.

MIT MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE,MASSACHUSETTS, USATop attraction:• An exhibition featuring many famous robots

created at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, including Cog and Kismet.

MUSEUM FÜR KOMMUNIKATION,BERLIN, GERMANYTop attraction:• Three friendly mobile robots in the main

atrium welcome, inform, and entertainvisitors to the museum.

TECH MUSEUM OF INNOVATION,SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA, USATop attraction:• An interactive exhibition explaining how

robots are made and used. Robo-artist willdraw your portrait and Alphabot will spellyour name with alphabet blocks.

Places to VisitWATCH FILMS AND TELEVISION

There are plenty of films withrobot characters, from Star Wars

to AI. The robot film stars are not real, of course, but it is still

interesting trying to workout how the film-makers

created the illusion. Havethey used an actor in a

suit, a remote-controlledmachine built by special

effects experts, or acomputer-generatedimage to bring their

fictional robots to life?

Robots locked in combat onthe Robot Wars TV show

Artbot built using aLego Mindstorms kit

BUILD YOUR OWN You will learn a lot if you take the time to build a robot

yourself. Introductory and more advancedrobot kits are available in some bookshops, toy shops, and electronics

shops. You might even be able to sign up for a robot-building workshopat a specialist centre or a science museum near your home. Robot booksand magazines also feature robot designs and practical building advice.

EXPERIENCE ROBOT COMBATYou can see combat robots in action ontelevision and at live events – most ofwhich are held in the USA. One of the best known is BotBash, held annually inPhoenix, Arizona, but there are others run by members of the Robot FightingLeague. In the UK, popular events includethe Enginuity Robot Crusade, held atIronbridge Gorge Museum, and RobotRumble, held every Easter near Ipswich.

Scene from an early episode of Doctor Who

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Glossary

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ALLOY A mixture of different metals,sometimes with a small proportion of non-metals, used to give properties such as strength and hardness not available in any pure metal.

AMPLIFIER A device that increasesvoltage, current or power. This could beused with a robot sensor, allowing it tocontrol something more high-powered, such as an electric motor.

ANDROID A robot that is a convincingimitation of a living human being, ratherthan just a humanoid. Androids exist only in fiction at present.

AUTOMATON A machine that imitates theactions of a person or animal, but withouthaving any intelligence. An automaton is only able to perform a set ofpredetermined movements.

AUTONOMOUS ROBOT A robot thatneeds no human control, and is able to make all its own decisions and survive in the real world without outside help.

AUV (Autonomous Underwater Vehicle) A crewless robot submarine used forexploring the bottom of the sea.

BEACON A fixed marker set up to helprobots to navigate. Some beacons simplyreflect back signals given out by robots.Other beacons emit infrared or ultrasound.

BUMP SENSOR A sensor that tells a robot when it has bumped into something.The sensor can be as simple as a pair ofspringy electrical contacts that are pushedtogether by the impact.

CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) An electronic chip that receives an imagefrom a lens and converts it into signals thatcan be sent down a wire. CCDs are used in digital cameras and for robot vision.

CHATTERBOT A computer program that can converse with a human. Currentchatterbots are either very limited – justbooking flights by phone, for example – or they are fakes.

CIRCUIT BOARD A sheet of plastic thatcarries a flat pattern of electrical connections.Electronic components are mounted on thisto form a circuit, such as a robot controller.

CRANK A shaft with a right-angle bendused to convert straight-line motion intorotary motion. Bicycle pedals and thehandles used to turn simple, mechanicalautomata are examples of cranks.

CYBORG A robot created by addingelectronic or mechanical parts to a humanbeing. The term was coined by the Austrianscientist Manfred Clynes in 1960.

DATA Measurements or other basicinformation collected and stored by a robotas it operates. A computer uses the data todecide what the robot should do next.

DOMESTIC ROBOT A robot designed towork alongside people in theirhomes, doing boring jobs such ascleaning and tidying. The mostsuccessful types so far are vacuumcleaners and lawnmowers.

ELECTRODE A piece of metal usedto make an electrical connection toan object, for example to connect theelectronics of a computer to a nerveinside a living body.

FEEDBACK The process by which something being controlled

tells its controller what effect the controlsignals are having. This information makesthe control more accurate.

GPS (Global Positioning System) A system for determining position on theEarth's surface by comparing radio signalsfrom several satellites. Time differencesbetween the signals give the position of a GPS receiver to within a few metres.

HEXAPOD A six-legged robot whose motion is based on the walking movements of insects.

HUMANOID A type of robot that walks on two legs and has a body, two arms, and a head. Humanoids look similar to, but are not exactly like, humans.

IMPLANT Anything surgically insertedinto the body beneath the skin. Implantsused in cyborgs usually communicate withcomputers by radio or magnetism.

INDUSTRIAL ROBOT A robot used in the manufacturing industry. Most are

single arms that can move inseveral different directions and can use a range of tools.

INFRARED A kind of light thatlies just beyond red in the rainbow,invisible to the human eye. Robots

use it for navigation and communication.

INTERFACE A device through which twodifferent systems can communicate. Oneexample is a remote controller, which allows a human to give instructions to a robot.

LED (Light-Emitting Diode) An electronic component that gives out light when a current is passed through it.The light may be visible, for signalling tohumans, or infrared, for use by robots.

LIFT SENSOR A sensor that tells a robotwhen its wheels or legs are lifted off theground, for example by running over anobject. Basic lift sensors consist of a pair of contacts that are normally pushedtogether by the weight of the robot.

MAZE-RUNNER A robot that finds and remembers its way around a maze. Maze-runningcompetitions aim to find the fastest and most efficientrobot learners.

Tipoo’s Tiger automaton, 1795

Elma, a hexapod robot created at Reading University in the UK

Topo, a domesticrobot, helps with

the shopping

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MICROPROCESSOR The mathematicaland logical parts of a computer contained on a single chip. It can be used as part of a robot controller or as the brain of amicrocomputer or a PC.

MODULE A self-contained section of arobot or a computer program. Modules canbe designed and tested separately, and thenjoined to form the finished product.

MUSCLE WIRE Wire made from an alloyof nickel and titanium. It is stretched whencold, heated by passing a current through it,and exerts a pull as it relaxes and shortens.

NANOROBOT A robot so small it is onlyvisible under a microscope. No nanorobotshave yet been made, but possible techniquesfor making them are being explored.

NEURAL NETWORK An artificial brainmade by connecting large numbers ofelectronic nerve cells, often simulated on acomputer. Neural networks can do difficultjobs, like recognizing faces.

ON-BOARD COMPUTER A computer thatis part of a mobile robot and moves aroundwith it, unlike a fixed computer that controlsa robot by wire or radio.

PLATFORM The basic moving part of a mobile robot, without any intelligence.Many so-called robots are really just radio-controlled platforms.

PNEUMATIC A device operated by air.Most pneumatic devices produce movementfrom a piston inside a cylinder. Compressedair is let into the cylinder to drive the piston.

PROGRAM A set of computer instructionsdesigned to achieve an end result, such asallowing a robot to find its way around.

PROXIMITY SENSOR A sensor that isdesigned to measure very small distancesbetween a robot and an object.

RADAR (Radio DetectionAnd Ranging) A way of detecting thepresence, position, and speedof objects by emitting radiowaves and recording theechoes that return.

RANGEFINDER A sensorthat can measure how faraway a robot is from an objector wall. It may use laser light,radar, or ultrasound.

RETINA The light-sensitivesurface inside the eye uponwhich images are formed. The retina connects to thebrain through the optic nerve, allowing us to see.

ROBOT ARM A versatile,computer-controlled, jointed arm that can handle tools and do factory work. It is the most common type of robot today.

ROVER A robot designed to roam around,typically on a remote planet, to survey the landscape, take samples, and makemeasurements for transmission back to base.

SILICONE RUBBER An artificial rubberbased on the element silicon rather thancarbon, the main element in natural rubber.Silicone rubber is stronger and lasts longerthan natural rubber.

SOFTWARE A general term used todescribe the programs that are needed to operate a computer, as opposed to thephysical components, which are known as hardware.

SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging)Using sound to measure how far awayobjects are. Sonar emitters bounce soundwaves too high-pitched to hear off objects.The time it takes for the waves to bounceback indicates their distance.

SPEECH SYNTHESIZER A device –usually a computer – that can convert text or other coded information into sounds thatresemble human speech closely enough to be understood.

SURVEILLANCE Keeping a close watch on something or somebody. Somesurveillance robots have to keep out of sight while recording or transmittingpictures of what is happening.

SWARM ROBOT A small robot that has itsown intelligence and can act autonomously,but only as part of a swarm of similar robots.

TEAM ROBOT A small robot that has littleintelligence of its own but works as part of a team controlled by a central computer.

TETHERED ROBOT A robot that iscontrolled through a cable, not by radio or other wireless means.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL Having ordisplaying the full depth of the real world,as opposed to a flat, two-dimensionalpicture. A sculpture is three-dimensional, or 3D, a painting is not.

TOUCH SENSOR An electronic device,also called a tactile sensor, that responds tothe pressure with which a robot contacts anobject, giving an artificial sense of touch.

ULTRASOUND Sound with a frequencyhigher than human ears can hear. Used insonar devices and robot rangefinders.

VIRTUAL A visual simulation, usuallycreated by a computer and viewed on-screen. Three-dimensional graphics and other devices allow the user to interact with the virtual reality.

WELD To join together two pieces ofmaterial – usually metal – by heat, pressure,or both. Robot welders squeeze metal partstogether while passing an electric currentthrough them to make them hot.

Robot arms welding on a car production line

Front and back view of amicroprocessor

Index

ABAercam Sprint, 46Aerosonde, 42Aibo, 29, 67Amigobot, 24–25animatronics, 52–53, 68Argenziano, Michael, 36Ariel, 44arms, robot, 15, 49, 64

industrial, 20–21laboratory, 34–35space, 46surgical, 37underwater, 45

art, 48–49artificial intelligence, 13,

18–19, 65, 67Asimo, 60, 64–65Asimov, Isaac, 9, 66Astroboy, 64automata, 10–11autonomous underwater

vehicles (AUVs), 44–45Autosub, 45Babe, 53Bailey, Clayton, 48Barecats, 11batteries, 22, 28, 31Beagle 2, 47Boilerplate, 64bomb disposal, 22BotBash, 30, 69brains, 18–19, 65Breazeal, Cynthia, 54Brooks, Rodney, 55Bushnell, Nolan, 38

CDC-3PO, 8Capek, Karel, 6, 66Captain Future, 8car industry, 7, 20cars, robot, 42–43

cell-cultures, 35Changjiu, Zhou, 61chess, 11, 18clean rooms, 34–35clockwork toys, 11, 28Clynes, Manfred, 58cochlear implants, 59Cog, 19Cohen, Harold, 49combat robots, 30–31,

65, 69communication, 17, 56computers, 6, 13, 18,

58, 67construction kits, 27, 61,

64, 69cyborgs, 58–59, 67Daleks, 9, 68danger zones, 34, 40–41DaVinci, 36Devol, George, 21, 67dinosaurs, animatronic,

52–53, 68Doctor Who, 9, 69dogs, robot, 13, 29, 67dolls, 11, 55domestic robots, see

home robotsdrawing machines, 49drivers, robot, 43drugs industry, 34, 35drum machines, 50

EFearthquakes, 23Eckert, Presper, 13education, 24, 26–27elderly, care of, 38, 65electronics, 12emotions, 54–55, 65Eniac, 13Engelberger, Joe, 21, 67entertainment robot, 60entomopter, 47facial expressions, 54–55facial recognition, 55, 60factories, 7, 20–21, 24farming, 20, 64feedback, 16, 22, 48, 67feet, 14, 40, 54fiction, 8–9, 64

films, 6, 8–9, 18, 53, 59, 69fire-fighting robots, 41, 64fish, robot, 44Flakey, 24floor-cleaning robots, 25,

27, 38, 39food industry, 21, 64football, 24, 25, 32–33, 61Furby, 29

GHGlobal Hawk, 42Global Positioning

System, 42Grand, Steve, 19guards, robot, 25, 38, 39GuideCane, 17Hamilton, Edmond, 8Hampton, Dave, 29hands, robot, 15, 16, 36,

64heads, robot, 54, 55, 63Helios, 42Helpmate, 36Hobo, 22–23home robots, 22, 38–39,

55, 60, 63HRP-2, 62humanoids, 7, 8, 13, 27,

60–61, 65, 67football-playing, 32musical, 50, 51workers, 62

IJimplants, 59, 67industry, 7, 20–21, 24, 64,

65, 67infrared, 6, 17, 26, 32insects, 14–15, 19, 47, 62intelligence, 6, 12, 24,

41, 46, 56, 62, 63, 65artificial, 13, 18–19, 65, 67

International SpaceStation, 46

Internet, 23, 58Jouas-Poutrel, Didier, 50

KLKajitani, Makoto, 50Karakuri, 11Kasparov, Garry, 18Kempelen, Wolfgang

von, 11Khosla, Pradeep, 57Kitano, Hiroaki, 61Konolige, Kurt, 24Kumph, John, 44laboratories, 34–35lawnmowers, robot, 39learning, robot, 19Lego, 27, 32–33, 54legs, robot, 14–15, 23, 40,

41, 47light-emitting diodes

(LEDs), 17limbs, artificial, 15, 36Logo, 26lunar vehicles, 46

MNOMcLurkin, James, 51Mann, Steve, 58Mars rovers, 23, 47, 64, 67Mauchly, John, 13maze-running robots, 13Mead, Syd, 9medicine, 36–37, 62Metropolis, 6Millibots, 57mine detection, 40, 44Moravec, Hans, 43movement, 13, 14–15muscles, 14museums, 68, 69music, 50–51, 66nanorobots, 62, 67NASA, 23, 47, 67Nautile, 45NeuroMate, 37Nomad Augmented

Vision System, 58North, Doug, 48Nourbakhsh, Illah, 55nuclear industry, 34, 40,

41organic robots, 65

PRP2, 7P3, 67Papert, Seymour, 26, 27Pathfinder, 42pets, robot, 29, 67pianos, 50Pino, 61Pioneer, 13, 24–25planes, pilotless, 42portrait-painting robots,

49radio control, 25ready-made robots, 24–25remote control, 6, 22–23,

26, 48animatronics, 52combat robots, 30–31toys, 28

research, 24, 34–35Rinaldo, Kenneth, 48Ristow, Christian, 48Roamer, 26Robocop, 9RoboCup, 24, 32, 61, 67Roboshark, 44robot, basic, 6–7Robot Wars, 31Robug, 14–15, 40rovers, 23, 46, 47Rug Warrior, 27Rus, Daniela, 63

STscience fiction, 8, 9sculptures, 48Seemann, Henry, 41senses, 6, 16–17, 63sensors, 12, 13, 16Seven Dwarfs, 56sewer-inspection robots,

41Shakey, 13, 24Shannon, Claude, 13shape-changing robots,

63sheep-shearing robots, 7Short Circuit, 9Sojourner, 23, 47

sonar, 17, 24, 25space, 23, 46–47, 64Space Shuttle, 46speech, 17, 25, 28, 38, 64speech recognition, 37spiders, 14–15, 40, 47, 48Spielberg, Steven, 18Spooner, Paul, 11sport, 24, 25, 32–33Stanford Cart, 43Star Wars, 8, 69Stelarc, 59submarines, 45Sumo robots, 33surgery, 36–37swarms, 17, 24, 51, 56–57Takanishi, Atsuo, 50Terminator, 59Tilden, Mark, 19Tippoo’s Tiger, 10–11Titanic, 45Topo, 38tortoises, robot, 12, 67touch, 16–17toys, 8, 10, 28–29turtles, robot, 26TV camera, 44, 46, 49

UVWultrasound, 39underwater robots, 44–45vacuum cleaners, 25, 39Vaucanson, Jacques de,

10, 66vehicles, robot, 22, 43video cameras, 19, 22, 24Wabot, 17, 51Wakamaru, 38, 65walking, 14–15, 36, 62wall-climbing robots, 14,

40Walter, W. Grey, 12, 66, 67Warwick, Kevin, 59, 63,

67WearComp, 58welding, 20–21wheels, 6–7, 15, 22–23, 66window-cleaning robots,

40, 41workers, robot, 20–21, 62

The Publishers would like to thank thefollowing for their kind permission toreproduce their photographs:Abbreviations: a: above, b: below, c: centre, l: left, r: right, t: topPhoto courtesy of ActivMedia Robotics,www.MobileRobots.com: 2cr, 4br, 24cr, trc, 25tl; Thanks to Advanced Design, Inc.(www.robix.com) for the use of their Robix ™RCS-6 robot construction set: 27; Courtesy of Aerosonde: 42c, cb; AKG images: 11tl, 36tl; Courtesy of AUVSI.org: 45bl; RobotSculptures made by Clayton G Bailey, Port Costa, USA, courtesy ofhttp://www.claytonbailey.com: 48br;BBC Picture Archives: 30–31b, 69bl; JohnKittelsrud – Botbash Robotic Combat Sports:30cr; Burden Neurological Institute: 12cl; PaulSpooner/Cabaret Mechanical Theatre 2000,photo: Heini Schneebeli: 11br; CarnegieMellon, Photo: Ken Andreyo: 57bl, bc; CentralArt Archives, Kenneth Rinaldo 'Autopoiesis'in the exhibition 'Alien Intelligence' in theMuseum of Contemporary Art Kiasma,Helsinki 2000. Photo: Petri Virtanen: 48tl;Courtesy of Century, photographer SimonBattensby: 63cr; Corbis: 44–45, 45br, 50c, tl,51cl, 63tr, 64–65, 66–67; Forrest J AckermannCollection: 8c; Archivo Iconografico SA: 30tl;Joe Bator: 43tl; Annebicque Bernard/Sygma:41l; Bettmann: 6tr, 13l, 26tl, 28l, 32tl;Duomo: 32tc; Pitchal Frederic/Sygma: 33tl;Francetelecom/IRCAD/Sygma: 37tl; LaurenceKesterson/Sygma: 18cl James Leynse/Saba:20t, 21cra; Joe McDonald: 56tl; CharlesO'Rear: 71b; Roger Ressmeyer: 34tl, 38br, 70br;Touhig Sion/Sygma: 68b; Sygma: 53tr; SoquiTed/Sygma: 30cl; Bill Varie: 34–35; Haruyoshi

Yamaguchi/Sygma: 1, 32tr, 33tr, 60tr, b; CSIROExploration Mining: 64tl; Courtesy of theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency:43tc, tr, br, 42–43; Eaglemoss InternationalLtd/www.realrobots.co.uk/Simon Anning:15tl; Electrolux: 18br, 39tr; ER2, a prototypeservice robot developed by EvolutionRobotics, and Idealab company based in Pasadena, CA: 2tc, 55cr; Photo: ElviraAnstmann, © Ethno-Expo Zurich: 56tr, cr;Mary Evans Picture Library: 6tl, 10tl, tr, 20l,38tl, 39tl, 66 bl, 68 br, 70 cl; © Jakob Fredslund:54tl; Courtesy of FriendlyRobotics: 39br;Courtesy of Fujitsu Ltd: 39bc; HultonArchive/Getty Images: 24tr; Boilerplate ™and © 2000 Paul Guinan: 64br; MY REALBABY is a trademark of Hasbro and is usedwith permission. © 2003 Hasbro. All rightsreserved: 55br; Dr J B C Davies, Heriot WattUniversity: 45cr; Honda (UK): 4 bl, 60tl, 64bl;©Team Shredder, UK: 31 tl, tr, cl; CourtesyIntel Corporation Ltd: 71tr; Courtesy of PeterRowe, Dave Pearson of Kawasaki RoboticsLtd: 20r; Thanks to Kate Howey Elgan Loaneof Kentree Ltd, Ireland: 22cr, c, bl; KitanoSymbiotic Systems Project: 61br; DesignerShunjo Yamanaka, Photo Yukio Shimizu:61tl; Courtesy of Keith Kotay, DartmouthRobotics Laboratory, USA: 63br; K-Team S.A.,Switzerland: 2bl, 25tc; © 2003 The LegoGroup: 2cl, 4crb, 27bl, 69br; LEGO, the LEGOlogo and the brick configuration retrademarks of the LEGO Group and are usedhere by permission: 32–33; Courtesy of SteveMann: 58tl; Courtesy of Microvision Inc.:58bl, br, cr, tr; Photo: Paul Miller: 26cl;MYCOM, Mayekawa Mfg. Co Ltd: 64tr; DugNorth Automata: 48c; Courtesy of Lucent

Technologies: 13c; Courtesy of the Laser and Electronics Group, Mitsubishi HeavyIndustries Ltd. Japan: 4cra, 38bl; Courtesy of Hans Moravec: 43cr, bl; Museum furKommunikation Berlin: Photo Timm Köllln:68c; Museum of the Moving Image: 9bl;Nanyang Technological University: © 2003Modula Robotic eRobot Locomotion Group,School of MPE, NTU: 65t; NASA: 42tr, 46b,clb, t, 47b, tr; NASA Ames Research Center:27tr; National Museum of Japanese History:11tr; Natural Environment Research Council,and Nick Millard of SouthamptonOceanography Centre: 45t; Nature PictureLibrary: © Mark Brownlow: 44tr; Photo: MarkOstow: 51tl; PA Photos: EPA-UK: 29cl, 50cl; AK Peters, Ltd., publisher of Mobile Robots:Inspiration to Implementation by JosephJones, Anita Flynn and Bruce Seiger: 27tl; ThePicture Desk: Advertising Archives Ltd: 22tl;The Art Archive/Victoria and Albert MuseumLondon/Sally Chappell: 10–11; KobalCollection: AARU PRODS: 68 tr; LucasFilm/20th Century Fox: 8r; ORION: 9tl; TRI-STAR: 9br; Rex Features: 7r; Action Press:22–23c; Nigel Dickinson: 20–21c; DavidJames: 18cr; Nils Jorgensen: 29tr; MasatoshiOkauchi: 50bl, 51br, 62l; Sipa Press: 66t;Warner Br/Everett: 59br; Christian Ristow:48bl; Courtesy of robotlab/www.robotlab.de:49bl, br; PAC, courtesy of Neal ScanlanStudio: 53tl; Science Photo Library: DelphineAures/Eurelios: 57c; Claude Charlier: 36cl;Colin Cuthbert: 44bl; European SpaceAgency: 47cr; Mauro Fermariello: 35tr; Astridand Hans Frieder Michler: 62–63; BruceFrisch: 67t; A Gragera/Latin Stock: 44bc;Adam Hart-Davis: 17t; James King-Holmes:59bl; Mehau Kulyk: 18tl; Lawrence LivermoreNational Laboratory: 42tl; Los AlamosNational Laboratory: 12tc; Peter Menzel: 17cl,

19bl, 29ca, 36–37b, 41t, 44tl, 51r, 55tr, 67b; RobMichelson/GTRI: 47tl; Miximilian Stock Ltd:7tl; Hank Morgan: 41bl, 49tl, tr, 68–69; NASA:23tl, 46cl; NASA/Carnegie Mellon University:23br; Sam Ogden: 19cr, 23cl, tr, 54cr, bl, br;Philippe Plailly/Eurelios: 25tr; H Raguet/Eurelios: 37tr; Volker Steger: 36bl, c, 41br;Taquet, Jerrican: 7c; Tek Image: 70–71; MarkThomas: 19tl; Victor Habbick Visions: 62br,cr; Peter Yates: 17bl; Ed Young/AGStock:21cra; Science & Society Picture Library: 12tr; Science Museum: 44br, cr; Seiko EpsonCorporation: 65b; SelecT ™ – the firstautomated solution to culture 1 to 182 celllines simultaneously and generate assay-readyplates. www.automationpartnership.com:35cr; © Shadow Robot Company: 15tr; Schoolof Electrical and Electronic Engineering,Singapore Polytechnic: 61tr; Dave Hrynkiw,Solarbotics Ltd: 14tr; SRI International: 4cl,13cr, 24cl; Swarm-bots are designed andproduced within the 'SWARM-BOTS' project (www.swarm-bots.org), a EuropeanCommission project funded within theFuture Emerging Technologies programme:57br; tmsuk Co., Ltd. Japan: 5tr, 38–39;Quadruped wall climbing robot 'NINJA-II'developed in Hirose laboratory of TokyoInstitute of Technology, http://mozu.mes.titech.ac.jp/hirohome.html: 40b; Courtesy ofthe Department of Electrical and ElectronicEngineering, University of Portsmouth: 40t; University of Reading: Courtesy of the Department of Cybernetics: 63l; courtesyof Kevin Warwick: 59t; University ofWestminster: 13br; US Department of Defense: 42cr; Courtesy of ValiantTechnology, www.valiant-technology.com:26bl, c, bc; Waseda University: HumanoidRobotics Institute: 51r; Atsuo Takanishi Lab:55l; © 2003 V & W Animatronics: 52l, r, 53cl, br

Acknowledgements

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