Rm Bushfire Firefighter Edn1 Feb11

S A F E T Y F I R S T

Reference Manual

Bushfi re Firefi ghter

Edition 1February 2011


Bushfi re Firefi ghterReference Manual

Bushfi re Firefi ghter brings together the reference materials needed by fi refi ghters to operate safely in a bushfi re environment.

This reference manual supersedes and replaces the Wildfi re Firefi ghter, Edn 2 dated November 2006 learning manual.

Extensive consultation has been undertaken between CFA and the Department of Sustainability and Environment to ensure that the mutual obligationsidentifi ed under the existing multi-agency agreements are satisfi ed, and that joint fi re

and incident operations occur in a seamless and effi cient manner.

Each agency will have certain organisational differences, where these occur, individuals should refer to and apply their agency’s standard operating

procedures and policies.

CFA and DSE acknowledges the assistance of their members, volunteers and staff, for their valued contribution in the development of this reference manual.

Euan Ferguson Ewan Waller Chief Offi cer Chief Fire Offi cer CFA DSE

First published February 2011 in Australia by Learning Systems, Operational Training & Volunteerism, CFA Headquarters,8 Lakeside Drive, Burwood East, Victoria 3151.

© CFA and DSE 2011.

Other than that permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication may be reproduced by any meanstwithout written permission from the Country Fire Authority – Victoria. Enquiries should be addressed to the publisher.

For any matters relating to this publication, contact: Manager Learning Systems, Operational Training & Volunteerism,CFA Headquarters, 8 Lakeside Drive, Burwood East, Victoria 3151.

The map extracts on pages 188, 190 and 191 are Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia(Geoscience Australia) 2010. They are available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence (see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/ for details).

Disclaimer

This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without fl aw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.


Edn 1 – February 2011 S A F E T Y F I R S T i


ContentsOverview ...................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................1

Relationship to Competency Standards ...................................................................................................1

Pre/Co-requisites ......................................................................................................................................1

Outcomes .................................................................................................................................................1

Related Resources ...................................................................................................................................2

How You Might be Assessed ....................................................................................................................2

Chapter 1: Safety on the Fireground .......................................................................................3

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................3

Safe Person Approach ..............................................................................................................................4

Risk Management .....................................................................................................................................7

Dynamic Risk Assessment .......................................................................................................................8

Dynamic Assessment of Risk .................................................................................................................14

Personal Protective Clothing ..................................................................................................................14

Personal Protective Equipment ..............................................................................................................19

Specialist Protective Clothing and Equipment .......................................................................................23

Hazards Related to Bushfi re ...................................................................................................................24

Working Around Aircraft ..........................................................................................................................38

General Health ........................................................................................................................................43

Managing Stress Levels..........................................................................................................................44

Managing Psychological Conditions ......................................................................................................46

General Health Hazards .........................................................................................................................47

Heat Related Illnesses ...........................................................................................................................51

Fireline Safety..........................................................................................................................................56

Taking Refuge in Life Threatening Situations .........................................................................................60

Injury and Near Miss Reporting ..............................................................................................................65

Summary .................................................................................................................................................67

Chapter 2: Fire Science .........................................................................................................77

Combustion (Fire) ...................................................................................................................................77

Heat Transfer ...........................................................................................................................................78

Fire Intensity ............................................................................................................................................80

Methods of Extinguishment ....................................................................................................................81

Summary .................................................................................................................................................83

ii S A F E T Y F I R S T Edn 1 – February 2011


Contents

Chapter 3: Bushfi re Behaviour ..............................................................................................85

Fuel..........................................................................................................................................................85

Weather ...................................................................................................................................................87

Topography .............................................................................................................................................90

Summary .................................................................................................................................................93

Chapter 4: Bushfi re Development .........................................................................................95

Types of Bushfi re ....................................................................................................................................95

Parts of a Bushfi re ..................................................................................................................................97

Summary .................................................................................................................................................99

Chapter 5: Hand Tools ......................................................................................................... 101

General Hand Tool Safety .....................................................................................................................101

Common Hand Tools and Their Use ....................................................................................................102

Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 111

Chapter 6: Hose and Fittings .............................................................................................. 113

Hose Couplings .................................................................................................................................... 113

Adaptors ................................................................................................................................................ 115

Branches and Nozzles .......................................................................................................................... 115

Breechings ............................................................................................................................................ 115

Hose Types ........................................................................................................................................... 117

Hose Care ............................................................................................................................................. 121

Bowling/Rolling Hose ...........................................................................................................................122

Hose After Use Maintenance ................................................................................................................ 124

Hose Stowage ...................................................................................................................................... 124

Hose Reels ............................................................................................................................................125

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................127

Chapter 7: Bushfi re Extinguishing Media ...........................................................................129

Extinguishing Media .............................................................................................................................129

Water Supplies ......................................................................................................................................130

Applying Water ......................................................................................................................................134

Fire Retardants ......................................................................................................................................137

Wetting Agents ...................................................................................................................................... 141

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................143

Edn 1 – February 2011 S A F E T Y F I R S T iii


Contents

Chapter 8: Pump Operation .................................................................................................145

Pumps and Pumping Operations .........................................................................................................145

Types of Pumps ....................................................................................................................................145

Pumping Operations .............................................................................................................................148

Water Relays .........................................................................................................................................150

Hose Lay ............................................................................................................................................... 151

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................153

Chapter 9: Radio Communication .......................................................................................155

Principles of Radio Communication ....................................................................................................155

Call Signs ..............................................................................................................................................164

Radio Procedures .................................................................................................................................164

Receiving and Transmitting Messages ................................................................................................167

Operational Procedures (CFA) ............................................................................................................. 170

Emergency Transmissions ...................................................................................................................172

Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 175

Chapter 10: Preparing for Response to Bushfi re ............................................................... 177

Personal Preparation ............................................................................................................................177

Call Outs ...............................................................................................................................................177

Pre-departure Checks ..........................................................................................................................178

Locating the Fire ...................................................................................................................................179

Map Reading ........................................................................................................................................181

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................195

Chapter 11: Proceeding to the Fire .....................................................................................197

Initial Observations ..............................................................................................................................197

Confi rm and Report Fire Location ........................................................................................................198

Evidence of Fire Cause .........................................................................................................................198

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................199

Chapter 12: Combating the Bushfi re ..................................................................................201

Teamwork and Firefi ghting ...................................................................................................................201

Briefi ngs ...............................................................................................................................................202

Command and Communications ..........................................................................................................203

Assessing Fire Conditions ....................................................................................................................207

Firefi ghting Strategies and Tactics .......................................................................................................208

Built Asset Protection ............................................................................................................................ 213

Mineral Earth Control Line ....................................................................................................................218

Mopping Up/Blacking Out Operations .................................................................................................218

Summary ...............................................................................................................................................223

iv S A F E T Y F I R S T Edn 1 – February 2011


Contents

Glossary ...............................................................................................................................227

Abbreviations and Acronyms ..............................................................................................235

Edn 1 – February 2011 S A F E T Y F I R S T 1


Overview

IntroductionBushfi res are inherently dangerous. Therefore, it is essential that personnel involved in bushfi re fi refi ghting activities are competent to work safely, effectively and effi ciently. Personnel who are not competent present a danger to themselves, their crew and other fi refi ghters working around them.

This manual is designed to support bushfi refi refi ghter training and will provide you with the skills, knowledge and proceduresto follow when participating in a bushfi refi refi ght.

The manual contains information about:

maintaining safety on the fi reground; F

personal protective clothing and F

equipment used in bushfi re fi refi ghting;

fi re science; F

bushfi re behaviour and development; F

hand tools, hoses, fi ttings and other F

equipment used in bushfi re fi refi ghting;

extinguishing media and their application; F

pump operation; F

communications on the fi reground; F

map reading; and F

responding to and combating a bushfi re. F

This manual also contains a glossary (a list of terms, abbreviation and acronyms used in this manual and their meanings).

Relationship to Competency Standards

This material is based on the following unitsof competency in the Public Safety Training Package July 2000 Ver. 8.00:

PUAFIR201 – Prevent injury; F

PUAOHS002 – Maintain safety at an F

incident scene;

PUAFIR204 – Respond to wildfi re; F

PUAFIR309 – Operate pumps; F

PUAOPE002 – Operate communications F

systems and equipment; and

PUATEA001 – Work in a team. F

Pre/Co-requisites

Nil. F

Outcomes

On successful completion of the Bushfi reFirefi ghter training program, you will beable to:

identify and manage workplace hazards F

and risks in the workplace;

contribute to maintaining safety of self and F

workgroup members;

prepare for and respond to a bushfi re; F

use communication systems and F

equipment to transmit and receive messages;

2 S A F E T Y F I R S T Edn 1 – February 2011


Overview

report faulty equipment; F

obtain and use extinguishing media and F

equipment;

prepare, operate and conclude pump F

operations;

combat a bushfi re; F

observe and react to a bushfi re and local F

weather conditions;

participate in blackout and patrol activities; F

assist in ancillary activities; F

recover, maintain and store equipment; F

contribute to team activities and share F

knowledge and information; and

give and receive support to and from team F

members.

Related Resources

Further resources may be developed tosupport your learning.

To identify the resources available, CFA members should search the Bookshelf on CFA’s Brigades Online website using the title and key terms from this publication.

https://cfaonline.cfa.vic.gov.au

The Bookshelf also contains the current CFA policies and procedures. Familiarity withthese will enable you to appropriately apply your learning.

DSE personnel should refer to their Area Fire Training Coordinator or FireWeb.

How You Might be Assessed

Below are some ideas of how a qualifi ed assessor might assess your competence in this unit.

You may be assessed by:

observation in a practical situation; F

answering questions or demonstrating F

knowledge and skill in a given situation;

written form; and/or F

a combination of the above. F

During the assessment, you may be asked to:

use hand tools and other equipment to F

construct a mineral earth control line;

assess a scene and identify hazards; F

operate pumps on a tanker, slip-on or F

quickfi ll to fi ll tanks or draft water, to deliver water to a branch;

use appropriate tactics and techniques F

(as described in this reference manual) to extinguish fi re;

use radio equipment to send and receive F

messages; and

participate in an operational debrief. F



Introduction

Safety is the top priority. Safety needs to be apriority for you as much as anyone else. Your organisation:

will not knowingly send you into a situation F

where the risks to personal safety cannotbe managed;

Chapter 1Safety on the FiregroundInherent dangers exist in any workplace. Some workplaces, such as incidentscenes, are more dangerous than others and it can be diffi cult to make them safe. In these environments, fi refi ghter safety must take priority over all other fi re ysuppression activities.

This chapter covers:

introduction to safety on the fi reground; F

safe person approach; F

risk management; F

dynamic risk assessment; F

dynamic assessment of risk; F

personal protective clothing and equipment; F

specialist protective equipment; F

hazards related to bushfi re; F

working around aircraft; F

general health; F

managing stress levels; F

managing psychological conditions; F

general health hazards; F

heat related illnesses; F

fi reline safety; and F

taking refuge in life threatening situations. F

will F not ask you to stay in situations if it knows if it is unsafe;

wants you to be constantly aware of F

the safety of yourself and your work mates; and

wants you to let it know if you believe your F

safety is being threatened.



Chapter 1: Safety on the Fireground

Safe Person Approach

As well as ensuring equipment design and quality is to the highest standard, we must also direct our efforts to making all fi refi ghters safe. This is known as the Safe Person Approach (SPA).

Safe Person Approach specifi es that both the organisation and individuals present on scenewill assume the relevant responsibilities to ensure the safety of personnel is maintainedat all times.

There are two elements to the Safe Person Approach. These are:

responsibility the organisation has to its F

personnel; and

responsibility that each individual has to F

the organisation, themselves and those around them.

Organisational responsibilities

The organisation has a responsibility toprovide, as much as is reasonably practicable, an environment that ensures personnel are able to remain safe at all times.

Organisational responsibilities include:

selection of personnel – right person for the F

right job;

provision and use of risk information such F

as Safety First Alerts;

provision of personal protective F

clothing and equipment such as boots,overtrousers, turnout coats, helmets, gloves and goggles;

provision of portable equipment F

and appliances;

People who are committed to safety will supervise you.

There are two components to managing safety during an emergency. The fi rstcomponent is the Safe Person Approach(SPA). The second component deals withassessing risk. CFA refers to this component as Dynamic Risk Assessment (DRA), whileDSE refers to it as a dynamic assessmentof risk.

When Safe Person Approach (SPA) is combined with Dynamic RiskAssessment (DRA), they are known by theacronym SPADRA.

In normal safety management, the intent is to make the workplace safe, as thissafeguards everyone.

An operational incident scene can be aninherently dangerous workplace and is often diffi cult to make completely safe.

Shared nature of responsibility for safety

Organisations, and individuals working withinorganisations, “share” responsibility for creating and maintaining a safe workplace. Safe Person Approach is used to identify theshared nature of responsibility for safety.




safety procedures and systems of work F

– Fire Ground Practices (FGPs), Chief Offi cers’ Standing Orders (SOs), Chief Offi cers’ Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and OH&S policy and legislation;

effective instruction; F

training to achieve competence; F

competent supervision; and F

performance measurement – F

safety auditing.

capable of performing the tasks assigned; F

an effective member of the team; F

adaptable to changing circumstances; F

vigilant for his or her own safety and the F

safety of their colleagues and others; and

able to recognise and express his or her F

own limitations.

Safety is empowered to every individual

Each person has a responsibility for ensuring that their work practices do not result in an unacceptable level of risk to themselves or toothers around them.

Responsibility for safety is empowered to every individual. You should report all accidents and near misses, and raise safetyissues with your supervisor at the earliestopportunity. Doing so may prevent someonefrom suffering serious injury or even death atsome time in the future.

Remember: ALWAYS follow safe work practices and challenge those who do not.

1Competentfor assigned

tasks

4Adaptable

to changingcircumstances

6Recognise

own abilitiesand limitations

2Effective

member of ateam

5Vigilant for

own safety andthat of others

3Work withinacceptedguidelines

Figure 2 – personal responsibilities

1 Selection of personnel

9 Performancemeasurement 2

Provision of risk

information

6 Effectiveinstruction 5

Safety procedures systems, OH&S

policy & legislation

8 Competentsupervision 3

Personal protective clothing

and equipment

7Training

to achievecompetence

4Provision

and use of equipment

Figure 1 – organisational responsibilities

Personal responsibilities

Each individual must accept responsibility forhis or her own safety. He or she must make informed decisions about the appropriateuse of available resources, to ensure that thecontrol of risks is effective at all times.

Every person must have the self-discipline towork within accepted guidelines and be:

able to implement knowledge and skills F

acquired through training to recognisehazards and implement appropriatecontrols to minimise risk to themselves andothers;




Some workplaces, such as incident scenes or fi regrounds, will always present a greaterrisk to individuals. The level of supervisionand risk management needs to refl ect the current and potential situation.

Figure 3 shows examples of workplaces. During an emergency the risks in aworkplace may change as different functionsare performed.

The workplace

The workplace for the purposes of health and safety is anywhere that you are operating as a member of your organisation; this includesboth staff and volunteers. An emergencycan add an extra level of risk to your normalworkplace, including extra traffi c, more people and equipment and an increased level of urgency.

Normal workplaces Changed risk in the workplaces

District Mechanical Offi cer workshop

Fire station

Normal offi ce Normal offi ce now Incident Control Centre

District Mechanical Offi cers now working at a Staging Area

Operations Point

Figure 3 – risks in a workplace may change as different functions are performed




At incidents the Incident Controller assisted by a Safety Offi cer or Field Safety Advisor, if appointed will identify hazards, assessesthe risks and makes decisions about managing the overall risks of the incident.Individual fi refi ghters who are working on the fi reground may be confronted by changing situations and should continually monitor the environment to identify the hazards andassess the risks as they apply to the tasks they are carrying out.

Firefi ghter Strike Team LeaderCrew Leader

Risk Management

Figure 4 – risk management involves all levels of fi refi ghters

Risk Management

Firefi ghting is inherently dangerous and regardless of what systems or controlsare put in place, fi refi ghters will still face hazards. In order to maintain your safety and contribute to the safety of those around you,fi reground hazards need to be identifi ed, risks need to be assessed and decisions made according to what is occurring.

Experienced fi refi ghters will make judgements based on their knowledge, skills, training and experience.




Dynamic Risk Assessment

Dynamic Risk Assessment (DRA) is a process used in CFA. Unlike normalworkplaces, the fi reground often presents situations where risks are greater thannormal due to the fact that emergency operations are dynamic and unpredictable.

Accidents are more likely to happen when people are busy, distracted or rushing to complete a task and do not take the time to consider the consequences of their actions. Inthese situations, the Dynamic Risk Assessmentprocess forms the basis for successfully managing the health and safety of all personnel up and down the chain of command.

Dynamic risk assessment is for use inconstantly changing situations. In everyday life these situations may be encounteredwhile crossing a busy traffi c intersection;while driving on a highway; or while moving around in crowded areas like the FootyGrand Final, amusement parks, concert events or country fairs.

In all of these situations we are constantly assessing risks and making decisions that govern our actions, often without consciously thinking about how we do it.

Firefi ghters are likely to encounter constantly changing situations while attending incident scenes or working on the fi reground. Inthese situations you can carry out a dynamic risk assessment by asking yourself fi ve simple questions. The answers will help youto assess whether your intended actions can be safely undertaken. Dynamic RiskAssessment is a thinking activity – one that you can do in your head.

Dynamic Risk Assessment should be used atan incident scene or fi reground:

when approaching a dynamic situation; F

while on scene; and F

as you are departing the scene. F

Five step model for Dynamic Risk Assessment

Dynamic Risk Assessment is a simple fi ve step risk assessment process by which hazards are identifi ed and judgements tocontrol or eliminate risks are rated as:

acceptable or unacceptable; and F

in proportion to the benefi ts we hope to F

gain by our action.

START What is going on and what

are the hazards?

1HAZARDS

What do I plan to do?

2PLAN

What are the risks of what I

plan to do?

3RISKS

What can I do to make it

safe?

4SAFETY

What do I need to monitor?

5MONITORING

Figure 5 – fi ve step model for dynamic risk assessment




Step 1 – What is going on and what are the hazards?Take a moment to look around andobserve what is happening. Note anyobvious hazards or circumstancesthat might lead to new hazards. See Hazards Related to Bushfi re later inthis chapter for more information onidentifying known hazards on the fi reground.

Step 2 – What do I plan to do?Think carefully about what it is you intend doing. Consider whatactions you will carry out.

Step 3 – What are the risks of what I plan to do?Will your actions expose youto any of the hazards you haveidentifi ed in step 1, and if so,what level of risk is involved? Will your actions expose you, or others working with you, to anunacceptable level of risk? See Assessing the level of risk.

Step 4 – What can I do to make it safer?If your actions are likely to exposeyou, others working around you,or property to an unacceptable level of risk you must consider the introduction of controls. If you cannot reduce identifi ed risks toan acceptable level you will need to change your planned actions.

Step 5 – What do I need to monitor?Remain alert to what is happening around you. As the situation changes, re-evaluate your actions.Are there new hazards? Has the level of risk changed? Go back to step 1 and repeat the Dynamic RiskAssessment process.

Remember: Dynamic Risk Assessment is not meant to be a complicated exercise but rather a basic process in which you identify risks and classify them based on the likelihood and consequences of their occurrence. Based on that classifi cation, you then make decisions about your own actions.

Assessing the level of risk

When assessing the risk associated withyour planned actions you should start byconsidering likelihood versus consequenceand then determine the level of risk involved.

Likelihood

Likelihood is about how sure we are that arisk event will happen.

LIKELIHOOD

DESCRIPTOR DESCRIPTION

Certain Will happen

Very LikelyWill probably happen

UnlikelyCould happen atsome time

RareCould only happenin exceptional circumstances

Likelihood, on its own, is not suffi cient to assess the overall level of risk. So we alsoneed to consider consequence that mightresult from each of likelihood descriptors.




Consequence

Consequence is about the effect or outcome that the risk event can have on personnel or property.

CONSEQUENCE

DESCRIPTOR DESCRIPTION

Catastrophic

Death; multiple/extensive injuries; severe loss of operational capability.

Major

Loss of consciousness;injuries requiringtime off work; loss of signifi cant equipment – time lost.

Moderate

Injuries requiringfi rst aid and medical follow up; repair toequipment required– may result in lost time.

Insignifi cant

Minor injuries requiring on scene fi rst aid; minorequipment loss/damage – no time lost.

Level of risk

Level of risk is a measure derived from the likelihood of a risk event happening and theconsequence that would result from that event. The level of risk will determine theactions that should be taken.

LEVEL OF RISK

CODE DESCRIPTOR DESCRIPTION

E ExtremeDo not proceed; alternativetactics required.

H High

Closesupervision/backuprequired.

M MediumNormalprocedures should suffi ce.

L LowMonitor for escalation.

Once you have identifi ed the level of risk,you will need to consider what controls areneeded to eliminate the risk or reduce the risk to an acceptable level.




Risk assessment matrix

The risk assessment matrix combines thelevel of risk and the consequence into asingle table. It is a useful tool for evaluatingthe level of risk associated with your planned actions. It will help you to determine thecontrol actions that should be consideredand whether an alternative plan of action is needed.

The matrix (Figure 6) is largely self explanatory.

When carrying out a risk assessment youneed to look at the situation in context; whendetermining the consequence the worst case scenario is not always the most appropriate way of looking at a situation.

Consider the following example.

You may say that the likelihood of a hosebursting at a fi re would be regarded as rare.

But should it burst, the consequence mightwell be catastrophic.

Taken together the overall risk would be assessed as high. Appropriate controlswould be to have a backup hose inplace and maintain close supervision of the situation.

When assessing the level of risk you should consider what is actually going on and whatare the hazards (Dynamic Risk Assessment Step 1) as different scenarios may producedifferent outcomes.

Over the page we will look at the same situation (hose burst) but with twodifferent scenarios:

Scenario 1 – roadside rest area rubbish F

bin fi re; and

Scenario 2 – going grass fi re with fl ame F

height of 2–3 metres.

CONSEQUENCE

LIKELIHOOD Catastrophic Major Moderate Insignifi cant

Certain E E H M

Very Likely E H H M

Unlikely H H M L

Rare H M M L

Figure 6 – risk assessment matrix

E EXTREME: Do NOT proceed/alternate tactics required.

H HIGH: Close supervision/backup required.

M MEDIUM: Normal procedures should suffi ce.

L LOW: Monitor for escalation.




CONSEQUENCE

LIKELIHOOD Major Moderate Insignifi cant

Certain E E H M

Very Likely E H H M

Unlikely H H M L

Rare H M M L

Scenario 2: Going grass fi re with fl ame height of 2–3 metres.What would be the level of risk that fi refi ghters are exposed to should a hose burst in a going grass fi re with a fl ame height of 2–3 metres?

Using the risk assessment matrix, the likelihood of a hose bursting could be seen as rare(the same as in Scenario 1) the consequence may however be catastrophic.

In this situation the risk associated with a the hose bursting is identifi ed as high. Insituations where risk has been assessed as high, we should supervise closely and back upequipment/personnel. This could mean the use of a second hose line.

Figure 8 – Scenario 2: hose burst in a going grass fi re with fl ame height of 2–3 metres

Scenario 1: Roadside rest area rubbish bin fi re.What would be the level of risk that fi refi ghters are exposed to at a roadside rest arearubbish bin fi re should their hose burst?

Using the risk assessment matrix, the likelihood of a hose bursting could be seen asrare and in this situation as there are no obvious risks to fi refi ghters the consequence isinsignifi cant, therefore you would assess the risk as low.

In situations where risk is assessed as low you shouldw monitor for any escalation in the situation.

CONSEQUENCE

LIKELIHOOD Catastrophic Major Moderate Insignifi cant

Certain E E H M

Very Likely E H H M

Unlikely H H M L

Rare H M M L

Figure 7 – Scenario 1: hose burst at roadside rest area rubbish bin fi re




Contingency plans

Appropriate levels of contingency can usuallybe arrived at by “What if? – we could...”thinking.

What if? We could

What if the hoseline burst? Thoseon the end of the hose line couldbe burnt.

We could put ina second (back-up) line.

What if the pump stopped? Those on the end of the hose could be burnt.

We could put in a second pump anduse its line for the back-up line.

REMEMBER: you must continually evaluate your environment using the dynamic risk assessment model.

“Safety First” approach

Firefi ghter safety must be given priority overall other fi re suppression considerations and activities.

When working at an incident, you must avoid putting yourself at risk. By adopting the SafePerson Approach and using the fi ve step Dynamic Risk Assessment process you can minimise the risk of injury to self and others.

SPADRA

The application of the safe person approach and the use of dynamic risk assessment maybe referred to by the acronym SPADRA.

To ensure their effectiveness we need tounderstand when SPADRA should be used.

The safe person approach must be F

practised at all times regardless of our activities.

The dynamic risk assessment is for use F

in situations that are constantly changingsuch as fi re and incident operations.

Safe PersonApproach

DynamicRisk

Assessment

SPADRA

Figure 9 – SPADRA




Dynamic Assessment of Risk

This process is followed in DSE.

Throughout this manual reference is madeto eliminating or reducing risk associatedwith hazards.

Assessing risk and implementing controls can prevent or minimise your chance of death, injury or illness. The process meansyou identify the hazards and assess the risk that hazard poses to your safety and thelikelihood of it actually occurring.

Assessing the risk associated with identifi ed hazards should involve thinking about:

the likelihood of harm occurring; F

how often you are exposed to a hazard; F

the possible consequences of F

exposure; and

whether there are regulations related to F

the hazard.

This process allows you to decide if thehazard has an acceptable level of risk, or if you need to do something to reduce the risk level.

On the fi reground you will be required to constantly monitor the changing conditionsand perform a dynamic assessment of the risk, utilising your knowledge and understandingof fi reground hazards including, fi refi ghterWATCHOUTS and LACES.

Personal Protective ClothingCFA and DSE have policies and procedures covering the provision, specifi cations andrequirements during fi refi ghting for personal protective clothing (PPC).

For example, CFA has Chief Offi cer’s StandingOrders (SOs), Chief Offi cer’s Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and policies forthe correct use of equipment, type of, and thewearing of, protective clothing. It is importantthat you know, understand and follow youragency’s procedures.

Overalls and bushfi re jacket with overtrousers

The two types of personal protective clothing in use are the one piece overall and the two piece ensemble, consisting of a jacket and overtrousers.

They are worn to protect against:

radiant heat; F

minor burns; F

sunburn; F

abrasion; F

lacerations; F

Figure 10 – bushfi re personal protective clothing

DSE overalls CFA jacket and overtrousers




Note: do not under any circumstances take off protective clothing in an attempt to cool down when working at a bushfi re. Only when in a safe area should you unbutton cuffs, underarm side vents, overall front or remove jacket.

Care and maintenance

All bleaches and some detergents will deteriorate the fl ame-retardant treatment.You should refer to Standard OperatingProcedures and the garment label for further information on correct washing and care instructions. Damaged or worn out clothing should be replaced.

Structural Personal Protective Clothingand Equipment

The structural fi refi ghtingensemble is not to be worn at a bushfi reas the thermal properties of the material used to manufacture themprevent adequate cooling for the conditions youwill encounter at a bushfi re.

Alternatively, bushfi re protective clothing does not provide suffi cient protection foroffensive structural fi refi ghting.

However, if a structural turnout coat is taken to a grass or bush fi re, it may be worn tokeep warm at night.

hot embers; and F

risk of injury from vehicles or machinery in F

poor visibility.

They are made from a lightweight cotton fabric which has been treated with a fl ameretardant preparation (PROBAN®). The fabricis brightly coloured and has refl ective strips for increased visibility.

They are designed to be, and intended to beworn, loose fi tting to allow maximum freedomof movement and to ensure suffi cient airfl owto aid cooling. It is important in bushfi re fi refi ghting to minimise the build up of bodyheat. Sleeves must be rolled down and frontstuds closed when working close to a fi re.

They also have a large collar, which may bedrawn up to protect the neck, lower headand ears. Closures at the wrist and ankle, when worn correctly, provide protectionagainst embers and radiant heat.

Both variations are designed to be wornover minimal under garments. For example, Polo-shirts, shorts and cotton or lightweight woollen trousers are the normal undergarment combination. It is important to keepundergarments as light and loose fi tting as possible, again to ensure suffi cient airfl ow to aid cooling.

Your personal protective clothing providesthe primary protection against risks to life ina burnover situation. Secondary measuressuch as heat shielding, protective blanketsand/or water sprays also assist in performing this function.

Figure 11 – structural clothing unsuitable for bushfi re




Helmets

There are different types of fi refi ghting helmets; those designed specifi callyfor bushfi re fi refi ghting, and those forstructural fi refi ghting.

A helmet protects your head from:

radiant heat; F

high temperatures; F

ash and embers; F

impact and puncture injuries; for example, F

falling tree limbs or rocks;

splash from Class A foam, wetting agents F

and chemicals (retardants);

being struck by hand tools; F

contact with electrical hazards; and F

steam or scalding water created F

by fi refi ghting.

Features and differences

Bushfi re helmets are lighter than F

structural helmets;

both helmets can be fi tted with a F

headlamp;

CFA helmets are fi tted with a neck and ear F

protection fl ap. DSE helmets can be fi tted with neckfl aps, hearing and eye protection as required;

both helmets have brims to direct water F

and embers away from the neck – the brimon a bushfi re helmet is smaller than that on a structural helmet;

structural helmets have a face shield to F

protect the eyes and face from fl yingobjects and radiant heat;

structural helmets have high impact F

strength due to the combined inner and outer shell construction; and

both helmets have a refl ective strip to F

increase visibility of the wearer.

Note: bushfi re jackets are only to be worn with bushfi re over trousers. Combinations of bushfi re and structural personal protective clothing and equipment are not to be worn.

Figure 12 – structural (unsuitable for bushfi re) and bushfi re helmets (CFA and DSE)

CFA bushfi re

Structural

DSE bushfi re




Note: hazards faced in a bushfi re environment differ considerably from those in a structural environment. Therefore, you must wear only the appropriate and approved helmet, relevant to the task while working at an incident or fi re. Structural helmets, due to the extra weight, should not be worn for long periods or at a bushfi re.

Fitting of helmets

For CFA members chinstraps on all typesof helmets must be worn to ensure that thehelmet remains in the correct position. The inner harness should be adjusted to ensure a correct and comfortable fi t on the head.

CFA members should wear the neck andear protection fl aps at all times on the fi reground. DSE fi refi ghters should refer to the Information pages on FireWeb.

CFA bushfi re helmet inserts are available inthree sizes:

normal; F

small; and F

extra small. F

Adjustment of the head strap length and the front and rear headbands should accommodate all head sizes.

CFA members must not wear helmets whilein the cabin of a vehicle or while travelling in the roll over protection system (ROPs) enroute or from a fi re as they may contribute to neck injury. They are to be securely stowedwhen travelling.


You are to maintain your helmet in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

As a guideline:

apply only approved adhesives or stickers F

to the helmet shell;

remove dirt, oil and chemical residue F

from helmets as soon as possible with warm soapy water – do not use abrasives or solvents;

regularly inspect the inner head harness F

and helmets for cracks or damage andreplace the components or helmets that are damaged;

store helmets out of direct sunlight F

as ultra violet light can deteriorate them structurally;

do not use helmets as seats; and F

do not drop or throw helmets. F

Boots

There are different types of boots designed for fi refi ghting. As stated previously, hazards faced in a bushfi re environment differ considerably from those in a structuralenvironment. Therefore, you must onlywear appropriate and approved boots while working at an incident or fi re.

Figure 13 – bushfi re boot (left) and bushfi re/structural boot




Gloves

Another important item of protective clothing is gloves. When correctly fi tted, glovesapproved for use in fi refi ghting offer levelsof performance consistent with that of other protective garments worn.

There are two types of gloves commonly used:

bushfi re fi refi ghting gloves – provide a F

level of performance based on bushfi repersonal protective clothing requirements identifi ed earlier in this chapter; and

structural fi refi ghting gloves – provide an F

intermediate level of performance withhigher levels of thermal and heat transfer protection than bushfi re gloves.

Both types of gloves feature an all leatherconstruction with an extended wrist cuff.

Bushfi re boots are suitable for bushfi refi refi ghting; structural GP leather boots are suitable for both structural and bushfi re fi refi ghting.

Boots are designed to:

protect your feet from: F

some chemicals; •

radiant heat; •

burning embers and hot coals; •

impact by heavy objects, the boots have •steel toe caps; and

sharp objects, cuts and abrasions; •

increase your grip on wet and F

oily surfaces;

keep your feet dry; and F

provide support for the foot and ankle. F

Firefi ghting boots have heat resistant soles, are made of leather, have a high lace up and have a safety toe cap. You should ensureyou have the correct size and that theyare comfortable. It is advisable to breakin new boots prior to wearing them onthe fi reground.


Boots should be cared for and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. As a guideline, leather boots should be cleaned and polished regularly tomaintain their waterproofi ng, particularly if working around Class A foam solution and wetting agents. Damaged or worn out bootsshould be replaced.

Figure 14 – bushfi re fi refi ghting gloves




Gloves are used for a range of purposes, including to:

protect the hands from abrasions, F

cuts, wounds, burn injuries, splintersand blisters;

prevent the risk of cross infection when F

handling casualties (if double gloved using a nitrile glove on the inside);

reduce exposure when handling foam F

solution or other fi refi ghting chemicals;

increase grip; F

protect against heat; and F

provide protection to the wrist. F

Gloves for other specialist applications (notto be used for bushfi re fi refi ghting) include:

heavy rescue anti-cut – Kevlar F ® knitted;

medical response – nitrile; F

chemical splash suit – PVC; and F

foam concentrate handling – neoprene F

or nitrile.

Note: gloves must be appropriate for their intended use and correctly fi tted.


Gloves should be cleaned according to the manufacturer’s instructions.Gloves contaminated with chemicals or biological waste should be disposed of, ordecontaminated, in accordance with agencypolicy and procedures. Damaged or worn-out gloves should be replaced.

Personal Protective Equipment

Along with protective clothing, there is arange of personal protective equipment (PPE) used by fi refi ghters offering:

respiratory protection; F

eye protection; and F

hearing protection. F

Respiratory protection

Respiratory protection against atmosphericcontaminants (particulates) at bushfi res can be provided by wearing an approved particulate fi lter mask which remove contaminants from the air that you breath.

Particulate fi lter masks

P2 particulate fi lter masks should be wornwhen working to prevent the inhalation of particulates contained in dust, exhaust fumes and smoke.

Firefi ghters may suffer irritation to therespiratory tract as a result of exposure to airborne particles and need to leave the area to recover in fresh air.

Particulate fi lter masks, rated as Class P2, can be relied on to provide reasonable protection to the nose, throat and lungs from:

ash; and F

larger airborne particles that may be F

present in smoke.




When using these masks, some discomfortassociated with sweating and inhaling warm exhaled air may be experienced, therefore, only wear them when required. Seek advice from your Crew Leader.


P2 particulate fi lter masks are disposable and should be replaced when breathing becomes restricted or for reasons of general hygiene.

P2 nuisance level organic vapour respirators

Firefi ghters should refer to their agency’s procedures for the use of these respirators. A P2 nuisance level organic vapour respiratoris to be used when decanting Class A foam concentrate to prevent the inhalation of vapours. It must be correctly fi tted andadjusted to ensure a tight seal.

Note: this respirator must not be used when fi refi ghting.


Class A concentrate decanting kits(containing a P2 nuisance level organicvapour respirator) are to be stowed on yourCFA appliance (where fi tted) in the container provided. Respirators are to be replaced as per the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Note: particulate fi lter masks and P2 nuisance level organic vapour respirators are not to be used in an oxygen defi cient atmosphere.

Figure 15 – P2 particulate fi lter mask with exhalation valve

Figure 16 – P2 nuisance level organic vapour respirator (non cartridge type)




Eye protection

There are several types of eye protectionavailable to fi refi ghters including:

bushfi re/smoke goggles; F

vented goggles; F

helmet face visor; F

safety goggles that are fully sealed around F

the face, used when handling Class A foam concentrate; and

safety glasses with impact resistant F

lenses with or without side shields and UVlenses fi tted.

In a bushfi re situation, bushfi re/smoke goggles offer the best protection. They have impact and heat resistant lenses, exclude airborne particles and can be worn over glasses. There are “oversize” gogglesavailable use with prescription glasses.

Eye protection is worn to prevent eye injuries and irritation, and the resulting impediment to your vision, from:

impacts, for example, small branches and F

hand tools;

Figure 17 – typical bushfi re/smoke goggles

airborne particles, for example, smoke, F

ash, dust and hot embers;

heat; F

water and chemical splashes; and F

UV damage. F

Figure 19 – goggles correctly placed on helmet for stowage

Figure 18 – goggles correctly placed into head harness for wearing




When wearing any type of eye protection, it must be appropriate for its intended use and correctly fi tted in accordance with your agency’s procedures.

Note: in Figure 18, the neck fl ap has been removed from the helmet for illustrative purposes only.


Eye protection should be maintained, repaired and replaced according to themanufacturer’s instructions.

Hearing protection

Equipment and machinery such aschainsaws, pumps, vehicles and aircraft used during fi refi ghting can be noisy.Hearing protection, such as earmuffs or earplugs, must be worn when operatingor when working near such equipment,particularly for long periods of time. The bestform of hearing protection is to move awayfrom the noise – remove ear protection as soon as practicable.

You should be aware of the following:

ear protection must be compatible with F

eye and head protection equipment sothat it does not impede functionality;

it can be diffi cult to hear instructions, F

warnings and radio messages when wearing ear protection;

you can become isolated from what is F

going on around you – stay alert and look for visual signals; and

hearing protection is designed to suit F

different noise levels and types; you must ensure that the correct hearing protection is used for a specifi c hazard.


Hearing protection is to be used, maintained, repaired and replaced according to themanufacturer’s instructions.

Limitation of bushfi re protective clothing and equipment

All protective clothing will have limitationsat some point. It must be understood that wearing protective clothing does not makea fi refi ghter invincible. Bushfi re personalprotective clothing and equipment isdesigned to offer some protection againstthe hazards experienced at a bushfi re. It offers some protection against radiant heat, embers and smoke. It offers little or no protection against concentrated acids,alkalis, gamma and x-ray radiation, explosiveor cryogenic materials. In these situations the best option is to keep unprotected personnel at a safe distance from these hazardousmaterials.




Specialist Protective Clothing and Equipment

A range of personal protective clothing ismade available to fi refi ghters who have been trained to work in hazardous environmentswhere normal fi refi ghting turn out gearoffers little protection. This specialist personal protective clothing and equipmentmay include:

positive pressure breathing apparatus F

(BA) – protects the wearer against inhaling contaminated air;

chemical splash suits – protect the F

wearer against chemical liquid splashes,hazardous dust or dirty environments andAlpha radiation; and

encapsulated gas suits – provide the F

highest level of protection for the wearer against chemical liquid splashes andharmful gases and vapours.

Certain substances and/or chemicals can damage or penetrate even this specialist equipment so it is critical that any protectiveequipment is identifi ed as suitable for usein the environment in which the wearer willbe working.

Appliance safety equipment

Tankers are fi tted with a number of safety features and items of equipment. You shouldfamiliarise yourself with those applicableto your tanker/slip-on. Things to lookfor include:

seat belts; F

roll over protection system (ROPS); F

roll down crew protection curtains; F

fi re blankets; F

intercom system; F

heat shielding; F

diesel powered pump and truck engines; F

hose; F

fog nozzles; F

front sprays; F

crew/vehicle protection spray system; and F

low water alert system and water level F

sight tube.

Note: you should constantly monitor water level prior to, and during, all fi re suppression and mopping up activities to ensure reserve water level is maintained for crew protection.




Hazards Related to Bushfi re

Along with the more obvious hazardsyou may face at a bushfi re, such as heat and smoke, there are other, perhaps less obvious, hazards you need to be aware of.

Lifting or moving heavy objects

Firefi ghting activities often involve lifting or moving heavy equipment or objects (tasks referred to as manual handling). The weightand shape of equipment or objects such as branches and logs may make them more hazardous to lift or move.

Risk factors associated with manual handlingcan include:

posture and movements; F

the duration and frequency of the task; F

distance and time; F

the effort/force required to lift/move the F

object; and

the nature of the load, for example, shape F

and weight.

Unless performed correctly, manual handling activities have the potential to cause injury to fi refi ghters.

Common types of injuries include:

muscular/joint sprain and strain – where F

muscles or joints in the arms, shoulders, back or legs may be damaged;

impact injuries – where heavy items fall on F

you causing damage;

back injuries – where discs or vertebrae F

are damaged; and

hernias – where tears may occur in the F

muscular wall of the abdomen.

Precautions

When lifting or moving loads, you should try to:

keep your nose, knees and toes in line; F

handle loads close to and directly in front F

of your body (keep the load betweenshoulder and mid thigh height, arms at right angles);

keep movement (force applied to lift) F

forward or backward and avoid twisting your spine or knees;

seek the assistance of another fi refi ghter F

to share the load or use a mechanical aid as appropriate; and

limit the frequency and duration of heavy/ F

hazardous manual handling tasks.

Figure 20 – lifting correctly can help avoid injuries

AVOID INJURYStraight back

and knees bent

Refer to your agency’s procedures for liftingand moving heavy objects.




Figure 21 – fence damaged by fi re

Natural hazards

Domestic and wild animals behave F

erratically when panicked by fi re. Wherepossible, avoidance is the best way to deal with this situation. Extreme care is required when handling stressed animals.Be aware that releasing animals such as horses, sheep or cattle is likely to cause a traffi c hazard.

Reptiles and insects. The best protection F

from reptiles and insects is to avoidthem where possible and always wear protective clothing.

Fencing

You should avoid jumping or climbing over fencing. Rotten or burnt posts and rails may collapse under your weight or loss of footingmay cause injury. It is safer to go under orthrough a fence rather than over it.

Post and wire fences are constructed withtension in the wires to prevent sagging. If a fence wire needs to be cut, park the vehicle at a suffi cient distance from the fence and warn people in the immediate area. Whenyou have cut the wire, coil it around the post and tie it off to reduce the possibility of anyone being injured. It is also a good idea to stagger the position of the cuts so that thelonger strands can be joined as a temporarymeasure later by the landowner.

PrecautionsWhen cutting a fence wire, drive a stick into the hole that the wire is passing through. This stops the cut wire from pulling throughthe post and fl icking back.

TerrainUnexpected changes in ground height may also cause injury or endanger your life. Bealert for:

embankments and gullies with steep sides; F

cliffs; F

mine shafts; F

wells; and F

other crews working up slope. F

PrecautionsWhen working in thick vegetation, dense smoke or at night, unevenness in the ground will not be easy to see. You will need to:

be observant, constantly monitoring your F

position;

consider the need for a torch and external F

lighting;

work and stay in contact with other team F

members;

stay on defi ned tracks or paths as much as F

possible; and

move at a pace suitable for the particular F

conditions.




Hazardous trees – recognise the hazard

Many serious injuries and fatalities occurwhile working around trees; people andvehicles have been struck by falling trees andbranches. People working around hazardous trees need to be able to recognise the hazardand take steps to minimise the risk.

The most effective ways to reduce the risksassociated with hazardous trees is to avoid being in the area or wherever possible,take actions that will prevent potentially hazardous trees being further weakenedby fi re.

Indicators that a tree may be hazardous

As you move around the fi reground youneed to look carefully to see if there are any indicators that a tree may be hazardous. Indicators may include:

the base of the tree has been impacted F

by fi re with greater than 50% of the baseburnt out;

the tree is currently on fi re – if greater than F

50% of the base is burnt out and spiral cracks are present it represents a high risk;

the tree has fi re ash at it’s base, indicating F

that roots may be burnt out;

the base of the tree displays soil heave, F

indicating that it has moved; and

Figure 23 – fi re ash indicating roots may be burnt out

Fire ash

Figure 24 – soil heave

Soil heave

Figure 22 – tree with greater than 50% base burnout

Fire impact




the tree has broken limbs still in the tree or F

on the ground around the tree.

Actions on seeing a potentially hazardous tree

When seeing a tree that you think is hazardous, you should immediately:

alert all the people that are working in the F

immediate area;

advise your Crew Leader, who will then F

report the location of the suspect tree upthe chain of command and arrange for it tobe appropriately marked then mitigated by DSE;

CFA crews, under direction of the Crew F

Leader, will deploy fi re tape (red and whitetape) at least two tree lengths from thehazardous tree or across any access trackto isolate the hazardous tree; and

DSE crews will implement the DSE F

hazardous tree guideline on assessing andmarking hazardous trees.

Remember: that safety is everybody’s responsibility. Being observant on the fi reground and reporting hazards will greatly assist in maintaining safety for all crews and personnel on the fi reground.

Marking hazardous trees

CFA members will not mark hazardous trees. DSE will conduct this task. Refer toDSE Hazardous Tree Guideline for furtherinformation on assessing and marking hazardous trees.

The marking system for pre-treatment of potentially hazardous trees is a yellow dot on two sides of the tree; this is to alert the crewto perform protection work. This markingsystem is not to be confused with clear andpresent danger actual hazardous trees where the trees are marked with a yellow “K”.

Following fi re impact DSE will assess thearea for hazardous trees to a distance equivalent to one tree height plus the mop-up depth from the control line. Hazardoustrees presenting a clear and present danger will be marked with the letter “K” andprocesses to treat the tree will be instigated.

Marking is to be spray painted, in non-fl ammable aerosol yellow greater than 30 cmheight, on two sides so it can be seen when accessing from the control line. In addition, hazard tape (black and yellow meaning:CAUTION DO NOT ENTER) will be tied at 1 x 90 cm length, or one hoop around a tree, is required to identify the edge of the controlline adjacent to the hazardous tree or group of trees.

Figure 25 – hanging branches

Hanging branch




Further identifi cation and marking of hazardous trees (“K” in yellow spray paint)can also commence to 2 x tree height fromthe control line and 2 x 90 cm lengths, or two hoops around a tree, to identifythe edge of the control line adjacentto the hazard. Alternatively, systematic treatment of additional hazardous treescan occur simultaneously with mop-up while maintaining safe work areas betweendifferent operations.

When you see a marked hazardous tree, you need to modify any plans that you have toensure that you reduce the potential impact if the tree or branch(s) fall.

Dangerous rocks

Rolling rocks can cause serious injury or even death. Rocks that are dislodged byheavy machinery working on slopes have the potential to roll downhill, posing a risk to crews working down slope.

A rock pushed by a machine may dislodge other rocks. This combination createsa domino effect and creates the risk of a severe impact or crush injury at some distance from the machine.

Note: never work down slope from heavy machinery and always stay more than two tree lengths away in any direction.

Precautions

To reduce the likelihood of injury:

always wear your bushfi re helmet; F

keep a look out for hazards created by F

rocks; and

when working on slopes remember to look F

up slope.

Mine shafts

Many areas of Victoria are dotted with open and partially collapsed disused mine shafts.These are a constant hazard to fi refi ghters as in many cases they will be concealed by undergrowth. Extreme care should be taken when working in areas known to havemine shafts.

Figure 27 – hazardous tree marking

Figure 26 – tape indicating a hazardous tree two tree lengths away

Hazardous tree within 2 tree lengths




Precautions

You need to keep a constant watch out formine shafts. Where possible, crews should avoid working in these areas at night. If workin these areas at night cannot be avoided,make sure the work area is well lit usingvehicle head lights or portable tanker worklighting – where necessary carry a torchwith you.

Smoke and dust hazards

Smoke and dust are ever-present irritantsto your eyes and lungs at fi res. Prolongedexposure to heavy smoke can be hazardous to fi refi ghters. In addition to restricting visibility, heavy smoke contains higherconcentrations of carbon monoxide (CO)which is a poisonous gas.

Inhalation of smoke and dust can:

reduce your performance on the F

fi reground;

bring on fatigue more quickly; F

bring on illness; and F

alter perception and judgement. F

Severe inhalation of smoke may result in death due to carbon monoxide poisoning.

Precautions

Minimise the effects of smoke and dust by:

avoiding unnecessary exposure; and F

using approved personal protective F

equipment when travelling or operating in any smoke or dust affected areas, for example, P2 particulate fi lters andgoggles.

Working at night

Where possible, crews should avoid working in dangerous situations at night.Consideration should be given to relocatingcontrol lines to reduce the exposure to risk.

If work in these areas at night cannot beavoided, make sure the work area is well lit using vehicle head lights or portable tankerwork lighting – where necessary carry a torch with you.

Disorientation

Smoke blocks out sunlight and this can cause loss of situational awareness.

Note: in situations where there is heavy smoke, be aware that fresh air pockets may be found near the ground.

Figure 28 – a mine shaft

Figure 29 – tankers operating in smoke




Poor visibility

Vehicles and earth moving equipment createintense dust. Smoke, dust and fi reground situations can make the environment verydark. These conditions may be referred to as “brown out” conditions. Reduced visibilityis a hazard to personnel and traffi c andcan lead to poor situational awareness anddisorientation.

Precautions

If visibility is poor due to dust, smoke, low light or darkness:

make an exclusion zone around any F

machines;

close off road or track; and F

ensure vehicle or machinery lights are F

switched on.

Trip hazards

Uneven ground, debris such as fallenbranches and even hose lines all pose a trip hazard.

Precautions

To reduce the likelihood of injury, watchout for possible trip hazards and, where possible, remove them.

Radiant heat

Radiant heat is a potential killer. Exposure to radiant heat increases fatigue and can lead to heat related illnesses. You are inreal trouble if radiant heat enters your bodyfaster than you can maintain your core bodytemperature by sweating.

As fl ame height increases so does radiant heat. In cases of sudden fl are ups, if youdo not fi nd shelter or move away from the fl are up, you may receive serious burns within seconds and collapse and die within minutes.

As radiant heat only travels in straight lines from its source, taking refuge behind a large solid object such as a structure will shieldyou from the radiant heat.

If unable to place a barrier between you and the heat source then you need to minimiseyour exposure to the amount of radiant heat.Cover all exposed skin and lay face down in a fuel reduced area, where the air may befresher, until the fl are up subsides.

Figure 30 – reduced visibility as dust obscures working dozer




Precautions

As discussed previously, personal protective clothing and equipment is designed to offersome protection against radiant heat. If you are too close to the fi re, your core body temperature will still rise.

To overcome this you need to move further away from the heat source, that is, the fl ame, to a more comfortable distance. Fourtimes the fl ame height is the acceptedcomfortable distance.

If radiant heat could become life threateningconsider relocating to your safe area or implementing your “taking refuge” procedures (see page 60).

Spot fi res

Spot fi res are fi res that occur ahead of, or away from, the main fi re. If embers start tofall in the area around you causing spot fi resto develop, the situation is critical.

Precautions

You should immediately inform your Crew Leader and be prepared to leave the area using planned escape routes if spot fi rescannot be easily controlled.

8 m

Flame height = 2 m

Comfortable distance= 4 x flame height

Figure 31 – accepted comfortable distance

Figure 33 – spot fi re in grassland

Figure 32 – spot fi re in a forest




Changes in wind direction/strength

To ensure crew safety, it is critical thatfi refi ghters monitor the current weather conditions and receive information about potential changes to wind direction and strength.

Changes in wind direction and strength can cause shifts in the fi re front and can cause long and relatively quiet fl anks to suddenly become active fi re fronts resulting in entrapment.

Precautions

Monitor the weather; F

monitor fi re behaviour; and F

maintain situational awareness. F

Working near power lines

Electrical hazards may be encountered atbushfi res or other incidents by power linesbeing brought down due to:

high winds; F

falling trees or branches; F

motor vehicle impact; or F

burnt power poles falling. F

You must always consider downed electricalwires as live. Do not come into contact with the wires. Report downed lines to thepower company.

A downed live power line may result in electricity fl owing through the ground surface for several metres around the area where thewire is making contact. Firefi ghters who standon, or walk over, ground that is in contact withelectrical wires may receive an electric shock through their legs. Under some circumstances the electric shock can be fatal.

Note: if a wire is in contact with an object such as a metal or wire fence or a vehicle, the whole object should be considered live even at some considerable distance from the point of contact.

Figure 35 – burnt power pole fallen on road

beforewind change

wind

afterwind change

wind

Figure 34 – changes in wind direction




You should also be aware that overhead high voltage power or transmission lines can shortcircuit to ground through smoke and fl ames without making direct ground contact. If arcing is observed the area is unsafe.

Putting water on a fi re will increase theelectrical conductivity of the smoke. If thesmoke is green/grey colour and curling as it rises under the transmission lines, then there is a high likelihood of a transmission linefl ashover or discharging to the ground.

Precautions

Maintain a safe distance from downed F

wires, power lines or towers that arecovered in smoke:

the minimum safe distance from any •fallen distribution line (low voltage, SWER or high voltage) is 8 metres;

the minimum safe distance from any •fallen transmission line (extra highvoltage) is 20 metres.

Note: these distances will increase if the ground is wet or water is present.

notify the power supply company to cut F

power and follow its advice regarding safe work practices;

cordon off the area with tape, rope or by F

other suitable means;

do not work directly under high voltage or F

transmission lines where smoke is present;

do not park your vehicle near loose F

dangling electrical wires;

where possible, avoid locating the F

appliance, or working, under overheadelectrical lines or on the inside angle of overhead electrical wires where they change direction;

avoid applying a direct stream of F

water onto electrical equipment or making contact between electricalequipment and wet hose lines as waterconducts electricity;

take special care at night – use a torch or F

your vehicle’s lights to locate the ends of fallen wires;

ensure people working in the area are F

warned of the danger; and

maintain minimum overhead clearance. No F

vehicle or equipment greater than 4 metres in height, including communication aerials,is permitted under transmission lines.

Figure 36 – extra high voltage transmissiontowers (500KV)




Working around vehicles and appliances

Vehicles and appliances at, or travellingto or from, a fi re are a potential hazard to emergency personnel and other road users.

Precautions

Vehicle should be operated in a mannerthat will minimise the risk to others; this mayinclude the use of warning lights and driving to suit the conditions.

When working on or around vehicles and appliances:

drivers and passengers in the cabin F

should always wear a seat belt on a moving vehicle or appliance (where fi tted);

crew members outside the cabin should F

be seated in the roll over protective system(ROPS) and wearing seat belts at all times, unless actively engaged in fi refi ghtingoperations;

ensure any items of equipment carried in F

the vehicle or appliance are safely stowed, locker doors are closed and secured, and exterior equipment is secured;

do not ride on the back of a vehicle F

or appliance unless it is designed for this purpose;

when working on the rear work platform of a F

vehicle or appliance, be aware that there is a potential for slipping, falling or being thrown,especially if the vehicle is moving over rough or steep terrain;

always be alert for hazards created by F

vehicles being driven carelessly in conditions of poor visibility, track or road conditions;

stay clear while working on the ground F

near a moving vehicle or appliance – thedriver may not see you; and

mount and dismount the vehicle or F

appliance using the steps and rails provided to the crew area and cabinto avoid injury – do not jump from any vehicle or appliance.

When parking or siting vehicles or appliance:

the driver may remove his or her seat belt F

while reversing;

the crew should assist by guiding the F

driver while reversing or siting the vehicleor appliance;

Figure 38 – mounting and dismounting an appliance

Into the crew area Into the cabin

Figure 37 – use seat belts where fi tted




that you maintain at least two tree lengths separation while working. These machines may dislodge rocks, logs and trees, on both fl at ground and on slopes, causing hazards for both fi refi ghters and vehicles.

Precautions

Do not approach heavy machinery until youhave established eye contact and receivedacknowledgement from the operator. Operators will have extreme diffi culty hearing over the noise of the machine.

Only approach when directed by theoperator. Heavy machinery such as a bulldozer, can slew or turn quickly andwithout warning. You should never attempt to hitch a ride as the moving tracks, or wheels,can be hazardous.

If you need to approach an operator, do soonly when you have made eye contact and signalled your need to communicate. Only approach when you receive the signal it is safe to do so. Remain in the line of sight of the operator at all times.

At night you should carry a torch or remainin a well lit area. In all cases you must followthe operator’s instructions.

the crew must ensure that they are within F

the driver’s fi eld of view;

the driver must know the dimensions of the F

vehicle or appliance;

site vehicle or appliance properly – ensure F

it is sited in a way that ensures it willneither be blocked in, nor block the path of other vehicles;

park safely – both the vehicle and crew F

are at risk of injury from falling trees and branches if parked too close to unstabletrees, only park the vehicle after you have ensured the area is safe from falling trees; and

if alighting on the driver’s side of the F

vehicle, be cautious of passing traffi c.

Working around heavy machinery

Heavy machinery, such as bulldozers,excavators, graders, farm machinery,tractors, ploughs and bobcats create theirown unique set of hazards. Personnelworking near any heavy machinery, in a vehicle or on foot, risk being crushed if themachine operator is not aware of them.

At night, these hazards pose an even greater risk. All machine operators have restricted fi elds of vision to the front and rear due to the engine and roll over protection systems.Dust, smoke and darkness may further impede the operator’s view. When working around any machinery such as chainsaws,bulldozers, graders, and farm machinery, youmust ensure the operator is aware of yourlocation at all times, day or night.

It is important that you never work in an area below where the machinery is operating and

Figure 39 – only approach bulldozer when operatorhas signalled it is safe to do so




Note: chainsaws must have safety features in accordance with relevant Australian standards, and be maintained and kept in good condition by competent personnel only.

Firebombing

Suppressants dropped from fi rebombingaircraft may travel at high speed and theimpact can break or dislodge material from trees. Low fl ying aircraft may createturbulence that can also dislodge material from trees. Both situations may pose a danger to on-ground fi refi ghters near afi rebombing target.

Ground personnel must be alert, and watchand listen for the noise of low fl ying aircraft,which could indicate fi rebombing is imminent. If ground personnel are near a fi rebombing target they must move a safe distance clear of the target area. The Air Attack Supervisor

Figure 41 – stay clear of drop zone during fi rebombing activity

Chainsaws

Chainsaws are used at bushfi res to cut open burning logs, fall trees, cut branches which have fallen on roads and to cut fi rebreaks. They are a useful, but a potentially dangerous tool.

PrecautionsIf you have not been trained and endorsedto use a chainsaw, do not operate one. A qualifi ed chainsaw operator should alwaysoperate the chainsaw in accordance with agency’s procedures and wear the correct protective clothing that may include:

helmet; F

face shield/eye protection; F

ear protection; F

gloves; F

high visibility personal protective clothing; F

chainsaw trousers (or chaps); and F

safety boots (steel cap). F

Crew members should keep a minimum of 1 m from cross cut operations and twotree lengths from falling operations. When chainsaw operations are occurring you should attract the operators attention and only approach when directed by the operator or their offsider.

Figure 40 – chainsaw in use




Class A foam

Class A foam is widely used in bushfi refi refi ghting. It is a concentrated detergent and as such there are precautions that need to be taken when handling, working near and applying it.

Precautions

A risk assessment must be undertaken by F

a Class A foam trained operator as a fi rst step prior to using Class A foam to ensurethat health and safety of personnel is notcompromised;

all F personnel working in areas where ClassA foam is being used on the ground ordropped from aircraft are to be advisedand appropriate care taken to avoid contamination of any personnel;

care should be taken when working in F

areas covered with Class A foam, as trip hazards and holes may be concealed underneath the foam blanket; and

Class A concentrate and solution F

contribute to slippery conditions forpersonnel and vehicles. Affected areasshould be closely monitored and avoided where necessary.

is responsible for warning ground personnelof incoming drops from fi rebombing aircraft and ensuring they are clear before allowing a fi rebombing operation to proceed.

Note: sirens on fi rebombing aircraft may be diffi cult to hear in a high noise level environment i.e. vehicles, pumps, chainsaws. Also note that not all fi rebombing aircraft are equipped with a siren.

If you are caught in a fi rebombing drop zone:

place hand tools well clear of you; F

secure your hard hat or helmet, or protect F

your head with your arms;

move away from the fi rebombing drop F

zone;

do not run or panic; F

watch your footing – foams and retardant F

can make the ground slippery;

watch out for falling branches and debris F

– fi rebombing loads can hit with high velocity; and

if hit with foam or retardant, wash off with F

water as soon as possible.




Working Around Aircraft

A range of aircraft are used in bushfi re suppression activities. The uses of aircraft atan incident can vary widely.

The main uses are:

detecting fi res; F

fi rebombing by applying water, retardants F

or suppressants;

fi rebomber coordination; F

aerial ignition of unburnt fuel within the fi re F

perimeter;

transporting crews and equipment; and F

observing and mapping fi res using infrared F

equipment and other technology.

When working in or around aircraft there are general safety principles that apply. You areto comply with the following principles at alltimes.

The following PPE must be worn byfi refi ghters being ferried by helicopters to and from the fi reline:

protective footwear – leather boots of a F

suffi cient height to allow the legs of the fl ight suit overalls to overlap the boot.Note: if the person assists in refuelling or loading operations involving drummed fuel or heavy items then safety boots are required;

agency approved fl ight suit (one piece) or F

Agency approved fi refi ghting overalls; or 100% natural fi bre or cotton work type shirtwith long sleeves and work type trousers;

non-fl ammable underclothes; F

communications headset if required; and F

hearing protection if required. F

Aircraft safety briefs

Always follow the directions given by thepilot, fl ight crew or aircraft marshal.

The pilot or an authorised person such as the Rappel Dispatcher or the Air Attack Supervisor will conduct a safety briefi ng. It remains the responsibility of the pilot toensure that the briefi ng is conducted.

Note: Civil Aviation Order 20.11 requires that all passengers receive a safety brief prior to take off. It should never be assumed that experience negates this requirement.

The following points must be covered for allfl ights:

entry and exit paths and approach F

procedures;

danger areas; F

loading and carriage of equipment F

including the stowage of hand luggage and personal equipment;

smoking and naked fl ame restrictions; F

door and seat belt operation; and F

the location and operation of the – F

fi re extinguisher(s); •

fi rst-aid kit; •

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT); •

Emergency Position Indicating Radio •Beacon (EPIRB);

emergency exits; •




special survival equipment and/or •supplies;

life jackets, if applicable; and •

crash procedures and positions. •

Landing or take-off areas

The safety procedures that apply in the vicinity of landing or take-off areas are as follows.

When working on or near an airstrip/ F

helipad always wear safety boots,protective overalls, goggles and earprotectors.

Carry all hats, including hard hats and F

helmets, unless the chinstraps are secured – soft, peaked (baseball type) caps must be removed and put in a secure pocket.

Do not leave loose objects near aircraft or F

landing areas where they may be blownabout.

Stay well clear of landing and take-off F

areas when aircraft are operating, unless aspecifi c task requires being in the area.

Smoking is prohibited within 30 m of any F

aircraft, fuel dump or refuelling equipment.

Campfi res must be at least 100 m away F

from aircraft.

Stay away from any moving parts. F

If moving large crews, conduct a safety F

brief.

Keep crews together to one side of the F

landing area and instruct them to face away during take-off or landings.

Make each person responsible for their F

own gear.

Everybody must be ready to board as F

soon as the pilot signals.

Fixed wing safety

The safety procedures that apply in thevicinity of fi xed wing aircraft are as follows.

Always be aware of propellers, particularly F

when engines are idling during warm-up and brief stops to load or unloadpassengers, materials or equipment.

Do not lean on the propeller of a piston F

engine aircraft as the engine can turn overif the ignition switches are left on, or the engine is at the bottom of the compressionstroke.

Do not handle control surfaces such F

as ailerons, elevators, rudder, fl aps ortrim tabs.

Do not handle aerials as they bend easily. F

Do not handle pitot tubes; they can be F

bent and could be hot.

Entry and exit from the plane is dictated by F

the pilot and the aircraft type.

When boarding and leaving aircraft be F

careful to avoid using panel areas marked“no step”.

The pilot is responsible for the correct F

weight and balance of the aircraft.Only assist with loading heavy or bulkyequipment or materials under the pilot’s supervision.

The above points needs to be read inconjunctions with ground safety rules, personal protective equipment requirementsand pre-fl ight briefi ng requirements.




Helicopter safety

The safety procedures that apply in the vicinity of helicopters are listed and illustrated below.

Stay in the pilot’s fi eld of view at all times. F

Stay away from spinning main and tail F

rotor blades as they are not readily visible.

Stand outside F the main rotor disc and donot proceed until the pilot or fl ight crewmember has seen you and indicated thatyou may enter the helicopter, most likelyusing a positive thumbs up signal.

Approach in the pilot’s fi eld of view in a F

crouched position.

Do not run F .

Watch out for aerials and pitot tubes, F

which are easily damaged.

Do not operate a camera (still, digital F

or video) during engines running “hot”loading or unloading.

Do not approach the helicopter until the F

rotors have completely stopped or started.A slowing main rotor can tilt downwards,especially in windy weather.

Be aware of ground irregularities on F

uneven, sloping terrain. Approach anddepart on the lowest, down slope side to give yourself maximum clearance.

Figure 45 – beware of tilting main rotors

Figure 46 – beware of sloping terrain

Figure 44 – approach after receiving the thumbs-up signal

Figure 42Figure 42Fi 42 – helicopter pilot s fi eld of viewhelicopter pilot’s field of viewh li t il t’ fi ld f iand danger areas

Figure 43 – danger area




When entering or departing the helicopter, F

ensure that all hardhats and helmets are either securely fastened under the chinwith a chinstrap or carried securely underthe arm.

Do not wear soft cloth or baseball type F

caps at any time when entering ordeparting a helicopter that has its rotors turning.

Carry stretchers, tools and other objects F

horizontally, fi rmly held below the waist. Never carry equipment upright or over the shoulder.

Carry long objects between two people. F

If blinded by dust, stop, cover the eyes and F

crouch down with your back to the helicopter.Wait in this position until your vision is clear or someone comes to assist you.

Figure 47 – secure hats and caps

Figure 48 – carry objects below waist height

Figure 49 – if dust, crouch with back to the helicopter

Do not rush, take time to think and F

observe. Remember a helicopter canmove in all directions.

Look after your own gear and be ready to F

board when directed to do so.

In-fl ight safety

Follow these safety procedures before andduring a fl ight.

Carefully close and latch the doors. F

Helicopter doors are usually of lightweight construction and easily damaged if subjected to force. Slamming the door is not necessary and does not engage anylatching devices.

Fasten seatbelts securely and keep them F

fastened at all times unless the pilot directsotherwise.

Sit where instructed by the pilot or fl ight crew. F

Do not distract the pilot, especially during F

take-off and landing. Signal an intention tospeak, and wait for a response. Inform thepilot of any possible hazards of which theymay not be aware.

Smoking is not permitted on board F

any aircraft.

Do not place loose objects indiscriminately F

in the cockpit or on the cabin fl oor. They may move about and affect the controls or become dangerous projectiles in the eventof an accident.




Do not throw objects from the helicopter. F

Do not operate a camera (still, digital F

or video) infl ight, without the specifi capproval of the pilot or fl ight crew.

Stow all cameras safely in your personal F

gear bag – not around your neck – during a fl ight, unless specifi c approval has beengiven by the pilot or helicopter crewman.

Do not open doors in fl ight unless instructed F

to by the pilot or a fl ight crew member.

Always obtain the pilot’s approval to exit. F

Always exit in the pilot or a fl ight crew F

member’s fi eld of view.

Emergency procedures

The emergency procedures that apply duringa fl ight are as follows.

If you are travelling in an aircraft for the F

fi rst time, ensure the pilot or a fl ight crew member brief you on the procedure foropening the doors and fastening seat belts. There are many varied combinations, evenamongst aircraft of the same type.

Look for the location of the: F

fi re extinguisher (possibly two); •

fi rst-aid kit; •

Electronic Locator Transmitter (ELT); •

Electronic Positioning Indicating Radio •Beacon (EPIRB); and

if in doubt ask the pilot or fl ight •crew member.

Large helicopters have emergency exits F

fi tted in the sliding doors. Many fi xed wing aircraft have pop-out windows that are also emergency exits. Look at the instructionsfor opening them.

If an emergency should occur, follow F

the pilot’s or crew member’s directionsimmediately and:

do not panic; •

fasten seat belts or harnesses if not •already fastened;

secure any loose objects; and •

brace for impact. •

After landing: F

wait for all movement to stop; •

leave the aircraft in an orderly manner •in the pilot’s sight or as directed by the pilot or fl ight crew; and

when out of the aircraft, move clear •in an upwind direction, as a fi re risk always exists.

Baggage and cargo safety

The procedures for the safe transportation of baggage and cargo are as follows.

Equipment and cargo is to be loaded F

only under the supervision of the pilot or the fl ight crew who are responsible forkeeping the aircraft within its weight andbalance limits.

Equipment and cargo must be unloaded F

under the supervision of the pilot and fl ight crew with the same care as loading.

Know the approximate weight of F

your baggage.

Restrain all internal loads and cover all F

sharp objects to prevent injury to fl ightcrew and/or passengers.




All cameras must be safely stowed F

in personal gear bags (not aroundnecks) during a fl ight unless specifi c approval has been given by the pilot orhelicopter crewman.

Dangerous goods – personal items

Certain personal items are prohibited underIATA regulations from being carried on board aircraft as personal items. These items mustbe declared, packaged and placarded when transported by air. The pilot must be advised of any dangerous goods being transported. Dangerous goods are to be loaded and unloaded only under the supervision of the pilot or fl ight crew. If unsure – ask the pilot orfl ight crew. Personal dangerous goods are:

non-approved matches unless covered in F

a protective sleeve;

gas (butane) lighters, including F

disposable lighters;

gas butane lighter refi lls; F

propane camp stoves and refi lls; F

fl ammable solvents and paints, even when F

these items are carried in tool-boxes; and

signalling or smoke fl ares which are F

not items of the essential aircraft safetyequipment.

The following items are permitted under IATA regulations to be carried as personal itemswithout declaration or placarding:

safety matches in their package; and F

“Zippo” or non-disposable type lighters. F

General Health

If you are suffering any form of illness on the fi reline you should seek medical attention/advice as soon as possible. Even the fi ttest person will tire easily without enough rest,sleep, correct and suffi cient food, and fl uids. DSE fi refi ghters must have successfullycompleted a “fi t for fi re” assessment beforecommencing work as a fi refi ghter.

Health

If you have any medical conditions that may affect you during fi refi ghting operations, consult with your doctor prior to the fi re danger period. If you have a medical condition that is managed by medication and are able toparticipate in strike team duties, ensure your Strike Team Leader, Task Force Leader, and/or Crew Leader are aware of your condition and any medication that you may require whileon duty.

Medications

You may have a medical or physicalcondition that requires medication to resolve symptoms. These medications are usually a once or twice a day administration to maintain a level of control over the symptoms. If you miss one dose there may be little effect on your condition, but, if youare on a strike team for days and have leftyour medication at home you may become ill and require treatment or hospitalisation.

It is your responsibility to carry enough personal medication for the duration of yourdeployment.




Hygiene

Wash your hands!

When working on the fi reground there aremany places that contamination by bacteria can occur, leading to gastro disorders due to bacterial infection.

In many cases, these infections are due topoor hygiene habits while on the fi regroundor at the Staging Area prior to or duringmeal times. Bacteria can be picked up in the bush or from the vehicle that you have been working on in the form of smallparticles in, on or around your vehicle. You may be picking up some food items oreating utensils by hand, hence you will be spreading the bacteria from your hands tothe food and then eating it.

Note: to prevent infection occurring you should always wash your hands prior to eating, after using the toilet and prior to handling any food or drinks even when stowing food and drinks on the vehicle.

Managing Stress Levels

Everyone has to deal with stress at some level. It is a part of life and the human psyche.

Personal/occupational stress

From time to time, we all struggle tomanage our work, family and volunteering commitments and responsibilities. Increased work demands, tight deadlines, confl ict, commitments made to spouses/partners and other family members can at timesreduce our capacity to respond effectively to stressful situations.

Stress and anxiety

What is stress?

Stress is a state of physical, emotional and psychological arousal or tension resultingfrom an unexpected or extreme event.How you might react to a critical incident is diffi cult to predict, but it is more likely tohave an impact on you if you are already experiencing increased demands relatingto previous turn-outs or other issues in yourpersonal life.

Your body’s response to stress

When you fi rst fi nd yourself in a stressful situation, your body responds by trying to provide more energy and prepare you forgreater levels of action. Your heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension will temporarilyincrease and you will experience a higher level of physical and mental alertness.

If stress continues your body will try otherways to deal with the problem. These can include increased smoking, alcohol and drug use and poor work performance. Youmay experience increased anxiety, irritability,aggression and sleep disturbance, leaving you feeling exhausted.

What is anxiety?

Most generally, anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state with qualities of apprehension, dread, distress or uneasiness,accompanied by psychological arousal. Anxiety can be vague and the causes can be diffi cult to identify for the individualexperiencing it.




Your body’s response to anxiety

Anxiety can manifest as diffi cultyconcentrating, tiring easily, restlessness,irritability, a high level of muscle tension anddisturbed sleep.

Stress and anxiety often go together, and are sometimes diffi cult to differentiate. Theyhave in common an increased physiological response to a perceived or potentially unmanageable event. In most circumstanceshowever, both stress and anxiety can be managed effectively.

Critical Incident Stress

Critical Incident Stress (CIS) is an uncomfortable reaction to demands which are sudden, unexpected and come froma specifi c incident or number of incidents.It is possible that many incidents have thepotential to create the conditions underwhich critical incident stress could occur.

Knowledge of events that can be consideredcritical incidents are well known amongst fi refi ghters. They are things like motor vehicle accidents, prolonged incidents, multiple deaths, serious injury or death of persons known to the crew.

These incidents, particularly those involving fatalities, have the potential to be more stressful than regular emergency response activities. This is because these events havethe potential to challenge, on an emotionallevel, our sense of control and personalsafety or that of our loved ones. Critical Incident Stress can produce an intolerable or prolonged stress reaction for emergencyservices responders.

It can occur during a critical incident or sometime afterwards. Short-term stress orelevated anxieties are the most commonreactions to events that are perceived as traumatic.

It is important to note that with appropriate assistance most people return to pre-incident functioning after an event.

Managing stress and anxiety

Current research suggests that most people can effectively manage the stress and anxietyassociated with even the most traumaticevents if their social support network isfunctioning effectively.

Day to day, we can protect ourselves from increased stress and anxiety by:

eating well; F

getting regular exercise; F

taking time out to do the things we enjoy; F

keeping in touch with family and friends; F

socialising; F

controlling our intake of non-prescription F

drugs and alcohol;

getting an adequate amount of sleep; F

talking about feelings of stress or anxiety F

to someone we trust;

being aware of stressful situations or F

personal pressures in your life; and

using relaxation techniques such as F

exercise, meditation or hobbies.




Managing Psychological Conditions

Organisation support services

CFA and DSE provide a range of services that offer support or provide assistance in dealing with a personal or work related issue.

These services are free to volunteers, staff and their immediate families. Theprofessional services can assist with family problems, relationship diffi culties, vocationaladvice, drug and alcohol abuse or fi nancial issues.

Contact with service providers is kept strictlyconfi dential.

Critical Incident Stress Management

CFA and DSE provide a range of services, including the Peer Support Program, to support members and staff. Support services and how to access them are detailed below.

During an incident

There are steps you can take during an incident to help protect yourself from Critical Incident Stress.

Be aware of your own physical and F

emotional responses during an incident;

recognise that incident events are likely to F

make you feel uncomfortable regardless of your level of involvement;

minimise, as far as possible, your F

exposure to the traumatic stimulus;

acknowledge any immediate feelings of F

distress in yourself or your crew mates;and

look after each other – monitor crew F

members’ wellbeing during the incident and take steps to address distress as far as possible.

Support after the incident

After the incident it may help to talk to F

someone, especially your crew mates;

do not drink too much alcohol; F

do not go home to an empty house; F

do not fi ght any stress reaction, accept it F

as a normal response;

do not make decisions about major F

changes in your life;

stay active and try to return to your regular F

schedule as quickly as you can;

stay connected with your social networks; F

and

take special care at work. Stress reactions F

combined with a lack of sleep can lead to a higher risk of workplace accidents.

What you can do for your crew mates?

Spend time with them. Listen carefully, F

reassure them and support them. Just being there for them may be all they require;

if they do not want to talk, give them F

space;

look for misdirected anger; and F

suggest they contact a peer or utilise the F

services provided.




Further information can be obtained by contacting your District Offi ce or the Member Support Unit at CFA Headquarters. DSE staff should refer to the Health and Fitness pageson FireWeb.

General Health Hazards

Physical or mental exhaustion (commonly termed fatigue)

The conditions and work that you undertake at an incident can be physically stressful and demanding. Exhaustion is the key factoraffecting your performance at an incident. Exposure to radiant heat and smoke for alengthy period of time may increase your level of physical stress and the likelihood of exhaustion.

Fatigue is a symptom of exhaustion, ratherthan a specifi c condition or disorder.Fatigue can be listed as a symptom in many conditions that you may face on a fi reground, for example, dehydration, smoke inhalation and physical exhaustion. If you are tired, youare more likely to make mistakes, which can cause accidents, injury and put others at risk.

It is important to take regular rest breaks when safe to do so during fi refi ghting activities.

Fatigue is only rectifi ed by rest. Referto your agency’s procedures on fatigue management.

Note: you should not drive vehicles or operate equipment if you are physically or mentally exhausted.

Support services

Peer support personnel are part of the Incident Management Team and can provide:

on scene support; F

facilitate debriefi ng/defusing sessions; F

support to family members during an F

incident; and

ongoing emotional support for any F

individual or their family following anincident.

Peers may make contact with you after youattend a critical incident. The peer may follow up with you to offer you support in the form of a defusing or an individual support session. You are not obligated to utilisethis service but both CFA and DSE strongly recommend that you use these services to reduce the potential impact of criticalincidents.

Anyone can activate a peer, including:

the Offi cer-in-Charge; F

a family member; F

an individual brigade member or work F

colleague; and

anyone who has a concern about the F

welfare of a crew member, for example, family member, friend, or employer.

Peers can also provide support to membersand their families when dealing with issuessuch as grief or loss, relationship diffi culties, family concerns or fi nancial problemsby explaining what support avenues areavailable, and refer you on to a professionalwho best suits your needs.




Signs and symptoms

Tiredness and lack of energy; F

slowness to react and taking longer than F

usual to complete tasks;

impaired judgement and inability to make F

decisions;

inability to concentrate and lapses in F

attention; and

erratic performance. F

Treatment actions

To minimise the possibility of becomingexhausted at an incident, you should:

take regular breaks to rest and allow your F

body to recover in a cooler environmentsuch as the air conditioned cabin of your vehicle;

pace yourself and rotate tasks; F

drink water and electrolyte replacement F

drinks/powder regularly; and

where possible, avoid working in excessive F

dust, smoke and heat.

During your breaks, you should:

rest out of the sun; F

cool off by unbuttoning clothing and F

removing your helmet when away from the fi reline if it is safe to do so;

drink water, alternated with an approved F

electrolyte replacement drink;

regularly eat snacks; and F

avoid strenuous physical recreation. F

It’s possible to force tired muscles to keepon working, but your brain cannot function adequately without sleep. Firefi ghters should get ample sleep prior to commencing or in between shifts.

Precautions

Maintain a high level of fi tness. If you arephysically fi t, you are less likely to experience exhaustion in the short-term. This, however,does not mean that you can avoid takingadequate breaks and rest. It simply means that you cope better with the physical stress, and recover more quickly than a less fi t person.

You should refer to you agency’s policiesand procedures if you feel fatigued. DSE has implemented a fatigue management policyto reduce the risk of crew fatigue. This policy covers lengths of shift and timing of breaksand has rules about driving when fatigued.

Dehydration

The body’s cooling system involves perspiring. Dehydration will occur if fl uids and electrolytes lost through perspiration arenot replaced.

Figure 50 – take regular breaks for rest, food and fl uid




Your thirst is not a true indication of howmuch water your body needs. There is atime lag between the onset of dehydration and feeling the need for water. You may, in fact, begin to suffer the effects of dehydration before you realise it.

You know when you are perspiring – usethis as an indication that your body needsappropriate fl uids.

Note: air conditioned transport may contribute to dehydration.

Precautions

On days of total fi re ban and extreme fi re danger, you should increase your hydration in case you are called out. Water and anagency approved electrolyte replacementdrink should be consumed regularly. Youshould always drink more than you need in order to prevent dehydration. Failure to do this leads to the body overheating and the onset of heat illness.

While travelling to and from the fi regroundand working on the fi reground, youneed to replace fl uids frequently. The recommended ratio of water to electrolytesis 2:1. Depending on workload you should be drinking up to 1200 ml of water and 600 ml of an agency approved electrolytereplacement drink/powder per hour.

During asset protection and night duties the hydration procedures are just as important and will ensure that you are prepared for active fi refi ghting if required.

Treatment

The use of an agency approved electrolytedrink/powder is important to maintaining good hydration levels. When perspiring youlose electrolytes from the body. Water alone will not replace these electrolytes. A lack of electrolytes may induce a condition referredto as “water saturation”, which in turn may lead to unconsciousness, convulsions and eventually death.

Note: fl uid and electrolyte replenishment is vital for your health and safety – especially so for less fi t people.

In the past, emphasis may have been placedon drinking beverages such as cordial, teaor coffee and soft drinks as more desirable options to water when working on thefi reground. Medical research now indicatesthat this is not the best option as a high sugar content reduces the rate at whichwater is absorbed into the bloodstream and caffeine can increase the rate of body fl uid loss, that is, increased urination.

Therefore, during fi refi ghting, plain wateralternated with an agency approvedelectrolyte drink/powder is best.

Figure 51 – electrolyte replacement drink




Cool water is naturally preferable if it isavailable. However, never chill your drinks asthis can:

quickly quench your thirst without F

providing you with adequate fl uid; and

cause stomach cramps and fool your body F

into thinking it’s cooler than it actually is.

During rest periods, it is a good idea to drink water and sweetened beverages suchas weak cordial or tea as they can assist in restoring energy. However:

milky or fat-containing drinks should be F

avoided; and

alcoholic drinks should not be consumed F

as they increase dehydration and impair your ability to safely carry out tasks. Refer to your agency’s policy as appropriate.

Water quality can vary from town to town;this can cause upset stomach or diarrhoea if you are not used to the contents of the local water. You should carry supplies of bottled drinking water, particularly when assistingoutside your own area.

Note: never drink water from vehicle tanks or knapsacks as it may be contaminated.

Sunburn

Prolonged exposure to the sun can lead to sunburn. Although not life threatening,sunburn can impact on your effectiveness. Be aware that you can easily be sunburnt even when the sky is overcast. Sunburn can lead to life threatening conditions such as skin cancers and melanomas. It is very important that you to cover up and usesunscreen at all times. Don’t forget to reapply your sunscreen as advised.

Precautions

When working outdoors during the day youshould make sure that you apply a water-resistant sunscreen with a sun protectionfactor (SPF) of at least 30+ to all areas of exposed skin.

You should apply sunscreen liberally to anyexposed skin every two hours. As you arelikely to be perspiring freely while workingon the fi reground, you should try, where possible, to apply it more often.

Make sure that your face, neck, ears, arms and the backs of your hands are covered,particularly when taking a break as you may have removed your helmet, gloves and outer clothing to aid cooling down.




Note: illnesses caused by exposure to extreme temperatures are progressive and can quickly become life threatening if not treated immediately.

The body’s natural cooling system may fail if:

the environment is too hot; F

perspiration cannot evaporate freely; F

you are ill or unfi t; F

your body’s “thermostat” malfunctions due F

to disease, prescription or other drugs oralcohol;

you fail to maintain adequate fl uid and F

electrolyte intake; and/or

you over exert yourself, particularly in F

conditions of high humidity.

To minimise the risk of heat related illness, you should:

take regular breaks, preferably in the F

shade away from the work environment orheat source;

minimise the clothing you wear under your F

bushfi re ensemble;

loosen clothing to allow more air F

circulation and better evaporation of perspiration;

maintain adequate and appropriate fl uid F

and electrolyte intake;

pace yourself and rotate tasks; F

work a comfortable distance away from the F

fl ames and heat;

wear sunscreen SPF 30+ and reapply it F

every two hours;

cover the back of your neck and keep the F

sleeves rolled down;

wear sun glasses; F

monitor you own and the other members F

of your crew’s health and well-being; and

provide lower arm and body cooling. F

Heat Related Illnesses In addition to the general health hazards aspreviously outlined, fi refi ghters also face therisk of heat-related illness such as (in order of severity from lowest to highest):

heat cramps: F

heat stress; F

heat exhaustion; and F

heat stroke. F

The risk for fi refi ghters is increased due tothe nature of their work, and the hot, humidand dusty conditions under which it isperformed, often within the range of radiantheat and while wearing personal protectiveclothing and equipment.

The human body is built to withstand changes in temperature and has an inbuilt “thermostat” that controls the body’s naturalheating and cooling systems.

The body cools itself by directing additionalblood fl ow to the skin, which is cooled through the evaporation of perspiration.Under normal circumstances its mechanismsfor regulating body temperature works well.

However, when the capacity of this automatic cooling system is overwhelmed, yourbody starts to overheat and you becomesusceptible to heat-related illnesses.

Due to their nature, a person may not knowthey are becoming affected by a heat-relatedillness – you need to look out for each other. You need to be able to recognise thesymptoms and know the treatments not onlyfor your own wellbeing, but also for your buddies on the fi reground.




Lower arm cooling

CFA recommends that lower arm cooling be used as a treatment for heat relatedillness conditions. Pour water over the lower arms (front and back) from a hose (using water only) or bottled water or place coolwet towels on the arms, under arm pits and around the neck. Where possible fanning using a towel, jacket or fan will assist to coolblood fl ow through the arms and return cool blood to the core of the body. Water should not be frozen, approximately 10 – 20°Cis ideal.

Note: if you have suffered from any heat related illness, you must follow agency procedures before returning to duty. Even mild cases of heat illness can take 24 hours to subside.

Heat cramps

These are common muscular cramps that may occur in the heat, during or after exercise, especially when an unfi t person has worked hard and perspired a lot.

The onset of heat cramps is caused byfailure to maintain an adequate intake of fl uid and appropriate breaks and cool downperiods.

Signs and symptoms

Muscular pain and spasms in the F

affected area;

feeling of tightness in the affected F

muscles; and

inability to relax contracted muscles. F

Treatment actions

Advise your Crew Leader; F

take a rest break and cool down, F

preferably in a cool, shaded area away from fl ames and heat;

remove the person from the heat and work F

environment;

slowly drink water and an agency F

approved electrolyte replacement drink/powder;

use lower arm cooling (CFA F

recommendation);

consume some food from your ration pack; F

gently stretch the muscles; and F

massage the affected area or muscles F

gently.

Note: although stretching and gentle massage of affected muscles may assist in relieving muscle cramps, this is secondary to fl uid replacement and cooling down.

Figure 52 – examples of lower arm cooling




Heat stress

You are suffering heat stress when your body’s cooling systems (perspiration andcirculation) are being stressed but are not yet overwhelmed by the heat load.

As discussed earlier, the body cools itself by perspiring and directing additional blood fl owto the skin so that this blood can be cooled as the perspiration evaporates.

As exercise produces heat internally, it is possible to suffer heat stress even in relatively cool conditions if clothing and equipment impair heat loss.

A hot and humid atmosphere will make the situation worse. Radiant heat and extremesof air temperatures above normal body temperature (37°C) can add an external heat load to the heat generated internally, further contributing to heat stress.

As heat stress continues to affect the body, internal body temperature will rise andphysical performance will drop. If the heat stress is too great or if the body’s coolingsystem becomes impaired by dehydration or exhaustion, continuing heat stress can lead to either heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

Signs and symptoms

Feeling very hot; F

fl ushed, red skin; and F

vigorous perspiration, loss of energy and F

possibly a headache.

Note: in very hot conditions, especially if windy, perspiration may evaporate so fast that the skin seems dry even though signifi cant perspiration and fl uid loss is occurring.

Treatment actions

Advise your Crew Leader; F

take a rest break; F

loosen personal protective clothing and F

equipment;


recommendation);

slowly drink water and an agency F

approved electrolyte replacement drink/powder; and

if condition deteriorates, seek medical F

attention.

If you believe a colleague is becomingaffected by heat stress, assist them to dothe above.




Heat exhaustion

As its name implies, this condition developsas a result of becoming exhausted fromworking in the heat. If the body is heatstressed for too long without adequate fl uid and electrolyte intake, dehydration develops. This upsets the body’s chemistry, leading toweakness as well as reducing its capacity to continue perspiring.

Even if fl uid and electrolyte intake is adequate, exhaustion will eventually set in if physical exercise continues beyond a person’snormal endurance limits. Heat exhaustion is a combination of physical exhaustion, dehydration and upset body chemistry. If severe, it can leadto collapse and a form of shock.

Signs and symptoms

Feeling faint, light-headed and dizzy; F

pale face – a result of lowered blood F

pressure;

clammy skin – an indication that there is F

some perspiration;

loss of appetite; F

headaches; F

irritability and vagueness; and F

muscular cramps and spasms. F

If more severe:

vomiting; F

confusion, drowsiness and weak pulse; F

shallow breathing and unconsciousness; F

and

in severe cases, death can result. F

Firefi ghters suffering from heat exhaustionare sometimes unaware of their condition and keep trying to work, even to the point of collapse. It is important that fi refi ghters keepan eye on each other. If anyone is slowing down, not looking well or speaking or actingoddly, you should suspect that person hasheat exhaustion.

Treatment actions

In severe cases or if condition deteriorates F

seek medical attention;

move the casualty away from the work F

environment or heat source;

lay the casualty in the best available F

shade;


recommendation);

if the casualty is conscious, give frequent F

drinks of water and an approvedelectrolyte replacement drink/powder;


equipment;

sponge or spray water on the casualty F

only if they are hot; and

do not give salt tablets. F

If a casualty is unconscious, position the person on his or her side, ensure the airway is open, clear the airway and attend tobreathing and circulation. Seek medicalassistance as quickly as possible.




Heat stroke

Heat stroke is the least common and mostsevere heat related illness. It occurs when the body’s cooling systems are overwhelmed and the body’s temperature rises to dangerous levels at which time the body starts to “cook” internally. In cases of severe heat stroke, this is irreversible and death willrapidly follow.

Note: this process can occur quite rapidly – it is essential that the casualty be externally cooled as quickly as possible and urgent medical attention is received if life is to be saved.

Signs and symptoms

Very high body temperature (often 40°C or F

more);

red, hot and possibly dry skin; F

dry swollen tongue; F

weakness or collapse; F

reduced conscious state or F

unconsciousness;

rapid pulse and breathing rates; and F

seizures (fi ts). F

Seizures may occur in cases of severeheat stroke as the brain becomes severely affected by raised temperature. The vigorousmuscle contractions involved in seizuresrapidly raise body temperature even further. If seizures occur, the person may die unless immediate cooling is achieved.

Treatment actions

This is a medical emergency. Immediate,effective cooling is essential.

Call an ambulance and get on-site F

medical assistance while waiting for theambulance;

remove the casualty from the work F

environment and heat source;

lay the person down in a cool shady area; F


equipment;

if the person can drink give them cool F

water;

sponge or spray the casualty with water; F


recommendation); and

fan or expose the casualty to a breeze, or F

where fi tted, use the air conditioner in thevehicle cabin.

If the casualty is unconscious, position thecasualty on his or her side and ensure the airway remains open.

Note: it cannot be overstressed, if heat stroke is suspected, urgent medical attention is essential.




Fireline SafetyMaintaining fi refi ghter safety is essential during fi reground activities. This section provides information that will help keep you and your crew members safe.

Anchor points

While working in bushfi re situations it is important to work from an anchor point.

You need to be able to identify anchor points.As defi ned in the AFAC Glossary of Rural Fire Terminology, “An anchor point is anadvantageous location from which a fi relinecan be constructed. It is used to minimisethe possibility of being outfl anked by a fi rewhile the line is being constructed”.

Possible anchor points include:

bare ground; F

blacked out fi re edge; F

the site of a recent bushfi re that has little or F

no vegetation; and

non-fl ammable area such as a lake or river. F

Working from a safe anchor point along the black edge gives you the choice of two escape routes in the event that changing fi rebehaviour threatens your immediate safety.

You may retreat to safety by either movingdirectly onto the black where conditions on thefi re edge permit, or retreat to safety by movingback up the fi reline to an anchor point.

LACES

LACES is an acronym for Lookouts,Awareness, Communication, Escape Routes,and Safety Zones. It is to be used as a guideto help mitigate the risks that fi refi ghters face,including burnover and entrapment during bushfi re and planned burning operations.

The process for implementing LACES is:

Lookouts – Fire crews shall LOOKOUT and ensure that they have a clear appreciationof current fi re behaviour, location and sizein relationship to crew location.

Awareness – Firefi ghters shall be aware of the impact of changes in fi re behaviour including those resulting from variations tofuel, weather and topography and of other fi reground hazards.

Communications – All fi re crews shall followthe Communications Plan, communicate with your crew and surrounding crews to discuss and address safety issues.

Escape Routes – At least two escape routesshould be agreed and made known all relevant personnel. The suitability of an escape route should be continually reviewed to ensure it remains effective.

Safety Zones – Safety zones should be identifi ed and made known all relevant fi refi ghters. Firefi ghters need to considerescape time and safety zone sizerequirements that will change as fi rebehaviour changes.

PossibleAnchor Points

Scotts Road

Bus

h T

rack

Figure 53 – possible anchor points




WATCHOUT

WATCHOUT is an acronym used to remindfi refi ghters of potential dangers to their safety and to give advice on safe work practices.

Understanding the meaning of the acronymwill help you perform a more comprehensiverisk assessment.

Weather – dominates fi re behaviour, so keep informed.

Actions – must be based on current andexpected fi re behaviour.

Try out – at least two safe escape routes.

Communicate – with your supervisor, your crew and adjoining crews.

Hazards – beware of variations in fuels andsteep slopes.

Observe – changes in wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity and cloud.

Understand – your instructions, make sure that you are understood.

Think – clearly, be alert and act decisively before your situation becomes critical.

You should familiarise yourself with youragency’s current WATCHOUTs.

Firefi ghters watchout when

building a control line downhill towards a F

fi re;

on a slope – rolling material can ignite fuel F

below you;

the wind changes speed or direction; F

the weather gets hotter or drier; F

there are unburnt fuels between you and F

the fi re;

terrain or vegetation impedes travel or F

visibility;

in country you have not seen in daylight; F

you are unfamiliar with the weather and F

local fi re behaviour;

frequent spot fi res occur over your control F

line;

you cannot see the main fi re or F

communicate with anyone who can;

unclear instructions or tasks are given; F

you feel exhausted or want to take a nap F

near the fi re;

attacking a fi re or constructing a fi re- F

control line without a safe anchor point;

working alone with no communications F

link to crew members or supervisor;

you are not fully informed about strategy, F

tactics and hazards;

safety zones and escape routes have not F

been identifi ed;

fi re not scouted or the potential of the fi re F

has not been assessed; and

water levels are getting low. F




Red Flag Warning

A Red Flag Warning is issued when there is asignifi cant change to any critical information that may adversely affect the safety of personnel.

Personnel receiving a Red Flag Warningmust:

immediately acknowledge that they have F

received the warning;

repeat back the relevant details of the F

message to demonstrate that they haveunderstood the message;

notify personnel under their command and F

supervision; and

obtain an acknowledgement from F

personnel under their command and supervision.

Figure 54 illustrates how this works.

1 The Strike Team Leader sends a Red Flag Warning to his or her Crew Leaders.

2 Crew Leaders acknowledges receipt andunderstanding.

3 Crew Leaders brief their crews.

4 Crew members acknowledge to Crew Leader that the warning has been received and understood.

Note: Red Flag Warnings are not a directive to leave the fi reground. Crew Leaders should consider local knowledge and situation when determining what action to take in response to the warning.

Fireground Information Update

The Fireground Information Update is to be used to distribute important and urgent fi reground information. It is to become thevehicle for the planned distribution of key safety information to all fi refi ghters on a routine basis, in a manner that they canpredict and readily access. It may be a radio broadcast or printed copy and containsinformation about:

weather conditions and forecast changes; F

key decisions about fi reground F

sectorisation and control; and

information about current backburning F

operations, for example, location, timing and Offi cer-in-Charge.

A Fireground Information Update does not require an acknowledgment process,thus allowing quick and comprehensive distribution of the information. It shouldbe widely distributed to fi refi ghters on the

fi reground.

Strike Team Leader

Crew leaders

Crews

1

No

tifi

cati

on

No

tifi

cati

on

2

3 4

Ack

no

wle

dg

eA

ckn

ow

led

ge

Figure 54 – red fl ag warning




10 Standard Fire Orders (CFA)

1 Always stay in contact or tell someone where you are going.

2 Know where the fi re is and its direction.

3 Know the country or have someone with you who does.

4 Plan an escape route.

5 Park your vehicle in a safe spot.

6 Ensure that your instructions are clear.

7 Build a fi reline from a safe anchor point.

8 A full set of safety gear is compulsory.

9 Don’t panic – keep calm and make logical decisions.

10 Accidents and ill-health can endanger allthe crew.

Danger signs

Signs that may give advance warning of an increase in the rapid development of a fi re,with a resulting change in the rate of spread include:

a change in wind direction and/or increase F

in wind strength; and

relative humidity has dropped. F

Note: you should seek confi rmation through the chain of command if there is a sudden increase or drop in wind strength as this could indicate that a change in wind direction is about to occur.

Escape plans

Your fi rst priority is to avoid being placed in a life threatening situation. However, you must always have a contingency plan to prepare for the possibility of entrapment.

Know the terrain you are travelling into; F

identify at least two escape routes which F

will lead to a safety zone;

know, understand and comply with the F

Incident Chain of Command;

know and comply with the agreed F

Communications Plan and your correct radio channel;

only use the most experienced drivers in F

diffi cult terrain;

study maps of the area where you may F

be required to assist in a fi refi ght (prior to deployment if possible);

pre-plan individual roles within the crew in F

the case of life threatening situations;

note clear areas along tracks or areas with F

less vegetation, where you would be better placed for the safety of your tanker and crew;

be aware that some areas are too F

dangerous to enter, and tracks too steepfor any vehicles to travel on – if in doubtcheck on foot if it is safe to do so; and

do not travel on dead-end tracks. F

Note: an escape plan is of little or no value unless it is actioned at the fi rst signs of an approaching dangerous situation.




Taking Refuge in Life Threatening Situations

Even during normal fi refi ghting activities,radiant heat is a potential killer. You are in real trouble if radiant heat enters your body faster than you can maintain your core bodytemperature by sweating.

As fl ame height increases so does radiantheat. In cases of sudden fl are ups, you maycollapse and die within minutes if you do not fi nd shelter.

As radiant heat only travels in straight linesfrom its source, taking refuge behind a solidobject will shield you from the radiant heat.Cover all exposed skin, keep as low as possible and lay face down until the fl are-up subsides.

Objects that may shield you from radiated heat include:

structures; F

vehicles; F

heavy machinery, for example, a bulldozer; F

large rocky outcrops; F

earth mounds, trenches, caves, tunnels; F

dams lakes concrete swimming pools or F

water tanks;

wet gullies creeks and rivers; and F

large trees or logs. F

Here are some principles to consider when taking refuge:

you need to have a plan; F

you need to action a your plan at the F

fi rst signs of an approaching dangerous situation;

communicate your situation; F

radiant heat only travel in straight lines so F

take refuge behind a solid object;

fi nd an area where the fi re behaviour F

will be minimised such as the black,fuel reduced areas, wet areas such as gulliescreeks or dams;

cover all exposed skin; and F

keep low and lay face down if possible. F

Note: your priority should be to avoid being placed in a life threatening situation. If, having taken all precaution, you fi nd yourself in a life threatening situation the following actions should be considered and should be carried out in accordance with your agency’s operating procedures.

Taking refuge in a structure

If crews are in imminent danger in a bushfi resituation, a house or similar sized structure can provide you with adequate shelter from embers, radiant heat and fl ames. Such abuilding might eventually burn, but it canprotect you until the main fi re danger passes.

Figure 55 – large rocky outcrops may offer some protection from radiant heat




So you need to have a fall back optionplanned for this eventuality by having two escape routes to your next safe area.

To gain immediate radio attention send a MAYDAY message giving your location and the number of persons taking refuge. Yourradio transmission will have priority over all others.

It is important to remain outside the buildingfor as long as possible. In the early stages of the fi re, there may be a shower of sparks and embers blown towards the building. Byremaining outside for as long as possibleyou can:

extinguish any small outbreaks; F

wet down the immediate area; F

remove or protect any fuels that may be F

adjacent to the building, for example, gas cylinders, fi rewood and awnings; and

if time permits, wet down the gutters. F

When you are forced to move indoors:

take in a hose and fi ttings if you know F

that the fi tting attached to the end of thehose can be coupled to an internal tap, forexample the washing machine tap in the laundry;

shut all windows and doors; be aware that F

embers can also enter buildings throughventilation covers, sub-fl oor spaces and under doors and eaves;

soak towels and rags with water in case F

you need to extinguish small fi res and fi ll available containers, buckets and baths (if applicable);

watch for and extinguish any outbreaks F

of fi re, especially on windowsills and verandas or timber decks as the heat will dry out timber surfaces, making them more likely to ignite from ember attack;and

if the building should catch fi re and the F

main fi re has passed, wrap yourself ina dry fi re blanket, exit the building and implement the fallback part of your plan. If necessary, take refuge on foot.

Once the fi re front passes, it should be safeenough to move outside and quickly extinguish any outbreaks and wet down any smouldering materials. This will help to prevent the house or building burning down. You should remain alertto any possible outbreaks.

Taking refuge in a vehicle

The following information provides general guidelines when taking refuge in a vehicle. For agency-specifi c details all currentrelated organisational procedures mustbe understood and followed. This ensures crews are familiar with crew protectionentrapment procedures and systems applicable to their vehicle.

Firefi ghting tankers and support vehicles, such as those used by Strike Team/TaskForce Leaders, Sector Commanders and Ground Observers provide an increased levelof protection from fl ames and radiant heat compared to being caught on foot in the open.

However, it must be clearly understood that the level of protection provided doeshave signifi cant limitations, governed byfi re intensity.




Crews in vehicles with limited crew protection capability should, if possible, move to alocation where tankers can provide additional protection capability in accordance withorganisational procedures.

In addition to the cabin, some tankers have a crew protection area on the rear in whichpersonnel may take short-term shelter from an approaching fi re.

Note: it is important that crews are familiar with the crew protection standard operating procedures applicable to their vehicle.

Taking refuge in the cabin of any vehicle

Your Crew Leader will normally supervise the emergency personal protection procedure.

If you are in grave and imminent danger, F

send a MAYDAY message to gainimmediate radio attention;

give continuous blasts on the horn as a F

warning signal and instruction for crew members to return to the vehicle;

ensure all crew members are aware of the F

nature of the impending danger;

park your vehicle in an area of least F

combustible fuel, preferably on burnt or bare ground, in a quarry pit, wet gully orcutting and away from surrounding oroverhanging trees or other vegetation;

park your vehicle so as to minimise the F

impact of radiant heat to the crew and thepump area;

wind up all windows, close vents, turn on F

headlights and hazard lights, leave/startengine running;

where fi tted, operate the air conditioner on F

the “recirculate” setting;

ensure all personal protective clothing is F

worn and properly adjusted, and all areas of exposed skin are covered;

get down as low as possible in the cabin F

(if possible keeping below the bottom of the windscreen) and cover yourself fully with a dry fi re blanket;

when the fi re front has passed, extinguish F

any fi res on or around the vehicle that maybe a threat to your safety; and

advise your commander or supervisor F

when the danger has passed.

Note: never wet the fi re blanket unless a continuous water supply can be maintained. A wet blanket offers less protection than a dry blanket unless it can be kept wet.

Figure 56 – taking refuge in the cabin of a vehicle (door open for display purposes only)




Taking refuge on the rear deck of a tanker

Actions taken on the rear deck of a tanker are performed in conjunction with the actionstaken in the cabin. Each tanker is different and you should refer to your organisationalprocedures for each model.

Ensure the pump is running; F

take refuge from the approaching fi re by F

getting down low behind protective heat shields;

ensure all personal protective clothing is F

worn and properly adjusted, and all areas of exposed skin are covered;

cover up with a dry fi re blanket; F

to conserve water, wait until the fi re F

approaches then activate your crewprotection spray system; or

in vehicles not fi tted with a crew/vehicle F

protection spray system use the following as a guide; open and adjust the nozzlesto a wide angle fog and extend the nozzle above the heat shield level to allow waterfog to cover the rear, cabin and an area around your tanker; and

when the main fi re has passed, extinguish F

any fi res on or near the vehicle that maybe a threat to your safety.

Taking refuge with a dozer

Refer to the DSE videos, The Line in the Bush and Fireline Safety for further yinformation.

If machine operators and/or support crew face entrapment by fi re, they should considerthe options and evaluate the risk.

Options may include:

if time permits, leaving the area via escape F

routes to a safety zone. If you are in grave and imminent danger, send a MAYDAY message to gain immediate radio attention;

contacting other crews for help; F

requesting air support; F

stopping on clear ground or in an area of F

low fuel;

clearing the ground around the dozer; F

fi nding an area of burnt ground on which F

to park;

digging a trench and pushing/mounding F

earth ahead of the dozer towards the fi re;

parking the dozer over the trench and F

lowering the blade and rippers to provideprotection from radiant heat;

turning the engine off (if the manufacture’s F

specifi cations recommend this) to reducethe risk of sparks being drawn into air fi lters;

keep your helmet on; F

cover all bare skin with protective clothing; F

take refuge under the dozer, get down low F

in the trench between the tracks and cover yourself with a dry fi re blanket;

breathe through your mouth using a towel F

or handkerchief, if air is hot, breathe inshort shallow breaths; and

stay under the dozer until the fi re passes. F




Taking refuge when on foot

The position you choose to take refuge willdetermine whether you survive the burn over.If you are on foot and are not in the vicinity of a vehicle or structure, you should consider the following actions.

Remain calm and do not panic – do not run F

blindly from the fi re as exhaustion makesyou prone to heat related illnesses andcollapse;

if you are in grave and imminent danger, F

send a MAYDAY message to gainimmediate radio attention;

look after fellow crew members; F

protect yourself from radiant heat by wearing F

protective clothing and covering all bareskin with non combustible materials or loose earth. Stay in this position until the mainintensity of the fi re has passed;

t F o avoid breathing superheated air, keeplow to the ground where the air may be cleaner and cooler;

as fi res travel faster uphill, try to cut across F

a slope out of the path of the head of thefi re – do not try to outrun the fi re uphill unless you are certain a safe refuge is close by –

try to reach bare or burnt ground •towards the back of the fi re;

do not run through fl ames unless you •are able to see the ground on the other side and they are low enough for you to safely cross – breaks may occur where there is less fuel;

shallow water storages such as dams, F

lakes, concrete tanks and swimming pools or laying low in a wet gully, running waterin a creek or river may offer a safe refuge; and

as a last resort, clear a survival area by F

removing fuel and sheltering behind a large solid object such as a large rockoutcrop if possible, or lay face down in a depression, stump hole, trench, culvert,cave or in a drain.

Figure 57 – dozer operator taking refuge under a dozer

Figure 58 – taking shelter from radiant heat




Injury and Near Miss Reporting

It is important to report all injuries and near miss events.

Reporting of these events enables all levels of management at the incident to review the circumstances surrounding the injury or nearmiss and where possible implement steps toprevent a reoccurrence.

This information gains increased importance within the Incident Management Team astrends or potential serious gaps can be identifi ed when reviewing the combinedreports and where possible implement stepsto rectify the causes.

These preventatives steps may involve:

inclusion of key safety strategies in the F

Incident Action Plan for the next day’s deployments;

provision of critical safety information F

which may include –

Red Flag Warnings; •

Fireground Information Updates; •

crew changeover briefi ngs; •

Safety Alerts; and •

bulletin boards updates; and •

changes to practices in the provision of F

crew welfare, for example, to prevent dehydration or food contamination.

In addition the information from all incidents is reviewed by the agency to monitor state trends and effectiveness of preventative strategies.

Reporting process

Where an injury or near miss occurs this F

should initially be reported to the CrewLeader.

Details should then be recorded on the F

relevant agency’s Incident Report Form inaccordance with the agency’s process.

These documents should be handed to F

the Staging Area Manager on return forforwarding to the Logistics Offi cer or otherdesignated person nominated by theIncident Controller.

For serious injuries or near misses these F

should be immediately reported tothe Incident Controller via the chain of command.

Note: a serious event is one that has resulted in or had the potential to cause person(s) to require specialist medical treatment (not fi rst aid), hospitalisation, or death. Remember the information provided in injury or near miss reports may prevent one of your fellow fi refi ghters or crews from being seriously injured.

Notes





Chapter 1 Summary

Safety is the priority. People who are F

committed to safety will supervise you.

Emergency operations are dynamic and F

unpredictable thereby making tasksinherently dangerous.

“Safety First” F – fi refi ghter safety must begiven priority over all other fi re suppressionconsiderations and activities.

Firefi ghters make judgements based on F

knowledge, skills, training and experience.

In order to determine what are acceptable F

risks, fi refi ghters must review the likelihood and consequence of an event occurring.

Safe person approach is the responsibility F

of the organisation and every individual. It applies to all workplace/fi reground activities.

A dynamic risk assessment is used in F

the response, during and closing phases of incidents.

CFA and DSE risk assessment systems F

are designed to be done in your head.

Dynamic Assessment of Risk is the F

process followed in DSE. The process means you identify the hazards and assessthe risk that hazard poses to your safety and the likelihood of it actually occurring.Assessing the risk associated withidentifi ed hazards should involve thinking about:

the likelihood of harm occurring; •

how often you are exposed to a hazard; •

the possible consequences of •exposure; and

whether there are regulations related to •the hazard.

On the fi reground you will be required F

to constantly monitor the changing conditions and perform a dynamic assessment of the risk, utilising yourknowledge and understanding of fi reground hazards including the risk mitigation systems WATCHOUTS and LACES.

Brightly coloured and fl ame retardant F

overalls or jacket and over trouser are worn in a bushfi re situation to protect against:

radiant heat; •

minor burns; •

sunburn; •

abrasions; •

lacerations; •

hot embers; and •

poor visibility. •

Personal protective clothing is designed F

to be loose fi tting to allow maximum movement and airfl ow to aid cooling.




Personal protective clothing should F

be worn over minimal loose fi tting undergarments.

Do not under any circumstances take off F

personal protective clothing while on thefi reground in an attempt to cool down.

A bushfi re helmet, which is fi tted with a F

neck and ear protection fl ap, protects yourhead from:

radiant heat; •

high temperatures; •

ash and embers; •

impact and puncture injuries; •

splash from Class A foam, wetting •agents and chemicals;

being struck by hand tools; •

contact with electrical hazards; and •

steam or scalding water created during •fi refi ghting operations.

CFA bushfi re helmets must be worn with F

the inner harness adjusted and the chinstrap in place.

CFA helmets are to be removed and F

securely stowed when travelling en route and from a fi re.

Firefi ghting boots increase your grip on F

wet/oily surfaces, keep your feet dry,provide support for the foot and ankle, and are designed to protect your feet from:

radiant heat; •

burning embers and hot coals; •

sharp objects, cuts and abrasions; and •

some chemicals. •

Bushfi re boots and structural boots are F

both suitable for bushfi re fi refi ghting.

Leather gloves with an extended wrist cuff F

are worn at a bushfi re to:

protect hands from abrasions, cuts, •wounds, burns, splinters and blisters;

prevent cross-contamination risks if •handling casualties (double gloving);

reduce exposure when handling •fi refi ghting chemicals;

increase grip; •

protect against heat; and •

provide protection to the wrists. •

Personal protective equipment used by F

bushfi re fi refi ghters includes items forrespiratory, eye, and hearing protection.

Class P2 particulate fi lter masks provide F

reasonable protection to the nose, throatand lungs from ash and larger airborne particles that may be present in smokeor dust.

Respirators are not to be used F

when fi refi ghting.

Eye protection prevents eye injuries and F

irritation from impacts, airborne particles,heat and water and chemical splashes. In a bushfi re situation, bushfi re goggles offer the best protection.

Earmuffs or earplugs are worn for hearing F

protection when operating or workingnear noisy equipment. When wearing earprotection, it is important to be alert andlook for visual signals as you can becomeisolated from what is going on around you.




Hearing protection is available for a variety F

of different noise levels and types, so you must ensure that the correct hearing protection is used for a specifi c hazard. Inaddition, it must be compatible with eye and head protection equipment.

Damaged or worn out clothing and gloves F

should be replaced. Gloves contaminated with chemicals or biological waste shouldbe disposed of or decontaminated.

All personal protective equipment F

should be used, maintained, repaired,and replaced in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.

Potential hazards at a bushfi re are different F

from those of structural fi refi ghting. Only use appropriate personal protectiveclothing and equipment.

Firefi ghters should familiarise themselves F

with the safety features fi tted on their fi refi ghting appliances.

Bushfi re hazards include: F

lifting or moving heavy or awkwardly •shaped objects;

natural hazards; •

fencing; •

terrain; •

hazardous tree; •

dangerous rocks; •

mine shafts; •

trip/slip hazards; •

reduced visibility; •

smoke and dust; •

radiant heat; •

spot fi res; •

changes in weather and fi re behaviour; •

working near power lines; •

working around vehicles and heavy •machinery;

chainsaws; •

working around aircraft; •

fi rebombing; •

Class A Foam; and •

retardants. •

When working around hazardous trees F

it is important to recognise the hazards posed by falling trees and branches. Themost effective ways to reduce the risksassociated with hazardous trees is to avoid being in the area or wherever possible,prevent potentially hazardous trees beingfurther weakened by fi re.

Indicators that a tree may be hazardous F

include:

the base of the tree has been impacted •by fi re with greater than 50% burnt out;

the tree is currently on fi re; if greater •than 50% burnt out and spiral cracks are present it represents a high risk;

the tree has fi re ash at it’s base; •

the base of the tree displays soil heave, •indicating that it has moved; and

the tree has broken limbs still in the tree •or on the ground around the tree.




When seeing a tree that you think is F

hazardous, you should immediately:

alert all the people who are working in •the immediate area; and

advise your Crew Leader, who will then •report the location of the suspect tree up the chain of command and arrangefor it to be appropriately marked then mitigated by DSE.

CFA crews, under direction of their Crew F

Leader will deploy fi re tape at least twotree lengths from the hazardous tree or across any access track to isolate thehazardous tree.

DSE crews will implement the DSE F

hazardous tree guideline on assessing andmarking hazardous trees

CFA members will not mark hazardous F

trees. DSE will conduct this task.

Familiarise yourself with the markings used F

to indicate hazardous trees.

When seeing a marked hazardous tree, F

modify your plans to ensure that you reduce the potential impact if the tree or branch(s) fall.

Watch out for falling or rolling rocks and F

the domino effect.

Poor visibility can often result from dust F

stirred up by earth moving equipment. If visibility is poor due to dust and/or smoke, the following actions should be taken:

use appropriate personal •protective equipment;

make an exclusion zone around •the machine;

close off road or track; and •

turn on headlights. •

Watch out for mine shafts, and carry a F

torch at night when working in areas where mine shafts may be concealed.

Always consider downed electrical wires, F

as well as the ground surface for severalmetres around the area where the wire ismaking contact, to be live.

Working near or around power lines at a F

bushfi re presents dangers:

do not approach within 8 m of an area •where there are downed live wires, ordistribution power lines or within 20 m of transmission towers that are covered insmoke;

cordon off the area; and •

call the power company to turn off the •power supply.

You should avoid working under overhead F

high voltage power or transmission lineswhen dense smoke is present as electricity may short circuit to ground through smokewithout making direct ground contact.

You should always look out for the hazards F

posed by vehicles while working around, or travelling in, them.

Do not jump from vehicles. F

Heavy machinery creates its own unique F

set of hazards, with many having restricted fi elds of vision to the front and rear and make it extremely diffi cult for the operator to hear over the noise of the machine.




Personnel working near heavy machinery F

risk being crushed if the machine operatoris not aware of them. Always ensure the operator is aware of your location.

Always work more than two tree lengths F

from heavy machinery and neverdown slope.

Do not operate a chainsaw unless you are F

trained and endorsed to use one and are wearing the correct protective clothing. Correct protective clothing for chainsawoperation includes:

helmet; •

face shield/eye protection; •

ear protection; •

gloves; •

chainsaw trousers or chaps; •

high visibility personal protective •clothing; and

steel cap safety boots. •

Aircraft can be used at an incident for the F

following purposes:

detecting fi res; •

applying water retardants or •suppressants;

aerial ignition of fuel; •

transporting crews and equipment; •

observing and mapping fi res; and •

aircraft management, for example, •bomber coordination and drop procedures.

When working around aircraft: F

always be aware of the propellers and •stay away from moving parts;

stay in the pilot’s fi eld of view at •all times;

wear the correct protective clothing •and equipment;

carry headgear unless chin straps •are secured;

ensure that no loose objects are near •the aircraft or landing areas;

remain well clear of landing and take •off areas;

approach, board and disembark from •the aircraft in the correct manner and only when the pilot signals;

carry equipment horizontally, held fi rmly •below the waist, using two people tocarry long objects;

comply with any “no step” panel •markings when boarding and leavingaircraft; and

always follow instructions given by the •pilot, fl ight crew, or aircraft marshall.

When working around aircraft, do not: F

smoke in or within 30 m of an aircraft, •fuel dump or refuelling equipment;

mishandle aircraft equipment; or •

approach a helicopter before the rotors •have completely stopped or started unless directed by the pilot and then in accordance with agency proceedures.




While travelling in aircraft, fi refi ghters must F

follow the instructions given by the pilot and fl ight crew. In an emergency situation, follow the pilot’s or crew member’s directions immediately.

Before travelling in aircraft, ensure that you F

are briefed on the procedure for openingdoors and fastening seat belts.

Ground personnel must stay clear of F

fi rebombing drop zones. Actions to take if caught in a fi rebombing drop zone are:

place hand tools well clear of you; •

secure your hard hat or helmet, or •protect your head with your arms;

move away from the fi rebombing •drop zone;

watch your footing; •

watch out for falling branches and •debris; and

if hit with foam or retardant, wash off •with cold water.

If you have an existing medical condition, F

you should seek medical advice prior to attending an incident.

Firefi ghters suffering any form of illness on F

the fi reline should seek medical attentionas soon as possible.

It is important for responders to F

understand that they may have certain unexpected critical incident stressreactions to their participation at an incident. These reactions may include:

anger; •

depression; •

diffi culty concentrating; •

irritability and frequent mood swings; •

memories and fl ashbacks; •

physical tiredness; •

loss of appetite; •

loss of sexual interest; •

sleep disturbance; and •

social withdrawal such as a need to •be alone.

Exposure to smoke and dust reduces your F

performance and brings on mental and physical exhaustion more quickly – avoidunnecessary exposure.

Physical and mental exhaustion impairs a F

fi refi ghter’s performance and safety at an incident. It can occur if you are working forprolonged periods of time and have not had adequate rest, sleep, food and fl uids.

The symptoms of physical or mental F

exhaustion include slowness to react,impaired judgement, poor concentrationand erratic performance.

Dehydration will occur if fl uids and F

electrolytes lost through perspiration arenot replaced.

The recommended ration of water to F

electrolyte replacement drink/powder perhour is 2:1. The workload will infl uence how much to drink. During a heavy workload, you should drink up to 1200 mlwater and 600 ml electrolyte replacementdrink/powder every hour.

Avoid milky or fat-containing drinks, or F

drinks containing high sugar levels.

Never drink alcohol on the fi reground. F




Sunburn although not life threatening can F

be painful and reduce the effectiveness of your crew.

Heat related illnesses can be F

life threatening.

The body normally controls its temperature F

by perspiring.

Heat related illnesses occur when the F

body overheats and loses too much body fl uid.

To avoid heat related illness, adequate F

fl uid intake to replace any fl uid andelectrolytes that have been lost throughperspiration is vital.

Heat related illnesses in order of severity: F

heat cramps; •

heat stress; •

heat exhaustion; and •

heat stroke. •

Minimise the risk by taking regular F

breaks, loosen clothing to allow moreair circulation and maintain adequatefl uid intake.

People suffering from heat related illnesses F

may not realise it – look out for each other.

For all heat related illnesses, it is important F

to cool the casualty and replace bodyfl uids. You should:

move the casualty to the shade or •away from the incident and loosen or remove clothing;

fan and sponge the casualty, give •frequent sips of water; and

seek medical attention where required. •

Heat stroke is the most severe form of heat F

related illness. Symptoms include:

high body temperature; •

red, hot and possibly dry skin; •

reduced conscious state or •unconscious;

rapid pulse and breathing; and •

in severe cases, seizures/fi ts. •

If in doubt, seek urgent medical attention – F

severe heat-related illness can rapidly leadto death.

Never work alone. F

An anchor point as defi ned in the F AFACGlossary of Rural Fire Terminology isyan advantageous location from whicha fi reline can be constructed. It is used to minimise the possibility of being out fl anked by a fi re while the line isbeing constructed.

LACES is an acronym for: F

Lookouts.

Awareness.

Communications.

Escape Routes.

Safety Zones.




WATCHOUT on the fi reline: F

Weather – dominates fi re behaviour, so keep informed.

Actions – must be based on current and expected fi re behaviour.

Try out – at least two safe escape routes.

Communicate – with your supervisor, your crew and adjoining crews.

Hazards – beware of variations in fuels and steep slopes.

Observe – changes in wind speed and direction, temperature, humidityand cloud.

Understand – your instructions, make sure that you are understood.

Think – clearly, be alert and act decisively before your situation becomes critical.

A Red Flag Warning is issued when there F

is a signifi cant change to any critical information that may adversely affect the safety of personnel.

Taking refuge is a last resort. Your priority F

should be to avoid being placed in a life-threatening situation.

In order to minimise risk of exposure to F

radiant heat when fi refi ghting, you need to maintain a comfortable distance from the heat source. Four times the fl ame height isthe accepted comfortable distance.

The main principles when taking refuge are; F

you need to have a plan; •

you need to action your plan at the fi rst •signs of an approaching dangeroussituation;

communicate your situation; •

radiant heat only travel in straight lines •so take refuge behind a solid object;

fi nd an area where the fi re behaviour •will be minimised such as the black, fuel reduced areas, wet areas such as gullies creeks or dams;

cover all exposed skin; and •

keep low and lay face down if possible. •

To take refuge in a structure, remain F

outside the structure for as long as possible, extinguishing any small outbreaks, wetting down the immediate area, removing or protecting any fuelsadjacent to the building, and, if timepermits, wet gutters with water.

When you are forced to take F

refuge indoors:

take in a hose and fi ttings if you know •that the fi tting attached to the end of thehose can be coupled to an internal tap;

soak towels and rags and fi ll available •containers with water; and

watch for and extinguish any outbreaks •of fi re, especially in the roof, ceiling, windowsills, and verandas ortimber decks.

If the building should catch fi re, when the F

main fi re has passed, wrap yourself in a dry fi re blanket and exit the building and take refuge.

To take refuge in the cabin of a vehicle: F

give continuous blasts on the horn; •

ensure that all crew members are aware •of the impending danger;




park your vehicle in an area of least •combustible fuel so as to minimise the impact of radiant heat to the crew andthe pump area;

wind up all windows, close vents, turn •the air conditioner to recirculate, turn onheadlights and hazard lights and leave the engine running;

ensure proper adjustment of all personal •protective clothing and cover all exposed skin;

if in grave and imminent danger, send •a MAYDAY message to gain immediate radio attention;

get down as low as possible in the •cabin and cover yourself fully with a fi re blanket;

when the fi re front has passed, •extinguish any fi res on or around thevehicle; and

advise your Incident Control Centre •when the danger has passed.

If you are on the rear deck of a tanker and F

must take refuge:

ensure the pump is running; •

activate crew protection spray system •and awning on the deck where fi tted;

remain low behind protective heat •shields or sit in the roll over protectionsystem (ROPS); and

cover up with a dry fi re blanket. •

When the fi re approaches, open nozzles F

to wide angle fog and extend above heat shield level. When the main fi re has passed, extinguish any fi res on or near the vehicle.

To use a dozer for refuge: F

fi nd or clear an area using the mound •and trench method;

park the dozer behind the mound; •

lower the blade and rippers; •

get down low in the trench behind the •blade, tracks, or actually under thedozer; and

cover yourself with loose earth and a •fi re blanket.

If you must take refuge while on foot, F

clear a survival area by removing fuel andtake shelter behind a large solid object,in a depression, stump hole, or drain.Lie down, ensuring all exposed skin is covered. If available completely cover yourself with a fi re blanket, or alternatively take refuge in a stream, lake or dam.

stay low to avoid breathing F

superheated air.

Notes





Chapter 2Fire ScienceExtinguishing media work to suppress fi re by removing heat, oxygen and/or fuel to interrupt the chain reaction of combustion. A knowledge of the combustion process and how heat from fi res is transferred will assist fi refi ghters in selecting an appropriateextinguishing media and the correct method of application for the type and size of fi re encountered.

This chapter will cover:

combustion (fi re); F

heat transfer; F

fi re intensity; and F

methods of extinguishment. F

FUEL

OXY

GEN H

EAT

– the fi re triangle

Combustion (Fire)

Combustion is a chemical reaction that gives off heat, light and/or fl ames. Combustion (or fi re) initially takes place when the vapours given off by a combustible material combine with suffi cient heat and oxygen (air) to ignite.

In fi re suppression, it is important forfi refi ghters to understand that combustion may take place without fl ames (as with hotcoals and deep seated underground fi res).The components that must be present to bring about the chemical reaction of combustion are illustrated by the fi re triangle.

The fi re triangle

The fi re triangle depicts the three basiccomponents necessary for a fi re to ignite, burn and continue to burn.

Oxygen – is a colourless, odourless gas F

which makes up about one fi fth of the volume of the atmosphere (the air we breathe) and is necessary for a fuel to burn.

Heat – every fuel has a particular F

temperature at which it will begin to burn,known as its ignition temperature. A source of heat, such as a naked fl ame, is requiredto bring a fuel to its ignition temperature.

Fuel – is any material such as grass, leaf F

litter and live vegetation which can be ignited and sustains fi re.



Chapter 2: Fire Science

Heat Transfer

Heat is transferred in three ways, by:

radiation; F

convection; and F

conduction. F

Radiation

In the context of heat transfer, radiation is a form of heat energy that travels in straightlines in all directions from its source. It is the direct heat you feel from a fi re and comes from the fl ames and any smouldering fuel or heated surface.

Burning fuel and fl ames radiate largeamounts of heat which will act on fuelimmediately around the fi re, preheating anddrying out fuel, and may bring that fuel to a temperature where it ignites.

The intensity of radiant heat will drop with increasing distance from its source.Radiant heat does not need a medium to travel through.

The fi re tetrahedron

A fourth component is also present during combustion – a chemical chain reaction. In the combustion process, a chemical chain reaction occurs between the fuel and oxygen and is promoted by heat. This reaction isessential to sustaining combustion. If thechemical chain reaction is interrupted, thefi re will be extinguished.

The fi re tetrahedron is commonly depicted as per Figure 60. It builds on the fi re triangle toshow that fi re requires the interaction of:

oxygen; F

heat; F

fuel; and F

a chemical chain reaction. F

Chemical chain

reaction

Fuel

Heat Oxygen

Figure 60 – the fi re tetrahedron

– radiation of heat in all directions




hot air rising from a fi re often carries F

pieces of burning fuel with it – these can be carried forward, or in other directionsaway from the fi re, causing small fi res to start well ahead of, or in different areasfrom, the main fi re. This is called spotting.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat througha solid object from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.

Different substances conduct heat at differentrates. For example, metals are more effective conductors of heat than wood.

In bushfi res, conduction refers to themovement of heat through the fuel itself.

Note: conduction is more signifi cant for fi refi ghters operating in structural fi re environments.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat through the heating of air causing it to rise.

As air rises and moves sideways with the wind, it will carry heat with it, gradually losing it to the cooler surrounding air.

As a fi re gains in intensity, the air above it isheated to an even greater temperature, so the air rises faster.

Cooler air must move in towards the fi re at ground level to replace this heated air. This is known as indraught wind.

It is this process that forms the convectioncolumn of rising hot air and the smokeplume above the fi re. The convection column can carry ash, embers and small pieces of burning fuel. Convection has important implications for fi refi ghters:

large fi res may create strong indraught F

winds which may alter expected fi re behaviour; and

Indraught wind Indraught wind

Figure 62 – convection (hot air rises)

Figure 63 – conduction of heat through a solid object




Fire Intensity

Fire intensity is a function of the amount of fuel burnt, the energy value of the fueland the rate of spread of the fi re. In generalterms the indicators of intensity may befl ame length depending on how far they areleaning over and fl ame height.

It is useful to know the indicators of intensityas the intensity of the fi re may dictate themethod of attack used.

Low intensity F parts of fi res have an average fl ame height of less than 1.5 m.

Moderate intensity F parts of fi res have an average fl ame height of 1.5–7 m.

High intensity F parts of fi res have an average fl ame height of 7–14 m.

Very high intensity F parts of fi res have an average fl ame height greater than 14 m.

The fl ames from an intense surface fi re mayprogressively consume elevated shrub and bark fuels, and may eventually reach and ignite the crowns of trees.

When using fl ame height as an indicator of a fi re’s intensity, always consider the effectof prevailing winds. These winds may causefl ames to lean over, giving the appearanceof less height (implying a lower intensity) forgiven fuel and conditions. While appearing lower, the increase in the depth of thefl ames may result in a fi re intensity normally associated with much higher fl ames.

>14 m

7 m

Fire intensity

High

Moderate

Very high

1.5 m

Low

Figure 65 – fl ame height/fi re intensity

Prevailing wind

Flame flashes

Flame depth

Ash

Flame height

Flame length

Flame angle

Figure 64 – fl ame height/depth/angle perspective




Cutting off the oxygen supply

This is an effi cient form of attack whendealing with small fi res. However, cutting off the oxygen supply of a large fi re in the open is usually too diffi cult.

Firefi ghters can cut off the oxygen supply toa small fi re by:

shovelling soil onto a fi re. This is generally F

considered ineffective for bushfi re fi refi ghting as in most cases this will put the fl ames out but embers may continue to burn slowly and reignite again later; or

applying Class A foam over the fuels to F

smother the fi re. Foam has the additional benefi ts of cooling and isolating the fuelas water drains from the foam – effectivelyattacking all sides of the fi re triangle.

Methods of Extinguishment

There are three basic methods of extinguishing a fi re, each designed to break the fi re triangle. You can:

cut off the oxygen supply to smother F

the fi re;

reduce the temperature to cool the fi re; F

and/or

remove the fuel from the path of the fi re to F

starve the fi re.

In addition to the three methods identifi ed above, the chemical chain reaction mayalso be interrupted by the application of a fi re retardant chemical. Refer to the topicExtinguishing Mediums in Chapter 7.

Note: in many instances, a combination of these methods is used to extinguish a fi re.

HEAT

FUEL

OX

EN

Figure 66 – cutting off the oxygensupply using Class A foam




Removing the fuel

Removing the fuel may be an effective way of stopping a fi re.

“Dry fi refi ghting” is a term used to describe the suppression of fi re without the useof water.

Examples of dry fi refi ghting include:

using hand tools to break up fuel or F

remove it to create a control line;

using machinery, for example, bulldozers F

to create a wider control line or to clear alarge area;

deliberate burning out of unburnt fuel F

between the control line and the fi reedge, and unburnt pockets within the fi reperimeter; and

backburning along the inner edge of a F

control line to consume the fuel in the path of a bushfi re.

Note: backburning will only be carried out when authorised by the Incident Controller and under the strict supervision of your Crew Leader.

Reducing the temperature

Heat causes fuel to give off vapours. Thesevapours burn. To interrupt this process youneed to remove the heat.

The main purpose of using water when fi ghting fi res is to cool the fuel to the point where combustion stops. This is an effectiveway of extinguishing a small fi re.

When water is applied to a fi re it:

absorbs heat energy and rem oves heat as F

the water turns to steam; and

cools the fuel to a temperature below its F

ignition temperature.

Applying water only to the fl ames will not stop the process, as the fuel will simplycontinue to give off vapours. Water must be directed at the base of the fl ames onto theburning fuel.

Applying water to unburnt fuel increases itsmoisture content and makes it harder for it toreach its ignition temperature.

Figure 68 – remove fuel to stop a fi re

HEAT

OXY

GEN

FUEL

Figure 67 – reducing the temperature



Chapter 2Summary

The fi re triangle depicts the three basic F

components necessary for a fi re to ignite and continue to burn:

oxygen; •

heat; and •

fuel. •

Fuel is anything that will burn under F

suitable conditions.

The ignition temperature of a fuel is the F

particular temperature at which it begins to burn.

The chemical chain reaction, essential to F

sustaining combustion, occurs betweenthe fuel and oxygen and is promoted by heat.

Heat is transferred by: F

radiation; •

convection; and •

conduction. •

Radiation is a form of heat energy that F

travels in a straight path outward in all directions from its source.

Convection is the transfer of heat through F

air causing it to rise. As hot air rises, itcarries heat with it, gradually losing thisheat to the surrounding air.

Conduction refers to the transfer of heat F

through solid objects from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.

The fl ame height and depth of a fi re are F

useful indicators of a fi re’s intensity.

Three methods of extinguishing a fi re are: F

cut off the oxygen supply to smother •the fi re;

reduce the temperature of the fuel to •cool the fi re; and

remove the fuel from the path of the fi re •to starve the fi re.

A combination of methods is often used to F

control a fi re.

Dry fi refi ghting is the term used to F

describe fi refi ghting techniques that do notinvolve water.

Notes





slash (tree residue remaining after logging); F

decomposing humus and duff (fi ne ground F

litter); and

plantation prunings. F

Chapter 3Bushfi re BehaviourBushfi re behaviour and bushfi re spread can alter dramatically depending on changes infuel, weather and topography. These are the three main factors that infl uence bushfi rebehaviour. An understanding of how these factors infl uence bushfi re behaviour is crucial in predicting bushfi re spread and therefore, planning and conducting bushfi re suppression activities.


fuel; F

weather; and F

topography. F

FuelFuel is one of the most important factors thatinfl uences the way fi re behaves and travels.Variations in fuel will also infl uence the risk tofi refi ghter safety and fi refi ghting suppressionactivities. Fuel varies in its:

type; F

size; F

quantity; F

arrangement; and F

moisture content. F

Type

Common types of fuel involved in a bushfi reinclude:

grass; F

forest litter lying on the ground; F

small shrubs and scrub; F

trees, logs, stumps and bark; FFigure 69 – different fuel types and the

resulting fi re

Ferns and forest litter

Stringy bark and scrub

Grass

Ribbon bark



Chapter 3: Bushfi re Behaviour

Fuels that are tightly packed, either vertically or horizontally, for example, cut hay or heavyleaf litter, or compacted fuels such as haybales or peat will smoulder due to a lackof oxygen.

Loosely arranged and continuous fuels are more likely to burn fi ercely as more oxygen is available to promote combustion, for example, uncut grass, or hay closelygrouped and standing.

Well separated fuel, such as sparse tussock grassland, are harder to ignite than moreclosely grouped collections of fuel because of reduced fl ame contact and radiant heat.

A continuous ladder of fi ne fuel fromthe ground surface to the crown of thevegetation encourages the development of crown fi res.

It is important to understand different fuel types and different burning characteristicsbecause of their oils, waxes and resisns.

Given the right conditions, most of thesefuels will readily ignite and burn at differing rates and degrees of intensity.

Size

Fuel is normally classifi ed as fi ne or heavy(coarse) in relation to size.

Fine fuels are less than 6 mm in diameter, that is, thinner than a pencil. Fine fuels include leaves, twigs, grasses and some treebarks. They ignite easily and burn readily.

Heavy (or coarse) fuels are greater than6 mm in diameter, that is, thicker than apencil. Examples include sticks, brancheslogs and stumps. Coarse fuels tend to ignite less readily, burn more slowly and burn formuch longer periods.

Quantity

The more fuel there is, the greater the fi reintensity. For example, doubling the quantityof fuel would increase the intensity of the fi refour times.

Arrangement

The way pieces of fuel are arranged in relation to one another will affect howthey burn.

Figure 71 – example of ladder type fuel, Ribbon bark

Figure 70 – arrangement (same fuel,different arrangement)

Hay bale Field of hay




Moisture content

Fire behaviour is affected by how dry fuels are, that is, their moisture content.The moisture content will vary depending on factors such as weather conditions, vegetation type, and whether the fuel is deador living vegetation.

All dead fuels take up or give off moisture according to the:

daily temperature and relative humidity F

cycles. Fine dead fuels change their moisture content rapidly in response to these cycles, while heavy dead fuelschange slowly and rarely reach extremesof wetness or dryness; and

time since last rainfall and the amount F

of rain received – over several days theeffects of recent rainfall will disappear; this happens more rapidly in fi ne fuels than in heavy fuels.

The moisture content of fuels affects:

ease of ignition; F

probability of spotting; F

rate of combustion; F

rate of fi re spread; and F

amount of heat radiated from the fl ames. F

Measuring fuel moisture content

It is important for you as a fi refi ghter to beable to recognise when fuel moisture content is low. Fuel moisture is not easy to estimatein the fi eld without appropriate equipment.

A practical method that can be used byfi refi ghters to assess whether fuel moisture content is low, is the “crackle” test. Thisinvolves walking across the ground litter – thesharper the crackle sound, the drier the fuel.

Remember: the crackle sound as you walk through fi ne fuels is a good indication of the fuel moisture content – the sharper the crackle, the drier the fuel.

Weather

Weather is a major factor that impacts on fi rebehaviour. The key elements of weather are:

air temperature; F

relative humidity; F

wind (speed and direction); and F

atmospheric stability. F

Air temperature

The sun warms fuels, land surface and the surrounding air, raising their temperature. An increase in temperature, and the resultingdecrease in relative humidity, will reduce fuelmoisture content making it easier for fuelto ignite.

Relative humidity

There is always a certain amount of watervapour in the air. Relative humidity (RH) is ameasure of the actual water vapour content of the air, expressed as a percentage of its maximum water vapour holding capacity (at the same temperature).




Changes in wind direction and increased strength present serious hazards to fi refi ghters. Firefi ghters must remain alert tochanges in wind strength and direction, and receive updates on predicted wind changes,as these changes may affect fi re behaviour.

Note: a wind change can rapidly cause relatively quiet fl anks to become active fi re fronts – always keep fuel between you and the fi re to a minimum.

Wind speed

Wind speed, or strength, is a major cause of rapid changes in fi re behaviour. It will affect the intensity of a fi re, the speed at which ittravels and its shape. The stronger the wind, the longer and narrower the fi re will be.

Wind:

supplies oxygen for the burning process; F

removes ash, smoke and moisture from F

fuels in the area; and

slants the fl ames, hot air and gases F

over the unburnt fuel ahead of the fi re, therefore, pre-heating the fuels and allowing the fi re to spread faster.

A high RH fi gure indicates a high level of water vapour in the air; a low RH indicates a low level of water vapour in the air.

In humid air (high RH), fi ne dead fuels will absorb moisture from the air (adsorption) and will therefore burn more slowly, or maynot burn at all.

In dry air conditions (low RH), moistureis drawn out of dead fi ne fuels (a process known as desorption). Therefore, fuels will become drier, ignite more easily, burn fasterand more fi ercely.

Figure 72 shows the relationship between RH, temperature and fuel moisture contentover a typical daily cycle.

In a bushfi re situation, fi re intensity usuallyincreases during the day as the temperaturerises and relative humidity falls, and reduces at night as humidity increases andtemperature drops.

Wind

Wind is the most critical aspect affecting theshape, forward rate of spread and behaviour of a bushfi re.

0000 0600 1200 1800 0000

Fine fuel moisture

Dry air

Moist/humid air

Relative humidity

TemperatureDesorption

Adsorption

Time of day

Figure 72 – daily trends in RH, temperature and fi ne fuel moisture content

Point of origin

Head

Moderatenortherly wind

Head

Point of origin

Strongnortherly wind

Point of origin

No wind

N

S

W E

Figure 73 – effects of wind strength on fi re shape




In this example, at 1000 hrs a fi re is burningunder the infl uence of a strong northerlywind (A).

The fi re has an elongated shape with anarrow head. The fi re intensity being higherat the head of the fi re, the fl anks being much cooler as the fi re spreads slowly outwardswest and east.

By 1330 hrs the fi re has advanced to point (B), when a south westerly wind change occurs.

The wind change causes the cooler easternfl ank to suddenly become the new head of the fi re (C). The fi re which was burning on a narrow head, is now burning on a wide front.The new head fi re will move away at itsmaximum intensity and rate of spread.

This change in direction will substantially increase the diffi culty of fi re suppression activities, but more importantly, presents an immediate threat to any fi refi ghters working on what was the eastern fl ank.

Note: always be watchful of wind changes. If unpredicted changes occur in your area, warn your Crew Leader.

The wind may also lift burning materials,such as bark and other embers, andcarry them ahead of the main fi re startingspot fi res.

The stronger the wind the faster a fi re will spread. The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) measures wind speed at 10 m above ground level in the open for forecasts.

Wind direction

Changes in wind direction can cause a relatively quiet fi re fl ank to become the newhead fi re. Sudden and unexpected changes are especially dangerous as fi refi ghtersmay be unprepared to deal with the new fi re conditions.

Information regarding any potential changes in wind direction can assist in planning theattack on a fi re, and allows crews time toadjust their safety plans to ensure safety inthe event of changed fi re behaviour.

Wind direction refers to the direction the wind is coming from. A “north wind” means awind originating from the north and travellingin a southerly direction.

The following diagram illustrates the affectsof a wind change on fi re.

Figure 74 – effects of wind

N

S

W E

A

At 1000 hrs a fire is burning under the

influence of a strong northerly wind.

B

At 1330 hrs – south westerly wind

change.

Point of origin

Head

New head

C

Danger is the eastern flank

becoming the head

Figure 75 – result of change in wind direction




Unstable conditions

In unstable atmospheric conditions, fi re behav iour can be unpre dictable.

Visual indicators of unstable conditions are:

presence of cumulus (cotton wool) type F

clouds showing noticeable vertical growth;

smoke columns can rise to great heights; F

winds are gusty and unpredictable; F

potential for thunder storms and therefore, F

lightning strikes; and

dust whirls (willy willies) may occur. F

Topography

The third major factor that impacts the spread of fi re is topography. Topographyis the surface features of a particular areaor region such as mountains, valleys, hillsor plains.

The topography of an area will infl uencethe direction and speed at which a fi re will travel. The effects can be quite complex as the topography will also effect the local wind speed and direction.

Figure 77 – unstable atmosphere

Atmospheric stability

The vertical (upward) movement of airmasses that occur when hot air rises and is replaced by cooler air is affected by atmospheric conditions.

Stable conditions

In stable atmospheric conditions, fi re behaviour will generally be predictable.

Visual indicators of stable conditions are:

presence of stratus type clouds (clouds F

in layers);

smoke columns will rise to a particular F

point, fl atten out and then drift off in thedirection of prevailing winds;

vertical movement of air is limited; F

air clarity can be reduced due to smog, F

haze and/or fog layers may be present; and

winds are generally light and predictable. F

Figure 76 – stable atmosphere




The three main concerns that arise in relationto topography are:

slope; F

aspect; and F

the interaction between terrain, wind F

and elevation.

Slope

Slope will affect the speed, or rate of spread,of a fi re. If a fi re is travelling up slope asopposed to level ground, there will be ashorter distance for radiant heat to travel from the fl ames to unburnt fuel. Therefore,fuels up slope of a fi re will be preheated to their ignition temperature quicker than they would be on level ground. The opposite is true for a fi re travelling down slope.

The following rules of thumb will help you calculate the affect slope will have on the speed of a fi re.

For every F 10° of up slope, double the rateof spread.

F

For example: a fi re is travelling at 2.5 kmper hour on level ground towards a 20°up slope; it reaches the foot of the hill and continues to burn in the same direction; as it moves up the slope, the rate of spread will increase to 10 km per hour (approximately).

For every F 10° of down slope, halve the rate of spread.

For example: a fi re is travelling at 10 km per hour on level ground towards a 20° downslope; it reaches the edge of the level ground and continues to burn in the same direction down hill; as it moves down theslope, the rate of spread will decrease to 2.5 km per hour (approximately).

Figure 78 – fi re will travel quickly up steep slopes

2.5 km/hr

10 km/hr

20°20°

– the effect of up slope

20˚

2.5 km/hr

10 km/hr

Figure 80 – the effect of down slope




In mountainous country, winds tend to fl ow up or down valleys, irrespective of thegeneral wind direction outside these areas.In fact, any change in terrain may have aneffect on the wind.

Coastal sea breezes are often experiencedin the late afternoon in coastal areas andmay affect fi re behaviour, depending onlocal terrain.

Under clear skies, local winds can actually begenerated by the heating and cooling of the terrain – up slope during the day (anabatic) and down slope during the night (katabatic).

Winds generated by any of these conditions will create complex fi re behaviour that hasthe potential to threaten fi refi ghter safety.

Elevation

Fire behaviour may change signifi cantly at different elevations (heights above sea level)due to:

changes in types, quantities and F

arrangements of fuel; and

variations in temperature and humidity F

affecting fuel moisture content; and

variations in wind speed and direction. F

These effects are particularly noticeable inalpine fi res where at night, and in early parts of the day, the fi res may burn intensely onthe higher slopes while in the valleys fi reintensity may reduce signifi cantly.

The reduction in fi re intensity in valley fl oorsis due in part to increased humidity levelsovernight that results in higher fuel moisturecontent within the available fuel.

AspectAspect is the direction that a topographicfeature or slope faces. This infl uences the amount of solar radiation that it receives and,as a result, northerly and westerly aspects (which receive more sun) will be warmer and drier than southerly and easterly aspects.

Aspect also infl uences the nature of the vegetation, for example, northern and westernaspects generally have drier and morefl ammable vegetation than southern andeastern aspects, where vegetation tends to be lush and less fl ammable. As a result, fi res on northern and western aspects will generallyburn more fi ercely than fi res on southern and eastern aspects except in prolonged droughtwhen the opposite may occur.

Terrain, wind and elevationThe way the wind interacts with terrain canbe quite complex. Exposed faces of hills andridges may have increased wind speeds, while their leeside, less exposed or sheltered areas may be almost calm.

Under some circumstances, the leeside mayhave dangerous turbulent winds blowing inthe reverse direction of the prevailing wind.Spot fi res can be drawn back up slope against the prevailing wind.

Figure 81 – lee slope wind turbulence



Chapter 3Summary

The three main factors that affect fi re F

behaviour are:

fuel; •

weather; and •

topography. •

Fuel characteristics which affect fi re F

behaviour are:

type; •

size; •

quantity; •

arrangement; and •

moisture content. •

Fine fuels burn readily given the F

right conditions.

Coarse or heavy fuels tend to ignite less F

readily and burn more slowly.

The arrangement of fuels affects how F

they burn.

Fire behaviour is affected by the moisture F

content of the fuel, that is, how damp or dry fuels are.

Weather elements that impact on fi re F

behaviour are:

air temperature; •

relative humidity (RH); •

wind speed and direction; and •

atmospheric stability. •

During stable atmospheric conditions F

winds are generally light and predictable, vertical movement of air is limited and fi re behaviour will generally be predictable.

During unstable atmospheric conditions F

winds are generally gusty andunpredictable, smoke columns can rise to great heights and fi re behaviour willgenerally be unpredictable.

The topography of an area will affect F

the direction and speed at which a fi rewill travel.

Topographical factors which affect fi re F

behaviour are slope, aspect elevation, land formations.

Slope can affect the speed of a fi re. F

The rules of thumb that may be used to determine the effect are:

for every 10° of up slope, double the rate •of spread; and

for every 10° of down slope, halve the •rate of spread.

Aspect infl uences how dry fuels are and F

therefore, how fi ercely fi res burn.

Land formations infl uence the strength and F

direction of the wind.

Fire behaviour may change signifi cantly F

at different elevations (heights abovesea level).

Elevation affects the types and quantities F

of fuel.

Notes





Chapter 4Bushfi re DevelopmentThere are three types of bushfi re, each of which creates its own particular hazards thatrequire constant monitoring. You need to ensure safe work practices are observed andcarried out at all times.


types of bushfi re and; F

parts of a bushfi re. F

Types of Bushfi re

A bushfi re is an unplanned vegetation fi rein grass, scrub and forest areas and may involve a combination of fuels. There arethree types of bushfi re:

ground fi re; F

surface fi re; and F

crown fi re. F

Ground fi re

This type of fi re burns under the surface of the earth. It burns the organic material in thesoil layer, riplines in plantations, peat, humus,roots and tree litter.

Characteristics

Smoulders with no fl ame and little smoke. F

These fi res can burn unnoticed and may later ignite surface fi res. You need to take care to avoid stepping into undetected hot spots inthe ground.

Figure 82 – ground fi re in a peat swamp



Chapter 4: Bushfi re Development

Crown fi re

This is a fi re which burns in the crowns (tops)of trees ahead of, and above, an intensesurface fi re.

Surface fi re

This type of fi re travels on the surface invegetation such as grass, crops, stubble, low scrub and forest litter.

Figure 84 – crown fi reFigure 83 – surface fi re

Radiant heat and direct fl ame contact from the surface fi re will ignite tree tops. Crown fi resare exposed to higher wind speeds than the surface fi res. This stronger wind carries the fi re along the upper storey vegetation faster than the rate of spread below. Crown fi res normally need a surface fi re and suffi cientcontinuous canopy fuel to sustain them.

Characteristics

A fast travelling fi re that is extremely F

destructive and often consumes all in its path;

an intense surface fi re follows shortly F

behind a crown fi re;

short or long distance spotting often F

accompanies crown fi res (spotting distances of up to 25 km have been recorded); and

falling material from a crown fi re can start F

further surface fi res below.

Note: crown fi res are a signifi cant hazard to fi refi ghters.

It presents a signifi cant hazard to fi refi ghtersas fi re conditions can change rapidly dueto strengthening winds or changes in winddirection which impact fi re direction, intensityand rate of spread.

Characteristics

By far the most common type of fi re; F

burns in fuels lying on the ground; F

consumes litter and low vegetation such F

as grass and scrub; and

does not extend into the crowns of trees. F




Parts of a Bushfi re

Parts of a bushfi re include:

point of origin; F

head; F

fl anks; F

fi ngers; F

heel, rear or back; F

spot fi res ahead of the main fi re; and F

unburnt pockets or islands. F

Point of origin

Heel, rear or back

Wind direction

Unburnt pocket

or island

Right flank

Finger

Head fire

Spot fires

Finger

Left flank

Figure 85 – parts of a bushfi re

The head is also called the fi re front. Flames are tallest and intensity of the fi re is greatest at this point. The head fi re is infl uenced by wind direction, fuel factors and topographyand its position will change under theseinfl uences.

Flanks

Both sides of the fi re between the head and the rear are called the fl anks. They are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread. Fire intensity on the fl anks is lessthan at the head. They may be identifi ed by their geographic location, for example, Ridge Road fl ank or compass points, for example, eastern or western fl ank.

Fingers

These are long and narrow slivers of the advancing fi re, which may extend beyond the head or fl anks, and are caused by varying wind direction or changes in fuel or topography.

Heel, rear or back

The least intense part of the fi re’s perimeter,with the lowest fl ames and slowest rate of spread. This is the section of the perimeteropposite to, and usually upwind, or downslope from, the head fi re.

Spot fi res

Spot fi res are fi res that occur ahead of, or away from, the main fi re. Spot fi res present asignifi cant hazard to fi refi ghters as they may lead to the unexpected spread of the fi re,potentially compromising fi refi ghter safely.

Point of origin

This is the area where the fi re started. Thelikely point of origin should, if possible, be left undisturbed for fi re investigation.Refer to the topic Evidence of Fire Cause in Chapter 11.

Head

The head of a fi re is where the fi re is making its greatest progress (usually downwindor up slope) measured by its forward rateof spread.




Causes and effects of spotting

Spot fi res occur when embers (fi rebrands) are carried by prevailing winds or hot, convected air and drop ahead of, or away from, the main fi re.

Convection has important implications for fi refi ghters.

Convection that occurs with large fi res F

creates strong indraught winds affectingfi re behaviour.

Convection from a fi re often carries F

pieces of burning bark or embers with it – these can be carried forward, or in other directions away from the fi re, causing small fi res to start well ahead of, or in different areas from, the main fi re. This is called spotting.

Factors that may increase the likelihood of spot fi res include:

atmospheric stability – determines how F

vigorous the convection column is andhow easily it can carry embers aloft;

wind strength – determines how far F

embers will carry. Increasing wind strength carries embers further from the fi re edge;

lower fuel moisture content – allows fuel to F

ignite more easily and burn more rapidly;

increased turbulance – caused by terrain F

or gaps in the forest canopy;

bark types – for example, stringy bark F

eucalypts are commonly associated with mass, short-distance spotting, whereas candle bark eucalypts may be associatedwith very long-distance spotting, up to several kilometres; and

increasing fi re intensity – hotter fi res F

produce more fi re brands.

Problems arising from spot fi res include:

spot fi res near the main fi re can be F

particularly hazardous as they have the potential to cut off fi refi ghters fromescape routes;

greater demand for resources to undertake F

a direct attack and suppress spot fi res;

the rate of spread of a main fi re front may F

accelerate rapidly if spot fi res start ahead of it; and

in winds of varying direction, the F

occurrence and spread of spot fi res will beunpredictable.

If you are unable to suppress the spot fi resyou must implement your escape plan. Thismay mean evacuating the area immediately. If you are unable to reach a safety zone, takerefuge as discussed previously.

Junction zone

A junction zone is defi ned as “an area of greatly increased fi re intensity caused by two fi re fronts or fl anks burning towards one another”.

This is due to the increased level of preheating of unburnt fuels between theadvancing fi res and the combining of convection cells as each advancing fi redraws air for the combustion process.

This two to three fold increase in intensityand rate of spread makes the junction zonean extremely dangerous place to be.



Chapter 4 Summary

Fingers are narrow slivers of the advancing F

bushfi re, which extend beyond the head or fl anks.

The heel, rear or back is the section of the F

perimeter opposite to, and usually upwind or down slope from, the head of the fi re.

Spot fi res are new fi res ignited ahead of, or F

away from, the main fi re by embers, or by a burning object often called a fi rebrand.

Spot fi res are affected by atmospheric F

stability, wind strength and turbulence,moisture content, fi re intensity and bark types.

Stringy bark eucalypts may be associated F

with mass, short-distance spotting .

Candle bark/ribbon eucalypts are F

commonly associated with very long-distance spotting.

If multiple spot fi res start to develop in the F

area around you, it may be necessary to evacuate the area immediately.

There are three types of bushfi re: F

ground fi re; •

surface fi re; and •

crown fi re. •

A ground fi re burns the organic material in F

the soil layer, as in a peat fi re.

A surface fi re burns in surface vegetation F

such as grass, scrub and forest litter.

A crown fi re burns in the crowns of trees F

ahead of and above an intense surface fi re in the undergrowth.

Parts of a bushfi re include the: F

point of origin; •

head; •

fl anks; •

fi ngers; •

heel, rear or back; •

spot fi res ahead of the main fi re; and •

unburnt pockets or islands. •

The point of origin is where the fi re started. F

The head is the part of a fi re where the rate F

of spread, fl ame height and intensity aregreatest, usually when burning downwind or up slope.

The fl anks are those parts of a fi re’s F

perimeter that are roughly parallel to themain direction of spread.

Notes





General Hand Tool Safety

The most common hand tools used in fi refi ghting are the axe and the rakehoe. Both have sharp blades capable of infl ictinginjury to the user or others working nearby. Consequently great care must be takenwhen using them.

Note: failure to observe safe handling and work procedures can result in severe injury.

Using hand tools and other small equipmentcan also be hazardous while working ona slope, in dusty or smoky environments,when darkness is falling and in areas where there is the potential of falling rocks andtrees. Extreme care must be taken at all times as it is diffi cult to maintain your mobilityand balance when using certain piecesof equipment.

Chapter 5 Hand ToolsThere is a range of hand tools and equipment you may use in bushfi re suppression activities. You need to be able to identify the various tools and equipment available to you, know how to use and maintain them correctly, and recognise the situations in whichthey may be applied.


general hand tool safety; and F

common hand tools and their use. F

Carrying hand tools

Misuse and improper handling of hand tools can be dangerous. When carrying hand tools:

carry them close to your body and parallel F

to the ground with the sharp bladestowards the ground as illustrated inFigures 86 and 87;

Figure 86 – correct way to carry an axe



Chapter 5: Hand Tools

Common Hand Tools and Their Use

Axe

The axe is used for many activities such as:

felling small trees; F

removing branches; F

cleaning bark from trees; and F

splitting logs and stumps. F

An axe must have the head securely fi tted tothe handle – an axe head fl ying off a handle can cause serious injury. Axe head covers should be used to protect the axe head when not in use, and to protect fi refi ghtersfrom injury.

Once an axe has been used for breaking upstumps, it should be correctly re-sharpenedto make sure it is ready for use.

Pulaski

The Pulaski is used for:

felling small trees; F

removing branches; F

clearing bark from trees; F

splitting logs open; F

breaking open stumps; F

raking and scraping away surface fuels F

down to mineral earth to create control lines; and

raking out hot coals from logs, stumps and F

hot spots.

do not carry them over your shoulder – if F

you swing around, the tool may strike another person, or if you fall, it may cause you serious injury;

carry tools on the downhill side when F

walking on side slopes – if your feet slipout from under you, the hand tool shouldfall downhill away from you.

Figure 87 – correct way to carry a rakehoe




Rakehoe

A rakehoe has one pronged edge for raking and one sharpened edge forcutting, chipping and scraping down to mineral earth.

A rakehoe is used for:

constructing a mineral earth control line F

through forest fuels;

scraping bark from tree trunks; F

breaking up and raking out compacted F

fuels in conjunction with water/Class A foam during blacking out operations; and

raking out hot coals from logs and stumps. F

Figure 88 – using a rakehoe tocreate a mineral earth control line

For a rakehoe to do the job it was designed for, it must be kept well maintained and in aserviceable condition.

The handle should be splinter free, sanded F

smooth and kept oiled;

rakehoe covers should be used to protect F

the cutting blade when not in use;

the blade or cutting edge must be sharp; F

the working angle for the cutting edge is about 30°;

the prongs of the rake side should be F

straight; and

the head must be tight. F

Note: remember to sharpen the edge away from you, use safety fi le handle and secure the tool.

Constructing a control line using hand tools

Constructing a control line using hand toolsrequires a team effort. It is necessary to workin a planned manner if the team is to worksafely, effectively and effi ciently.

The two methods for constructing a control line using a team of fi refi ghters equipped with hand tools, are the:

step-up method; and F

one lick method. F




Step-up method

The step-up method is normally used forconstructing a control line when there arelimited numbers of fi refi ghters available. It involves fi refi ghters in a crew working in aline on individual sections of the control line.

Crew members stand approximately 3 mapart depending on the fuel type and terrain. Each member clears their individual sectionof the fi rebreak down to mineral earth by raking and chipping the fuel away fromthe fi re.

The person calling out step-up, andall personnel ahead, move to the next unfi nished section and the front personmoves 3 m to new uncleared ground. All personnel behind continue working on their

sections until they, or someone behind them,completes their section and calls step-upand the process is repeated. In this way the group moves along at a steady rate and noone overtakes the person in front.

The last member of the crew (the polisher)checks that the control line is cleared to therequired standard and monitors the security of the constructed control line. The CrewLeader usually works at the head of the team, selecting the route for the control line.

Note: control lines constructed with hand tools are often called “rakehoe trails”.

One-lick method

In the one-lick method, each person removesa portion of the fuel by raking or chipping itaway from the fi re as they move along the line. This continues until the mineral earth is exposed and a control line is established.

This method may suit situations where alarge number of fi refi ghters are deployed asa unit.

In both the step-up and one-lick method of control line construction, the last member of the team is responsible for ensuring the line is completed to the required standard.

B C

C

A

B

C

A

B

B

CA

A

Step up

Control line

Figure 89 – step-up methodFigure 90 – one-lick method




Keep the control line as straight as F

possible to provide fi refi ghters with a clear view and enable them to move along the control line easily.

The width of the control line will be F

determined by Crew Leader based on theexpected fi re behaviour.

Keep the length of the control line to F

a minimum.

Corners should be widened, as fi res are F

more intense in this area and can often spot over at these points.

Avoid heavy concentrations of fuel as the F

fi re’s intensity will increase close to the control line.

Cut saplings and small trees at ground F

level to minimise the potential for the sharpstumps to cause accidents.

Keep the control lines clear of stags, dead F

trees or stumps.

Rake and scrape unburnt surface fuels F

away from the fi re.

Remove rough bark and ladder fuels from F

trees adjacent to the control line as thesecan cause spotting across the control line or rake around these, if it is not possible toavoid them.

Remove any overhanging fuel. F

Be sure that the fuel is removed down to F

the mineral earth.

Note: take care with sharp blades, stay a safe distance (3 m) from other crew members and do not chop too close to feet.

Which method to use?

The step-up method is useful with crews of up to 8–10 persons and where the distance to be cleared is not excessive. Well trainedcrews can produce a good control line with the minimum of supervision and follow up.

The one-lick method is better suited to larger crews, and where there is a longer distance to be covered. Under these conditions the step-up method becomes unwieldy.

The crew can be spread further than withthe step-up method and will tend to coverground at greater speed. It is also more useful where people have not worked together before and where close supervision is not always possible.

Note: with either method, the last person, or polisher, should be well experienced as he or she is responsible for determining whether or not the fi re control line is to an acceptable standard for the task.

Key points to remember

Make the most of natural fi re breaks such as: F

exposed rock shelves; •

open ground; and •

rivers, dams, lakes and streams. •




Handtool maintenance

Hand tools need to be ready for use. Theyneed smooth handles and sharpenedblades. Sharpening can be done with afl at fi le and smoothing of wooden handles with sandpaper.

Sharpening of rakehoe blades should only be carried out by appropriately trained personnel.

As with axes, a blade sharpened at too fi nean angle can be easily damaged and the toolrendered useless. The correct working angle for the cutting edge of a rakehoe is 30°.

Sharpened blades must be protected toavoid cutting yourself or blunting the blade. You can do this by covering the blade and taking care when stowing or using the tool.

Ensure the rakehoe or axe head is tightlyfi tted to its handle and check the handle forcracks and splinters (lightly sand and oil the wooden handle).

Note: tool sharpening should only be undertaken by a competent operator.

Knapsack sprayer

A knapsack is a portable spray pump containing between 16 to 20 litres of water and fi tted with shoulder straps for carryingon the back. It has a hand-operated pump, which can be used to deliver water either inthe form of a jet or a spray. Many knapsackshave containers made of polythene, while newer knapsacks may be collapsible to alloweasier storage.

On the fi reground, you can use a knapsack to:

suppress a low intensity fi re that can be F

easily and safely extinguished;

support hand crews who are constructing F

a control line close to the fi re edge;

assist in mopping up operations; and F

patrol a hose lay. F

Figure 91 – knapsack sprayers

Collapsible backpack sprayer Plastic knapsack sprayer




Figure 92 – using a knapsack spray

Construction

Knapsack sprayers consist of several components:

a tank; F

the pump; and F

an adjustable nozzle. F

The tank – usually constructed of plastic or vinyl, holds up to 20 litres of water and is carried by two shoulder straps. Newer collapsibleknapsacks hold about 16 litres of water.

The pump – mostly a double action pistontype operation, connected to the wateroutlet hose.

An adjustable jet-spray shut-off nozzle –allows the operator to deliver water in a spray or jet pattern.

Guidelines for use

When using a knapsack sprayer the following guidelines should be adopted:

check that the shoulder straps are in good F

condition and that the knapsack operates(delivers water when pumped);

ensure that it contains suffi cient water F

for the task and that no major leaks are evident;

adjust the straps so that the knapsack sits F

comfortably on the back;

check that the nozzle can be adjusted F

and set it to a pattern that best suitsthe situation;

do not waste large quantities of water on F

small embers;

when attacking a low intensity fi re, work F

from an anchor point and direct water at the base of the fi re;

be aware of the situation and quantity of F

water you have remaining; and

when operations are completed, close the F

nozzle to prevent leakage and stow theknapsack in an upright position.

Note: knapsacks may not be suitable for use in steep, loose or slippery conditions, where falls are possible.




Drip torch

A drip torch has a burning wick attachedvia a wand to a fuel reservoir. When in use,a constant fl ow of drip torch fuel keeps the wick alight. Drip torches are used solely for authorised prescribed burning, back burning,burning out and other lighting activities.

Note: drip torches may only be used as part of an approved plan, and then only by an experienced person under the direction and supervision of your commander.

Construction

A drip torch consists of several components:

body; F

fi ller cap; F

wand; F

nozzle and wick; F

bleed screw/breather vent; and F

tap. F

The body or reservoir contains the rfl ammable mixture used for ignition. Capacity varies according to manufacturer from 4to 9 litres of fuel. Drip torch fuel consists of a mixture of diesel and petrol (unleadedor super).The mixture is:

3 parts (75%) diesel; and F

1 part (25%) unleaded petrol. F

Always refer to the manufacturer’s specifi cation or the agency procedures for the correct ratio to use (may be found stamped on the body of the drip torch). Other mixture must not be used.

DSE fi refi ghters should refer to theiragency’s guidelines and note that DSE havea premixed blend.

The F wand transfers the fuel from the bodyto the nozzle and wick for ignition.

The F nozzle and wick. The nozzle controlsthe fl ow of fuel to the wick. The wick issoaked in fuel.

The F bleed screw/breather vent controls the rate of fl ow of the fuel to the wick. This ensures an even and constant fl ow of fuel when the unit is operated in a tilted or almost inverted position by allowing air tobleed into the tank. When not in use the bleeder screw should be tightly closed to prevent fuel spilling during transit.

The F tap turns the fuel to the wick on or off. When not in use the tap should be turnedoff to prevent fuel spilling during transit.

Wand

Filler cap

Body

Nozzle

Wick

Figure 93 – CFA (left) and DSE (right) drip torches




ensure the correct fuel is used in the drip F

torch and no leaks are evident. If fi lling, take care to avoid breathing in fuel vapours orspilling fuel onto the ground, follow agency’ssafety precautions when fi lling drip torch;

open the bleed screw/breather vent F ¼ turnand turn on the tap;

lower the wand to the ground to soak F

the wick with fuel, adjusting the bleedscrew to allow fuel to fl ow or drop past thewick. Raise the wand again to the vertical position to stop the fuel mixture dripping;

tilt the unit to lower the wand and light F

the wick from an ignition source on the ground, for example, a match or otherburning material. When the wick lights,return the wand to an upright position. Repeat the ignition process if the torch extinguishes;

carry the lit torch in an upright position to F

the location where backburning or burn out is to commence. Take care not to splash fuel around; and

tilt the unit, lowering the wand to the F

ground, allowing fuel to drop past the ignited wick and onto the area to be lit.

The drip torch breather vent and fuel tap should be closed when the drip torch isstowed/transported in your vehicle to preventfuel spilling out.

Figure 95 – driptorch fuel tap and breather vent (note fuel mixture marked on lid)

Tap Breather vent

Guidelines for use

The Crew Leader will determine:

the type of lighting pattern to be used, F

for example, continuous line or spotlighting; and

the rate of lighting. F

If too much is lit or it is lit in the wrong waythe burn can escape.

When using a drip torch the following guidelines should be adopted:

ensure that there is no risk to other F

personnel operating in the vicinity of theproposed burnout or backburn;

before lighting, place the drip torch in a F

safe, level location with low fuel/vegetation;

check the manufacturer’s recommended F

fuel mixture ratio, usually printed or stamped on the lid or body;

Figure 94 – using a drip torch

Notes





Chapter 5Summary

raking out hot coals from logs, stumps •and hot spots.

A rakehoe has one sharpened edge for F

cutting, chipping and scraping, and one pronged edge for raking. Its specifi c uses are to:

construct a control line; •

scrape bark from tree trunks; •

break up and rake out compacted fuels; •

rake hot coals out from logs and •stumps; and

a rakehoe must be well maintained. •

A control line is a man-made or natural F

fuel-free path. It prevents the spread of fi re.

The two methods for constructing a control F

line using a team of fi refi ghters equippedwith hand tools are the:

step-up method; and •

one-lick method. •

Step-up is the most common method F

and requires good team work, however the one-lick method may be bettersuited to larger crews, needing to coverlonger areas where close supervision is not possible.

With either method, the last person F

(polisher) is responsible for ensuring the control line is completed to an acceptable standard.

The most common hand tools used F

in fi refi ghting are the axe, pulaski andrakehoe.

Hand tools must be carried with care to F

prevent accidents:

carry hand tools close to your body and •parallel to the ground;

do not carry them over your •shoulder; and

carry tools on the downhill side when •walking on steep side slopes.

An axe is used to: F

fell small trees; •

remove branches; •

clean bark from trees; and •

split logs and stumps. •

For safety purposes, it is important that F

an axe head is securely fi tted to its handleand that axe head covers are used when the axe is not in use.

The Pulaski is used for: F

felling small trees; •

removing branches; •

clearing bark from trees; •

splitting logs open; •

breaking open stumps; •

raking and scraping away surface fuels •down to mineral earth to create controllines; and




A knapsack is a portable spray pump F

with a capacity of about 16 litres of water(collapsible type) or 20 litres of water (hard plastic type) and fi tted with shoulderstraps. It is used for:

making a direct attack on a low intensity •fl ank fi re;

supporting hand crews who are •constructing a control line close to the fi re edge;

assisting in mopping up operations; and •

patrolling a hose lay. •

A drip torch is a portable fuel container F

fi tted with a wand and burning wick that drips a burning fuel mixture (petrol/diesel)onto the ground.

Drip torches may only be used as part F

of an approved plan, by an experienced person, and under the direction and supervision of the Offi cer-in-Charge.

Refer to the manufacturer’s specifi cations F

for the correct fuel mix ratio, usually found stamped on the body of the drip torch.

Agency guidelines should be followed F

when transporting, fuelling or using adrip torch.



Hose Couplings

Couplings are fi ttings used for connectingtwo lengths of hose together or a piece of equipment to a length of hose. Some of the most common types of couplings used are:

screw or threaded; F

external lug; F

camlock; and F

Storz. F

Chapter 6Hose and FittingsThere is a range of hose and fi ttings you may use in bushfi re suppression activities. It isimportant you are able to recognise the various pieces of equipment available to you andhow they are used, cared for and maintained.


hose couplings; F

adapters; F

branches and nozzles; F

breechings; F

hose types; F

hose care; F

bowling/rolling hose; F

after use hose maintenance; F

hose stowage; and F

hose reels. F

Figure 96 – (left to right) external lug 38 mm, Storz 64 mm and CFA 3 threaded 64 mm



Chapter 6: Hose and Fittings

Hose reel couplings

There are many different types and designs of hose reel couplings. These couplingshave no standard pattern. The types most commonly used are screw thread and external lug.

Screw or threaded couplings

Screw or threaded couplings are in use on all types of hose lines, including delivery and suction, to connect hose lengths. They needto be positioned so that the male coupling of one hose can be connected to the femalecoupling of another hose.

Care needs to be taken when laying out hose fi tted with screw or threaded couplings to ensure:

the female coupling is located at the water F

supply end, such as the hydrant or pump outlet; and

the male coupling is positioned towards F

the branch or delivery end.

External lug couplings

These couplings are suitable for delivery hose only. The lugs are external to thecoupling face for easy cleaning in dusty ormuddy conditions. They are extensively used in bushfi re fi refi ghting operations. Do notover tighten these couplings – fi nger tightis suffi cient as the washer ensures a watertight seal.

Camlock couplings

Camlock couplings are used by a number of agencies specifi cally on suction hoses. This coupling is widely used because a good seal

is obtained by virtue of the cam used to lock it. It is not a hermaphrodite coupling but is relatively effi cient to use. Camlock couplings are the standard quick-connect suction hose coupling for all DSE fi refi ghting vehicles.

Storz couplings

The Storz coupling system originated in Germany. It is an internal lug system, which,with variation to the coupling seals, maybe used with delivery and/or suction hose. Each face of a pair of Storz hose couplingsis identical or symmetrical (one half being amirror image of the other), and is also knownas hermaphrodite (neither male nor female).

The advantage of this type of coupling system is that it enables hose to be laid outin either direction (as all coupling ends of the same diameter match).

Care and maintenance of couplings

You should treat couplings with care as damage may result in air leaks in suctionhose or water leaks in delivery hose. Whenworking with couplings, you should:

regularly inspect to ensure they are in F

operational condition;

do not treat them with lubricants; F

inspect seals for wear or deterioration F

(replace if necessary);

never drop or drag them along the ground F

to avoid damage; and

tighten them at the joints – do not F

over tighten.




Adaptors

These are fi ttings used to connect together:

different sized hoses; and F

pieces of equipment with incompatible F

threads or couplings, for example,branches, Y pieces and shut off valves.

Figure 97 shows a range of adaptors currently in service.

Branches and Nozzles

A branchA is used to direct and control water at a fi re. A nozzle is fi tted to a branchto control the volume and pattern of water discharged. It is important to select the branch and nozzle most suited to aparticular task.

Branches and nozzles come in various typesand sizes. They provide a range of options for delivering water onto the fi re. A controlled branch allows control over the fl ow of water, closing and opening as required.

Take care to open and close the fl ow control slowly – with high fl ow rates of water asudden closing of the fl ow control valve on the branch may result in a water hammereffect caused by a sudden increase in waterpressure. This in turn may damage thepump, water mains or delivery hose.

Breechings

Breechings are pieces of equipmentused for:

dividing F one line of delivery hose into twolines (dividing breeching); and

collecting F bringing together of two lines of delivery hose into one (collecting breeching).

Figure 98 – different controlled branches and nozzles

Figure 97 – A: 64 mm cfa 3 thread female loose nut x76 mm Storz; B: 64 mm CFA 3 thread female

x 38 mm external lug; and C: 64 mmcfa 3 thread male x 38 mm external lug.

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Dividing breeching

A dividing breeching, sometimes called a Y piece, as its name implies, allows you to divide one delivery hose line into two. Thepurpose of the division may be to reduce loss of pressure due to friction in the supply hose line, or to divide one hose line into twoto allow two separate streams of water to be delivered to different parts of a fi re.

Commonly used types of dividing breechings are:

screw thread – has one female inlet and F

two male outlets; and

Storz or external lug couplings – same all F

round, neither male nor female.

A dividing breeching may be fi tted withvalves to regulate or shut off water fl ow.

Collecting breeching

A collecting breeching, as its name implies, brings two hose lines which have been divided (or twinned) into one to reduce friction.

A collecting breeching enables the delivery of a maximum volume of water to the pumpfor boosting.

Commonly used types of collectingbreechings are:

screw thread – has two female inlets F

and one male outlet (opposite couplingconfi guring to a dividing breeching); and

Storz or external lug couplings – same all F

round, neither male nor female.

A collecting breeching may be fi tted with valves to regulate or shut off water fl ow.

Figure 99 – collecting breeching (left) dividing breeching (right), 64 mm CFA threads

Figure 100 – collecting/ dividing breechings gated and non gated with external lug 38 mm coupling adaptors

Gated Non gated




Hose Types

There are two main types of hose used for fi refi ghting:

suction; and F

delivery. F

Suction hose

A suction hose conveys water to the fi refi ghting pump, which is a process called draughting. A suction hose is reinforced to withstand external atmospheric pressure sothat it will maintain its round shape and not collapse when draughting.

Suction hose is constructed from a variety of materials. Fire services mainly use reinforcedthermoplastics and rubber.

The diameter of suction hose varies. Themost common size used on tankers is between 50 mm and 75 mm and on slip-onunits it is more commonly between 38 mm and 50 mm.

There are several pieces of equipmentused with suction hose as detailed on the following pages and depicted below.

Suction coupling spanners

Suction coupling spanners are designed togive the necessary leverage to make andbreak (undo) joints on a suction hose withoutdamaging the couplings.

Each appliance carries the appropriate spanners for the types of couplings fi tted. You should familiarise yourself with theseand their operation.

Suction strainers

A suction strainer is fi tted at the end of a suction hose to prevent foreign matter from being drawn into the pump and causing damage.

A feature of a suction strainer is that its surface area is always greater than the pumpinlet. This lessens the chance of a partial blockage creating a reduction of fl ow.

The design of strainers varies, but most are a cylindrical shape and referred to as barrel strainers.

Figure 102 – suction hose with equipment fi tted and roped in place

Figure 101 – rope line, strainer, fl oat assembly, strainer basket, suction coupling spanners and suction hose




Suction strainer basket

Wicker or wire baskets should be used in conjunction with strainers when draughtingfrom water which contains grass, reeds, seaweed or debris. The basket is slipped over the suction strainer and is fi rmly tied to the suction hose.

Suction fl oat assembly

The fl oat assembly keeps the strainer outof mud and allows the suction hose to liestraight in deeper water.

Rope lines

Rope lines are attached to the suction hose to:

give control when manoeuvering the hose F

and strainer;

maintain the suction strainer at the desired F

position and depth (minimum of threetimes hose diameter under the surface of the water);

Figure 106 – rope used to remove strain from suction hose coupling

Figure 104 – suction strainer basket

Figure 105 – fl oat assembly

Figure 103 – suction strainer attached tohose and roped




relieve excess weight that may cause F

internal damage to the hose, couplingsand bindings or bands, when they aresuspended from the pump; and

relieve the pump inlet of the excess weight F

of the suction hose.

Knots used

The following information provides youwith a brief overview of the knots used for this purpose.

Clove hitch

This type of knot can be used for securing aline to a suction strainer.

The knot consists of two half-hitches, one of which is reversed.

By passing over one-another, the parts of the line bind and form a secure hitch that can be easily untied but will not slip under a steady, direct strain.

Round turn and two half-hitches

This knot can be used to attach the suction hose line to the rear of the appliance. The knot is formed by making a round turnthrough the eye of the tow hitch or other round object and making two locking half-hitches on the standing part of the line.

Whenever strain is placed on it the line will lock. When the strain is removed it is easyto untie.

Many newer appliances are equipped with permanently connected section hoses and so the need for roping sections together iseliminated.

Figure 108 – suction hose roped to vehicle with round turn and two half hitches

Figure 107 – rope to support suction strainer tied usingclove hitch and passing through suction strainer basket




Delivery hose

Delivery hose is used to deliver water to the fi re. It is designed to withstand internal pressure. This hose is also used as a supply line from the hydrant to the pump.

Types of delivery hose

There are four main types of delivery hose:

percolating F – allows water to weepthrough the synthetic hose jacket to protect it from hot embers and is mainlyused in forest fi refi ghting;

non-percolating F – lined synthetic hose, the outer jacket remains dry;

extruded F – the synthetic hose jacket is encapsulated between the inner lining andouter coating, for example, Duraline®; and

rubber F (on hose reels).

Sizes of delivery hose

Hose lines used in bushfi re fi refi ghtingrange in size from 19 mm to 64 mm. The size of delivery hose is based on itsinternal diameter.

Choice of hose diameter will depend on the quantity of water needed and the distance itneeds to be pumped.

19 mm and 25 mm hose F are mainly used on live rubber hose reels, which cansupply water without unrolling all the hose. Can be either rubber hose on a reel or lay fl at hose. Its purpose is blacking out andwash away activities;

38 mm hose F is mainly used on tankers fordelivery purposes and is more suitable for pumping water over longer distances or active fl ame knock down work; and

64 mm hose F is used for tank fi lling from a quickfi ll pump or hydrant.

Note: a small amount of 90 mm hose is used on specialised appliances. On urban appliances 25 mm hose can be used with high pressure pumps for specialist applications.Figure 109 – 38 mm non-percolating lined

delivery hose fi tted with external lug couplings




Hose Care

Much of the damage to hose can be avoidedby following the guidelines below.

Laying hose

When laying hose, where possible, choose an area with little or no fuel to provide the best protection from:

naked fl ame; F

radiant heat; F

hot embers; and F

traffi c. F

It is good practice, if there is plenty of water on hand, to wet down a path for your hose asyou move forward to protect it from damage,or to create an area clear of vegetation tolay hose in. Hoses can also be placed alongdrains, track edges and fuel reduced areas. Patrol the hose lay to ensure there is nothreat from fl ame or hot embers. You may use a knapsack to extinguish any hot spots.

Abrasion damage

When working with hose, avoid dragging it as this will result in the jacket or outer cover suffering abrasion damage (the outer cover will be worn away).

To avoid abrasion, lay hose out in aconfi guration where it is least likely to need moving. If moving is essential, drain the waterfrom the hose to reduce its weight and carry it.The weight of water in a 30 m length of 38 mm diameter hose is approximately 34 kg and 100kg in a 64 mm hose.

If there is no other alternative but to movehose while still full of water, maintain apositive pressure in the hose and it will movemore easily. This method will also avoid kink and abrasion damage.

Puncture damage

Puncture damage may be caused by dropping couplings on hose, or snagging thehose on sharp objects. If hose is likely to bedriven over by vehicles, it should be laid in a trench or hose ramps should be used.

Cutting damage

Cuts to hose occur when the hose is dragged across sharp objects such as rocks, roofi ng iron, barbed wire fences or glass.

Even hose with the best abrasion resistantproperties can suffer extensive damagefrom cutting, some of which may be beyondrepair. Damage of this nature is avoidable if due care is exercised.

Chemical damage

There are many chemical and petrochemicalsubstances which pose a threat to theintegrity of a hose by causing damage to:

the jacket; F

the outer cover and/or lining; and F

causing major decontamination problems. F

Avoid the hose coming into contactwith chemicals.




Shock damage

Shock damage, or water hammer as it isalso known, is caused by the action of a fast moving body of water (such as in a hose) being brought to a sudden halt. This action can increase the delivery pressure by a factorof fi ve. The worst form of shock damage is a burst hose or water supply main.

Shock to hose may result from:

sharp bends in hose lays; F

twists and/or kinks; F

shutting off a branch too quickly; F

sudden increase of pump or mains F

delivery pressure; and

turning a hydrant on or off too quickly. F

Be aware of, and avoid, these causes of shock.

Remember: damage to hose is avoidable.

Bowling/Rolling Hose

Bowling hose rolled on the bight

Hose may be rapidly deployed using atechnique known as hose bowling. CFA members, refer to Fire Ground Practice 1.7 – Bowling out hose rolled on the bight.

Position the roll of hose in the crook of yourelbow, couplings at the bottom and facing to the rear. Hold the hose behind the tail of thecoupling with one hand and place your free hand on top of the roll. Face the direction inwhich the hose is to be bowled.

The rolled coil of hose is now “bowled” in anunderarm motion and allowed to uncoil. As the uncoiling hose nears the end of the roll,draw back sharply on the coupling to uncoil the hose completely.

Figure 110 – place hose in crook of arm, step forward and bowl




Longer lengths or larger diameter of rolledhose that may be too heavy to bowl can beplaced on the ground and rolled out to avoidstrains or sprains.

Rolling hose on the bight

CFA members, refer to Fire Ground Practice 1.8 – Rolling hose on the bight.

To prepare a hose for rolling on the bight, lay it out straight and fl at. Drain the hose fi rst if required using a hand-under-hand action(not over the shoulder), while keeping thehose raised from the ground.

For threaded couplings, carry the malecoupling back along the hose placing it shortof the female coupling (600 mm short fora 30 m hose). Align the two layers of hose neatly, then make a fold (150 mm bight) at the centre fold. Fold this bight in half againand then roll the two layers of hose intoa coil.

Figure 111 – bowling out the hose

Figure 112 – rolling hose on the bight

Figure 113 – draining hose with the aid of acoupling spanner

Take care to keep the layers aligned while rolling and remove any sharp objects.Continue rolling until the hose passes overthe male coupling. Have your crew mate assist as shown below.




Hose After Use Maintenance

After use, hose should be:

washed with cold fresh water using a hose F

washing apparatus, stiff brush or a broom;

oil or similar residues are to be removed F

with a liquid detergent and rinsed off (donot use chemical solvents);

inspected for damage including cuts, F

holes or abrasion; and

inspected to ensure that hose is securely F

fi xed to coupling tail with no damage to clamps or bindings.

Report any damage found in the hose or coupling to your Crew Leader. Any hose andcoupling assembly suspected of damageshould be pressure tested in accordance with the appropriate standard. Contact yourDistrict for advice.

Hose with a textile woven outer jacket orcovered type should be drained, placed ona drying rack or hung to dry. Do not leave hose out in all weather over long periods as deterioration of both lining and cover will occur. Extruded hose should be drained and the outer may be wiped dry and canimmediately be re-stowed onto a vehicle if required.

Figure 114 – 64 mm extruded hose (Duraline®) rolled on the bight (doubled and rolled)

Hose Stowage

Care needs to be taken when stowing hoseon a vehicle to avoid damage from:

sharp objects or edges; F

rubbing against rough surfaces or F

locker doors;

falling from lockers; and F

fumes or spilt fuel from cans. F

Hose is stowed in various confi guration, type and quantity, depending on the size and typeof the appliance. Hose may be stored in the following ways.

A straight roll F – rolled singularly – where hose line is fi tted with screw/threadedcoupling, begin rolling from the male (threaded) end. When stowed the threads will be protected by the roll of hose.

On the bight – F the hose is folded in half and rolled double, as discussed previously, ending up with both couplingson the outside of the roll. The male thread should be underneath the female toprotect the thread.




Flaked in hose trays or lockers F – “fl aked”simply means the hose is laid up, turned, and laid back down alongside the last fl ake until the required amount is fl aked intothe tray or locker. The hose may be fl akedfl at or on its edge. Couplings are included in the fl aked confi guration when two or more lengths are stowed in this way. Onecoupling is left out at each end for coupling to the pump or hydrant, and to a branch.

Figure of 8 F – hose in a Figure of 8 confi guration is with one coupling on the outside and one on the inside. A special hose winder is used for this. Figure of 8 is used mainly in forest fi refi ghting wherelong hose lays are used and hose may be carried in packs or over the shoulder. Thehose may be layed out without tangling.

On hose reels F – prior to operating any type of hose reel you need to check therelease, braking and rewind mechanismsto ensure safe operation.

Hose Reels

Dead hose reel

A dead hose reel is used for the storage of multiple lengths of “lay fl at” hose. It is knownas a “dead reel”, as it cannot be connected to the appliance’s water supply. Normally a branch is fi tted to the outer hose coupling. When required for use, the appropriate length(s) of hose are unwound and thenuncoupled from the reel. Once removedfrom the reel, the hose is then coupled to thepump delivery outlet.

Note: watch out for couplings as they leave the reel to avoid personal injury.

Figure 117 – dead hose reel

Figure 115 – fl aked hose in tray

Figure 116 – fi gure of 8 hose confi guration




It is advisable to remove more hose thaninitially required. Flake this surplus in an S confi guration behind you to allow the hoseto straighten out without twisting as youmove forward.

Stow the hose reel and rewind handlecorrectly when not in use to avoid personal injury.

Live hose reel

Rubber hose reels are normally charged withwater and are known as “live reels”.

As the hose is unwound the water supply valve from the pump is turned on and thefi refi ghter has immediate water to supply the branch.

Figure 118 – live rubber hose reel

Figure 119 – tanker side fi lling point



Chapter 6Summary

The most common types of couplings F

used are:

screw or threaded; •

external lug; •

camlock; and •

Storz. •

Treat hose couplings with care as damage F

may result in air leaks in suction hose, or water leaks in delivery hose.

Adapters are used to connect together F

different sized hoses, or pieces of equipment with incompatible threads.

Branches and nozzles come in a range of F

types and sizes and are used to direct andcontrol the fl ow of water.

Breechings are used to join two hose F

lines (collecting breeching) or divide one hose line into two hose lines(dividing breeching).

A dividing breaching, sometimes called a F

Y piece, allows the delivery hose line to bedivided into two lines.

The two main types of hose used for F

fi refi ghting are:

suction; and •

delivery. •

A suction hose is reinforced to withstand F

external atmospheric pressure and conveys water to the fi refi ghting pump in a process called draughting.

Ropes are used for attaching a line to a F

suction hose and strainer, and tying off tothe appliance.

A clove hitch and a round turn and two F

half-hitches are two common typesof knots.

Delivery hose is designed to withstand F

internal pressure and is used to deliver water to the fi re.

The four main types of delivery hose are: F

percolating; •

non-percolating; •

extruded; and •

rubber. •

Care needs to be taken when laying hose F

and when stowing hose on a vehicle toprevent damage. Common sources of damage to hoses include:

naked fl ame; •

radiant heat; •

hot embers; and •

traffi c. •

Types of damage include: F

abrasion; •

puncture; •

cutting; •

chemicals; and •

shock. •




Hose may be uncoiled using an underarm F

bowling motion.

When rolling hose on the bight take care F

to align the two layers of hose, keeping the male coupling on top and laying short of the female coupling (600 mm on a 30 mhose).

After use, hoses should be washed, F

inspected for damage, and inspected to ensure that each hose is securely fi xed tothe coupling tail with no damage to clamps or bindings.

Hose may be stored in the following ways: F

as a straight roll; •

on the bight; •

fl aked in hose trays or lockers; •

fi gure of 8 in lockers; and •

on hose reels. •

A dead hose reel is used for the storage of F

multiple lengths of lay fl at hose.

A live hose reel is a rubber hose rolled F

onto a reel and connected to the watersupply. As the hose is unwound, the water supply valve from the pump is turnedon and water is immediately supplied tothe branch.



Chapter 7Bushfi re Extinguishing MediaThere are several media used to aid in fi re suppression. Water is the most common andeffective for extinguishing a fi re. A pump is used for supplying a pressurised source of water in the quantity required for the fi refi ght.

Retardants and wetting agents may be mixed with water to aid in fi re suppression. Youneed to know the media available, how they are used and any precautions that should be taken when handling them.


extinguishing media; F

water supplies; F

applying water; F

fi re retardants; and F

wetting agents. F

Extinguishing Media

The particular medium(s) used at an incident will depend on factors such as fuel type, weather, topography, environmental considerations and availability of a particularmedium. These mediums include:

water; F

Class A foam; F

fi re retardants; and F

wetting agents. F

Water

Water is the most common and effective medium for extinguishing a fi re. It does this by wetting the fuel and reducing itstemperature. The effi cient use of water is a major factor in fi re suppression.

Water is an effective bushfi re extinguishing medium as it cools – water absorbsheat energy from the fuel and removes more heat as the water evaporates and turns to steam, cooling the fuel below itsignition temperature.

Note: the use of water needs to be kept to a minimum as it is a precious resource and may not be readily available, particularly in times of drought.



Chapter 7: Bushfi re Extinguishing Media

Water Supplies

As discussed, water is the most common and effective medium used in fi re suppression, but where do you get if from?

There are primarily two sources from which you can obtain water for fi refi ghting:

static supplies; and F

reticulated supplies (mains). F

Static supplies

Static supplies are bodies of water, such as dams, rivers, lakes, the sea, tanks, reservoirs or swimming pools.

To obtain water from a static supply,fi refi ghters must draught water using a pump and suction hose. Refer to the topic PumpOperations, in Chapter 8.

Draughting is the action of removing air fromthe suction hose and pump casing, creatinga vacuum. Atmospheric pressure then forceswater up the hose and into the pump to replace the vacuum.

Note: Hard suction hose must be used to prevent the hose collapsing as the air is removed.

In some remote areas, large fi refi ghting water tanks with outlet valves are installed. These outlets, which may be gravity fed and not pressurised, can be used to obtain waterduring fi refi ghting operations.

Reticulated supplies (mains)

In most cases water is fed from catchment areas, such as dams, to service reservoirs. From these reservoirs, a network of watermains deliver water to consumers fordomestic and industrial purposes. Hydrantsare attached to the water mains at regularintervals along its length to enable water tobe obtained.

You can use hydrants to:

supply water to a fi re appliance; and F

supply water to a branch via a hose for F

attacking a fi re.

Figure 120 – water tank from static supply




Equipment

To operate a hydrant you may need a hydrant key and a standpipe (portablehydrant) depending on the hydrant in question.

A hydrant key is used for:

lifting and removing the hydrant cover F

plate from a Ground Ball hydrant;

loosening dirt and rubble underneath a F

hydrant cover plate; and

turning the hydrant on and off. F

A portable hydrant/standpipe is used to raise the outlet of a below ground Ground Ball hydrant to above ground level.

Types of hydrants

There are three main types of hydrants that you may use.

Millcock F – installed to provide a convenient source of water to which a fi re hose may be connected for fi refi ghting purposes. They may be found inside structures, sometimes inside hose reel cabinets, or outdoors depending on therisk they protect.

Figure 122 – Millcock hydrantFigure 121 – standpipe and key

Spindle

Hydrant & hose key

Shipping handles

Threaded collar

Hydrant lugs




L-Type hydrant F – work on the principle of a valve being operated to control the fl ow of water. You will need to use a hydrant keyto operate the valve.

Note: when using an L-Type hydrant, if water is unavailable or the fl ow has failed, ensure that the valve has been closed. This removes the danger of the valve remaining open when the water supply is restored.

Ground Ball hydrant F – also referred to as a “plug” or “fi re plug”, the Ground Ball hydrant requires the use of a standpipe/portable hydrant. The standpipe spindle islowered by rotating the standpipe handle in a clockwise direction. The bell at the bottom of the spindle pushes the ball of the Ground Ball hydrant down, allowing water to fl ow through.

Operating hydrants

When operating a hydrant, you should followthe appropriate Fire Ground Practice.

Operating a Millcock or L-type hydrant

Remove the cover and cap; F

fl ush the hydrant to remove debris before F

connecting a hose;

open the valve slowly to prevent water F

hammer and damage to the hose(especially if the hose is connected directly to the branch), and prevent potential injury to fi refi ghters; and

close the valve slowly to prevent water F

hammer and a possible burst water main.

Figure 123 – L-Type hydrant

Figure 124 – Ground Ball/Fire plug with standpipe/portable hydrant attached




Operating a Ground Ball hydrant

When operating a below ground (Ground Ball) hydrant that requires a standpipe, afterremoving the cover plate, you should:

check that there are no snakes, spiders F

or other insects when removing the cover plate. Use a torch at night to inspect the hydrant box;

be alert for broken glass or syringes in the F

hydrant pit;

clear debris from around the hydrant lugs F

and sealing ring;

before inserting the standpipe, ensure F

its threaded collar is screwed completelydown to the base, the washer is in place, the spindle is wound completely up and the spindle bell is in place andswivels freely;

insert and secure the standpipe under the F

hydrant lugs and tighten by turning the standpipe clockwise;

fl ush the hydrant to remove debris before F

connecting a hose;

open the valve slowly to prevent water F

hammer and damage to the hose(especially if the hose is connected directly to the branch), and prevent potential injuryto fi refi ghters;

close the valve slowly to prevent water F

hammer and a possible burst watermain; and

after use, ensure that the hydrant is F

properly closed so that water pressurereseats the ball and there are no waterleaks, and that the hydrant pit is left clean of debris.

Note: when shipping a standpipe ensure no part of your body is placed over the top of the standpipe. Kneel on one knee with your head to one side of the standpipe.

Hydrant markers

Water supply authorities, councils and fi re authorities may provide markers to indicatethe locations of hydrants.

These markers are designed to be seen easily during the day or at night. The markingsystems used vary considerably.

You should seek assistance to identify the systems in your area.

Figure 125 – examples of hydrant and water point markers




Applying Water

Water may be applied as:

a jet; F

a spray; or F

a fog. F

Jet pattern

A jet is an unbroken stream of water projected from a nozzle. It is designed to give maximum throw. The principle purpose of a jet is to achieve a long reach, penetratefl ames and attack the seat of a fi re.

Note: in fi gures 126 to 128 note how the hose is held locked in under the arm and the branch is held with both hands. This uses the full body weight to hold and move hose forward. Hose is not to be positioned or held over the shoulder in order to avoid shoulder or back injury.

When using a jet, you should direct thestream at the seat of the fi re and move thejet across all burning material to achieve maximum cooling.

The jet can also be used to penetrate orbreak up burning material.

Advantages

Has the longest reach of the F

three patterns;

provides greater penetration; F

is least affected by wind; and F

is less affected by radiant heat. F

Disadvantages (depending on the sizeof branch selected)

Jet reaction (the backward force generated F

by the stream of water) is increased with high pressure and fi refi ghters tire more quickly;

it causes considerable damage if misused; F

it may conduct electricity; F

a lot of water may be wasted; and F

it may blast hot embers across a F

control line.

Spray patternThe spray nozzle, or variable control branch, breaks the water stream into small droplets. These small droplets have a much larger total surface area than a jet. Therefore, agiven volume of water in a spray will absorbmore heat than the same volume of water ina jet.

The absorption of heat converts waterto steam and extinguishes the fi re by reducing the heat and, to a lesser extent, by smothering the fi re.

Figure 126 – jet pattern




Advantages

Accelerates the rate at which water is F

converted to steam, removing more heat from the surrounding fi re; and

covers a larger area more quickly. F

Disadvantages

Has a shorter reach than a jet; F

is easily affected by wind; F

will not effectively cool hot spots or objects F

unless it is applied directly onto them;

has less penetration capability; and F

uses more water than a jet pattern. F

Fog pattern

A fog pattern consists of extremely fi ne particles of water that form a mist or fogstream. The greater heat absorption properties of fog means that more of the fogstream turns to steam when it hits the fi re.Consequently there is less run off and less free surface water reducing the potential for property or environmental damage.

Advantages

Covers a larger surface area than spray F

or jet;

maximises the rate at which water is F

converted to steam, removing moreheat from the surrounding fi re than a spray pattern;

minimises the damage to property; and F

provides protection to fi refi ghters from F

radiant heat.

Disadvantages

Has the shortest reach; F

is affected by wind; F

can impede visibility; and F

uses more water than jet or spray. F

Note: select fl ow nozzles have the same water fl ow rates selected whether on jet, spray or fog patterns.

Figure 128 – fog patternFigure 127 – spray pattern




Using the branch

When using a branch, it is essential that you hold it correctly. This will reduce operator fatigue, prevent accidents and ensure safe,effi cient and effective fi refi ghting. Pumpsworking on too high a pressure will alwaysmake branch handling diffi cult. If you feel you are losing control of a branch or delivery line, request delivery pressure to be reduced.

When assisting on a branch, always keep thehose that is laid out immediately behind thebranch operator as straight as possible. Thiswill reduce the effects of back pressure andallow for better control.

Directing the water stream

To extinguish a fi re, direct the water streamat the base of the burning fuel and not at the fl ames. This method will effectively extinguish the fi re and conserve water. You should adjust your nozzle to obtain the most effective fi refi ghting stream.

In a direct attack on a bushfi re, you will usea jet to knock down (establish a break in) the fi re edge and cool an area, then move in and turn the nozzle to spray, widening the areacovered. Once you are able to move around the fi re, conserve water by spraying along,rather than across, the fi re edge.

Black out effi ciently using a jet or a spray directed at the seat of burning or smouldering fuel.

Once you are able to move around the fi re edge, use water wisely by spraying water along – rather than across – the edge.Spray along fi reline for maximum effect.

Knockdown with a strong jet.

Figure 129 – applying water




Conserving water

When working on the fi reground plan your activities carefully to avoid wasting water. In remote areas, water may have to be carried overlong distances so maximise its effective use.

Use an appropriate hose diameter and F

type – always select the smallest nozzle that will do the job safely, effectivelyand effi ciently;

shut off the nozzle when water is no F

longer required;

use a jet for initial knockdown and then F

change to spray or a combination of a jetand a backup spray so that water covers the greatest possible area;

direct water at the point where it will F

have the maximum effect, for example,at the base of the burning fuel and not the fl ames;

where appropriate, use additives such as F

foam or wetting agents to make the water more effective;

reduced pump pressure may be adequate F

for blacking out and will conserve water; and

by using water effi ciently more time is F

spent in active fi refi ghting and less time intravel and refi lling.

In forest fi refi ghting where gaining access to the fi re can be diffi cult and water may needto be carried many kilometres, a combinationof dry and wet fi refi ghting techniques have proven to be an effective method of conserving water. Fuels may be allowed to burn out to mineral earth control lines, strategically placed to contain the fi re, withthe use of water reserved mainly for patrol activities, mopping up/blacking out and crew or asset protection.

Fire Retardants

Retardants are fi refi ghting chemicals applied on, or ahead of, a fi re front to reduce the fi re’s rate of spread or intensity. They arenot used to directly suppress combustion in the fl aming zone. Retardants can beapplied from tankers, but generally they willbe dropped from aircraft. Retardants have an environmental impact that needs to be considered. Fire retardants can be broadly categorised as short-term and long-term.

Long-term retardants

Long-term retardants are chemicals, usuallyammonium salts, which are mixed with water to form a slurry with a consistency andcolour similar to tomato sauce. The slurrynot only coats the fuel, thereby acting as a physical barrier, but the chemical also retards the combustion process.

Long-term retardant slurries are effective after the water has evaporated from them,and will continue to retard combustion formany days after application, or until it rains.

Figure 130 – aerial bombing with a fi re retardant reduces the fi res rate of spread




Higher intensity fi res will generally breach the retardant barrier through spotting or crownfi re activity.

Long-term retardants can be applied byspecialised ground-based equipment,but are more commonly used in aerial fi rebombing operations, particularly to slow the spread of fi res in remote areas whileground crews travel to them.

Short-term retardants

Short-term retardants, the most common example of which is Class A foam, relyalmost entirely on their ability to retain water, thereby cooling the fi re and keeping fuels ahead of the fi re too moist to burn. Once thewater evaporates the retardant action ends.

When used as a retardant, Class A foamsmay be effective for 20 to 40 minutes depending on the foam solution strength,type of application, weather conditions and fi re intensity.

Class A foam

Class A foam is used to lower the surfacetension of water. This allows water to spread over a larger area and improve its ability topenetrate and cool Class A fuels (carbonbased fuels such as grass, forest, scrub, ground litter and peat).

Note: the following information relating to Class A foam production and application is intended only to provide an awareness of the use and benefi ts of Class A foam. Before using this extinguishing medium, fi refi ghters who will be involved in the handling, mixing and/or application of Class A foam concentrates or solutions should refer to their agency’s requirements in relation to training, so that they protect their own and other’s health and safety, and to minimise impact on the environment.

Production and application of Class A foam

Class A foam is produced by mixing Class A foam concentrate with water. This mixture isknown as solution. The required amount of Class A foam concentrate is added to water by special proportioning equipment. The amount can be varied between 0.1% and 1%to best suit the type of fuel to which the foamor solution is to be applied.

Class A foam can be applied in solution form (non aspirated) via conventional nozzles using a jet or spray pattern. It can also be applied via a foam makingbranchpipe (aspirated), which inducts air into the solution to produce a large quantity of bubbles.

Figure 131 – applying Class A foam




Solution is generally applied to horizontalporous fuels such as grass, forest fl oorlitter, peat or deep seated heat beds such as windrows, logs and mulch piles for rapid penetration of the fuel, where wetter is better. Finished foam (or aspirated foam)sticks to vertical surfaces and has a slowdrainage time. The foam blanket holds water to the fuel, allowing maximum cooling and penetration, and minimises wasteful runoff.It is ideally suited to vertical fuels such asscrub and forest, and for the protection of structures threatened by bushfi re.

Class A foam can be applied by groundcrews or via aircraft.

Class A foams affect on the fi re triangle

Class A foam acts on the three components of the fi re triangle – heat, oxygen and fuel – in the following ways, best remembered bythe use of the acronym CIIPS:

Cools fuel with water in the foam bubbleor solution.

Isolates fuel with a foam blanket.

Insulates fuel against radiant heat with water held in the foam blanket and refl ectedaway from the white foam mass.

Penetrates fuel with solution as it drains from the foam bubble, which makes the fuel too wet to burn.

Smothers combustion with the foam blanket excluding oxygen.

Benefi ts of Class A foam

Foam application is simple to apply and provides many benefi ts over that of plain water.

It is visible when applied and therefore F

allows fi refi ghters to avoid over- or under application;

provides a short-term fi re barrier; F

extends the useful life of water; F

reduces the time required to extinguish F

fi res by improving the effi ciency of the use of water; and

reduces mop-up time. F

Safety precautions

This section deals with the Class A foamsafety precautions when using concentrate, solution and generally. Take the time to readeach part.

Concentrate

Class A foam concentrate is a concentrateddetergent and as such there are severalprecautions that need to be taken when handling, working with or applying Class A foam. As with any substance, a smallpercentage of the population may be allergic to, or have an unusual sensitivity to aspecifi c product.

A risk assessment must be undertaken F

by a Class A trained operator as a fi rststep prior to using Class A foam to ensurethat health and safety of personnel is notcompromised;

inhalation of foam vapours should be F

avoided by decanting concentrate in a well ventilated area, preferably outdoors; and




when decanting Class A foam concentrates F

you must wear –

bushfi re overalls or two piece ensemble •(personal protective equipment kits are available and supplied on appliances equipped with Class A foam);

nitrile or neoprene gloves; •

rubber or leather boots; •

safety goggles; •

P2 nuisance level organic vapour •respirator (non cartridge type); and

bushfi re helmet. •

Solution

When using foam solution (0.1% to 1.0%) F

you must wear –

bushfi re overalls or two piece ensemble; •

barrier cream for hands; •

leather gloves; •

rubber or leather boots; •

safety goggles or glasses; and •

bushfi re helmet. •

Foam solution coming in direct contact F

with skin may remove skin oils, leavingskin dry. This may be avoided with theapplication of a topical cream or lotion (barrier cream) to exposed areas of skin including the face and hands.

General

All F personnel working in areas where Class A foam is being used on the groundor dropped from aircraft are to be advisedand appropriate care taken to avoid contamination of any personnel.

care should be taken when working in F

areas covered with Class A foam, as triphazards and holes may be concealed underneath the foam blanket;

Class A concentrate and solution F

contribute to slippery conditions forpersonnel and appliances. Affected areasshould be closely monitored and avoided where necessary;

if skin comes into contact with concentrate F

or solution wash off with water;

eyes splashed with foam concentrate or F

solution should be fl ushed immediately with clean water for at least 10 minutes;

clothing and/or footwear soaked with foam F

concentrate should be removed as soonas possible and thoroughly rinsed with water; and

ingestion of foam concentrate or solution F

must be avoided. If this should occur, seekimmediate medical attention.

Environmental precautions

Avoid use on, or around, organic farms; F

do not allow foam or its run off to enter F

into rivers, streams, lakes or any form of domestic water storage;

maintain a 50 m buffer zone from any F

body of water or avoid the use of Class A foam altogether;

locate mixing or loading areas away from F

any body of water;

do F not fl ush into drains; and

if there are any spills of concentrate, it is F

to be absorbed into sand or earth and disposed of properly.




Wetting Agents

These are chemicals that reduce the surfacetension of water and allow it to spread out and therefore, cover a greater area. Some wetting agents are corrosive and care must be taken when using them.

The diagram below illustrates a leaf sprayedwith plain water and the same leaf sprayedwith a similar volume of water to which awetting agent has been added.

Advantages

More economical use of water; and F

better penetration of fuels. F

Precautions

Never drink water from tankers or F

knapsacks as there may be a wetting agent in the water; and

thoroughly clean all pumps, knapsacks F

and sprays with clean water after using any corrosive wetting agent, and replenishwith fresh water.

– effect of a wetting agent

Notes





Chapter 7Summary

Fire extinguishing mediums include: F

water; •

Class A foam; •

fi re retardants; and •

wetting agents. •

Water is the most common and effective F

medium for extinguishing a fi re. It worksby wetting the fuel and reducing itstemperature.

Conserve the use of water. F

A static water supply is a body of water, for F

example a river or dam.

A reticulated water supply is water fed F

from catchments to service reservoirs. The water is then directed through a network of mains to consumers.

Hydrants are fi tted to water mains at F

regular intervals.

A standpipe, or portable hydrant, is a F

piece of equipment used to raise the outlet of a below ground hydrant to aboveground level.

Hydrants supply water to a fi re appliance F

or to a branch via a hose for attacking afi re. The three types of hydrants you mayuse are:

Millcock; •

L-Type; and •

Ground Ball. •

Hydrant markers may be provided by F

councils or fi re/water supply authorities to indicate the location of hydrants.

When operating a below ground hydrant F

check for snakes, spiders, broken glass, syringes or other debris. Use a torch at night.

There are three main water application F

patterns:

jet; •

spray; and •

fog. •

Jet patterns have the longest reach and F

greatest penetration and can be used to knock down the head of the fi re.

Spray patterns cover a larger area and F

removes more heat from the surrounding fi re than a jet pattern.

Fog patterns cover the largest area F

and remove the most heat from thesurrounding fi re than either a jet orspray pattern.

Spray and fog patterns are adversely F

affected by wind, have less penetration and use more water than a jet pattern.

Holding the branch correctly and F

having someone assist will reduceoperator fatigue.




To extinguish a fi re, direct water at the F

base of the burning fuel rather than at the fl ames.

Take care to avoid wasting water by: F

using the smallest nozzle that will do the •job safely;

shutting off the water when it is not •required;

applying water to the fi re correctly; and •

using wetting agents as appropriate. •

A fi re retardant is a fi refi ghting substance F

designed to retard combustion, rather than to directly suppress it. It is applied on orahead of a fi re front to reduce the fi re’srate of spread or intensity.

A long-term fi re retardant coats the fuel F

and also includes a chemical that retardsthe combustion process.

A short-term fi re retardant retains moisture, F

thereby cooling the fi re and keeping fuels ahead of the fi re too moist to burn.

Class A foam is used to extinguish carbon F

based fuels. It works by CIIPS.

Cools;

Isolates;

Insulates;

Penetrates; and

Smothers.

When using Class A foam consideration F

must be given to environmentalfactors including:

avoiding use around organic farms; •

preventing run off entering water ways •(maintain 50 m buffer); and

soaking up spills of concentrate with dirt •or sand and disposing of waste properly.

Class A foam should only be used by F

fi refi ghters who have been trained inits correct handling and safe use and associated equipment.

A wetting agent is a chemical that reduces F

the surface tension of water, causing itto spread out and cover a wider area. Water is used more economically with wetting agents, and penetrates compacted fuels better.

Never drink from tanks or knapsacks as F

there may be wetting agents in the water.



Types of Pumps

Pumps used on fi refi ghting appliances fall into two broad categories:

priming pumps – positive displacement F

(diaphragm); and

main pumps (centrifugal). These pumps F

are designed to only pump water. They cannot pump air. Hence the requirementfor a priming pump.

Priming pumps

A priming pump is needed to remove air from within the main pump casing so that the centrifugal pump can draught water (this iscalled priming the pump). The priming pump is also used to remove air from a suctionhose. This is part of the draughting process.

Pumps and Pumping Operations

Each agency has developed procedures to help you use the pump(s) on your appliance. These are in the form of written guidelines following a logical sequence to start thepump engine, operate the pump and deliver water to the fi re and then shut the pump down.

CFA members will work with Fire GroundPractice Section 5 – Tankers during their practical training.

DSE has a series of Fire Equipment Notes for the purpose of operating equipment. DSE personal will use those in theirpractical training.

Chapter 8Pump OperationPumps are one of the most basic and important items of fi refi ghting equipment. They areused for supplying a pressurised source of water in the quantity required for the fi refi ght.You need to be able to prime and operate pumps fi tted on a tanker.


pumps and pumping operations; F

types of pumps; F

pumping operations; and F

water relays F .



Chapter 8: Pump Operation

The most common priming pump used ontankers is the diaphragm mechanical type.

A mechanical pump (positive displacement) is one in which air is pumped bydisplacement (movement) between a plunger and the pump casing. The moving parts make an air and watertight seal with thepump casing. A bicycle pump is an example of a positive displacement pump.

Main (centrifugal) pumps

Most, if not all, pumpers and tankers use centrifugal pumps. These pumps may bedriven by a vehicle’s engine or have theirown power source. Centrifugal pumps are used because of the benefi ts they offer during fi refi ghting operations. They:

have only one moving part; thus making F

it very unlikely that the pump will break down when in use;

are simple to maintain; and F

can be driven directly by an internal F

combustion engine.

Construction

The construction of the centrifugal pump is relatively simple. It consists of two main parts, the impeller and the pump casing. The impeller imparts a high velocity (speed) to the water. The casing contains the water andtransforms this velocity energy into pressureenergy. There is minimum clearance betweenthe pump casing and the moving parts.

Impeller

The impeller is a circular, metal casting mounted on a shaft, which rotates.

Once the pump is full of water, rotation of the impeller forces the water outwards fromthe centre (eye) along the vanes of theimpeller by centrifugal force to the outer edge (periphery) of the pump casing at high velocity.

This induces an ongoing fl ow of water through the impeller passages by creating a low-pressure area at its inlet, which has the effect of drawing more water into the pump.

Vanes

Eye

Periphery

Figure 134 – typical impeller (cutaway)

Handle

Inlet

Discharge

Metal housing

Diaphragmtop plate

Diaphragmbottom plate

Inlet valve

Diaphragm

Spring loaded valve

Plunger rod

Figure 133 – diaphragm pump




Casing

The function of the casing is to convert thekinetic energy of the water (energy resulting from the movement of water) to pressure energy when it leaves the impeller. By forcingthe water through an increasing diameterpassage, the velocity and turbulence of the water is reduced and the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. The simplestform of such a passage in the pump casingis known as a volute.

Characteristics of centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps have the following characteristics. You need to understand that for a given pump:

pressure is at maximum and fl ow is at F

minimum when all deliveries are closed;

pressure is at minimum and fl ow is F

at maximum when all deliveries are wide open;

pressure drops as deliveries are opened, F

given constant pump speed; and

pressure and fl ow vary directly with pump F

speed, as long as the size of the deliverynozzle is maintained.

Pump output

Pressure and fl ow should be carefully controlled and any changes should be gradual. The importance of this cannot be overstated. Sudden changes in pressure andfl ow alter jet reaction (force) at the branch.This makes the branch diffi cult to hold and can place the branch operator at risk.

On CFA fi refi ghting appliances, pumps, ortheir delivery outlets, have pressure gaugesto indicate water outlet pressure shownin kPa.

The water distribution system (plumbing arrangement) and pump provides many options for draughting and delivering water from the tanker.

Figure 136 – example of a CFA 3.4D tanker plumbing arrangement

Priming pump

Valved outlet deliveries

Pump inlet

TANK FILL

TANK FILL

LIVE HOSE REEL

Suction line for static water (or for boosting town supply and water relay)

Valve 1 Valve 2

Valve 3

Valve 5

PUMPTANK

SUPPLY

To front sprays and upper deck outlets

Tank to pump supply

Tank Fill/Recirculation

Valve 4

x 100kPa

Pressure

10 11 1213

14

15

16

17

18

1920

987

65

4

3

2

01

Figure 135 – pressure gauge




Pumping Operations

Water used to supply the pump can come from different sources, including:

a static supply, for example, river, lake, F

water tank or swimming pool.

a reticulated pressurised supply, for F

example, hydrants; and

the tank on your tanker. F

Pumping from a static supply (draughting)

To draught water from a static supply, youwill need to use a suction hose.

When draughting, the pump or applianceshould be sited on solid ground as near thewater as possible. The greater the height of lift from the water surface to the eye of thepump impeller, the more the capacity of the pump is reduced.

The maximum practicable vertical lift obtainable under ideal conditionswhen pumping from a static supply is approximately 8 m.

When draughting, you should be aware that:

mud, weed or other foreign bodies can F

render pumps inoperable;

the body of water needs to have suffi cient F

volume for the purpose and must besuffi ciently deep to draught; and

water levels can rise and fall – as the level F

falls, it may expose the suction hose and draughting will cease.

To set up a pump for draughting it isimportant you follow the appropriate agencyproceedures and ensure:

hose is not punctured or holed; F

hard suction hose lengths are coupled F

correctly and connected to the inlet of the pump. Ensure all washers/coupling sealsare in place, in a serviceable conditionand make an airtight seal – wetting coupling ends and seals may aid the ease of assembly;

couplings are tightened using the correct F

method and spanners;

a strainer, strainer basket (wire or wicker F

type) and fl oat is attached to the free end of the suction hose. The fl oat andstrainer basket prevent mud, weeds or other foreign objects from entering the suction hose;

the strainer is at a suitable depth below F

the surface of the water supply (minimumdepth is three times the diameter of thesuction hose) to prevent vortices forming.Vortices are the effect of air being drawn into the hose and pump;

Figure 137 – draughting from a static supply




Pumping or boosting from a reticulated water supply

Many reticulated water supply mains can provide an adequate supply of water butthe outlet pressure may not be suffi cientfor fi refi ghting. To overcome this, a hose(s) is connected between the hydrant and the pump to increase water delivery pressure.This is known as boosting.

When pumping water supplied from ahydrant, use the largest size hose available(or twin lines if necessary), between thehydrant and the pump. This will minimise pressure loss due to friction.

The pump operator should:

connect the supply line from the hydrant F

(standpipe) to the pump inlet;

ensure that the hydrant is opened slowly F

to avoid water hammer;

operate the pump according to the F

applicable organisational proceedures;

maintain continuous water supply to F

fi refi ghters operating the branch(es); and

close pump and hydrant valves slowly to F

avoid water hammer.

that the strainer is not resting on the F

bottom of the water supply;

where the suction hose is not permanently F

connected to the appliance, the suction hose is supported with a rope line thatis adjusted to take the full weight of thesuction hose and is tied to the appliance. Use a clove hitch at the strainer couplingand a half hitch on the strainer side of each additional coupling as described inChapter 6. The free end of the line canbe used to guide or recover the suctionstrainer and fl oat; and

padding is used to protect the hose and F

rope from abrasion if the appliance is onhard ground.

Note: failure to check all of the above may allow an air leak or solid objects to enter the suction hose assembly. This may cause the draughting process to fail.

Figure 138 – boosting from a reticulated water supply




Pumping from an appliance tank

Pumping from the appliance tank is the most common operation undertaken duringbushfi re fi refi ghting operations.

It is the most simple pumping operation and involves:

following the applicable CFA Fire Ground F

Practices or DSE Fire Equipment Notes;

ensuring the pump is primed; F

checking the correct valves are open; F

matching water usage to pump F

pressure; and

where applicable, monitoring F

water reserve.

Figure 139 – pumping from an appliance tank

Water Relays

Water relay involves spacing a number of pumps at regular intervals along a route between the water source and the point where water is needed.

A water relay is used when the water supply is distant from the fi reground. It involves connecting lines of hose from one pump to another pump, to where the water is required.

The three methods you can use are:

closed circuit relay; F

open circuit relay; and F

tanker relay. F

Closed circuit relay

Water is pumped by the fi rst pump at the water source through hose lines connecteddirectly to the inlet of the second or booster pump. The second pump may inturn be connected to the inlet of a third pump, and so on until water is delivered tothe fi reground.

Figure 140 – closed circuit relay




Open circuit relay

The fi rst pump takes water from a source andpumps it through hose lines into some form of reservoir such as a portable dam or tank.The second pump then draughts water fromthat reservoir through its suction hose and delivers it to another dam and pump, or to its fi nal destination.

Transporting water

In most rural fi refi ghting situations, closedand open circuit pump relays are notpractical because the distance between thewater supply and the incident is too great.In these situations, relay tankers or watercarriers are used to maintain an adequate supply of water to the fi reground.

Hose Lay

Before delivery lines are charged with water,check that all excess hose is taken to the fi re and laid out in “S” bends to preventkinking. The last 3–5 m to the branch shouldbe laid out straight to reduce strain on thebranch operator.

If, during operations, a length of hose is damaged, you should:

obtain F a new length of hose;

roll out F the hose alongside the damaged length; you will need suffi cient hoselength(s) to allow for stretch in the original length;

shut the water off, F break the couplings and connect the new length(s);

turn water on; and F

identify F and label the damaged length.

Note: follow agency procedures for identifying and marking the damaged length of hose.

Figure 141 – open circuit relay

– hose lay

Notes





Chapter 8Summary

A pump is a machine, powered by an F

external source, which imparts energy to water. Pumps may be divided intotwo groups:

priming; and •

centrifugal. •

A priming pump is needed to remove F

air from within the main pump casing or from within a suction hose prior to drafting water.

A main pump, centrifugal, must be primed F

before use, and has few moving parts (impeller and casing). It is generally reliable and easy to maintain.

The pressure and fl ow characteristics F

of main pumps varies with the openingand closing of deliveries and changes in pump speed.

Pressure and fl ow from a pump should F

be carefully controlled and any necessary adjustments should be gradual. Suddenchanges in pressure and fl ow endanger the branch operator.

Delivery gauges register outlet pressures F

in a pump.

Plumbing on appliances allows water to F

be pumped into the tank or pumped toan outlet.

Water used to supply the pump can come F

from different sources, including:

the tank on the appliance; •

reticulated pressurized sources; and •

static supplies. •

Pumping can be undertaken from a static F

supply or a reticulated water supply.

When draughting from a static supply, the F

greater the height of lift from the watersurface to the eye of the pump impeller, the more the capacity of the pump is reduced.

Boosting is using the pump to increase the F

outlet pressure when sourcing water from a hydrant.

When boosting you should use the largest F

size hose available (or twin hose) betweenthe hydrant and pump to minimisepressure loss due to friction.

Pumping from the appliance tank is the F

most common operation undertakenduring bushfi re fi refi ghting operations.




Pumps may be spaced at regular intervals F

to relay water over long distances using:

a closed circuit relay (tanker to •tanker); or

an open circuit relay (tanker to water •reservoir, second tanker drafts fromwater reservoir).

Tanker relays (relay tankers or water F

carriers) are used where distance make the use of pump relays impractical.

Hose lays should be laid out in “S” bends F

to prevent kinking with the last 3–5 m tothe branch laid straight.



Principles of Radio Communication

Radio communication occurs when a message is transmitted via a radio operatedby one person and received by a radio operated by another person in a differentlocation. Emergency personnel use two-wayradios to receive and transmit information.A two-way radio has two basic parts, atransmitter and a receiver. That is why they are sometimes known as transceivers.

When you speak into the microphone, thetransmitter changes your voice frequency to radio frequency. It is then transmitted through the aerial to other radios on thesame channel as your radio. The receiverpicks up the signal from other radios on the same channel and changes radio frequency

Chapter 9Radio CommunicationCFA and DSE use a range of equipment to communicate, two way radio being the most commonly used. It is important that fi refi ghters know how to use this equipment, especially in emergency situations where the lives of emergency personnel and thepublic may depend on your ability to send and receive information accurately.


principles of radio communication; F

call signs; F

radio procedures; F

receiving and transmitting messages; F

operational procedures; and F

emergency transmissions. F

back to voice frequency which can then be heard through the speaker.

A radio network consists of two or more radios operating on the same frequency forthe purpose of communicating with each other. A typical radio network will include:

base stations F – high power radios usually fi tted in fi xed locations such as District Head Quarters, Regional Head Quarters,remote bases or at a station;

mobile radios F – medium power normallymounted in vehicles, for example, mobile control vehicles, pumpers, tankers, ultra light tankers, slip ons and other supportvehicles; and

portable radios F – low power hand heldradios used by a personnel needing to maintain a communications link whileaway from a base or mobile radio.



Chapter 9: Radio Communication

Note the following:

if you have to send a message some F

distance, a mobile radio should be used in preference to a portable radio as mobile radios have higher signal strength (25 watt) and usually have clearer transmissions; and

portable F radios are particularly usefulin and around an incident. Their lower signal strength (5 watt) means that therisk of interfering with other operations is greatly reduced.

1

3 4

6

No function

57

No function

No function

No function

2

1 Channel scroll UP2 Channel scroll DOWN3 Monitor (un-squelch)4 External speaker ON/OFF (if fitted)5 Scan select – push and hold for user programmable scan edit6 Clear key – returns mobile to default channel display mode7 Operational select mode – press and hold until beep, to change mobile from conventional mode to trunked mode. Select channel in SCAN EDIT mode

6MNO5JKL4GHI

9WXY8TUV7PRS

#0*

1 2ABC 3DEF

PUSH to talk

No function

6

Figure 144 – key pad functions of a CFA mobile radio

Figure 143 – radio use

Mobile radio Portable radio




Base station radios

Base radios operate on the very high frequency or VHF spectrum. They have anexternal microphone that houses the push to talk (PTT) button. It is necessary to wait approximately 2–3 seconds after depressing the PTT button before talking – this gives the network time to allocate the appropriaterepeater channel. They are the most powerfulradios as they can operate from a mains voltage supply and are connected to largeeffi cient antennas.

Mobile radios

Mobile radios also operate on VHF and have an external microphone that houses the PTT button. Again, it is important to wait approximately 2–3 seconds after depressing the PTT button before talking to give the network time to allocate the appropriate repeater channel.

They also have an external antenna, that may be mounted on top of the cab, or the bonnet of a vehicle, to transmit and receive radio waves.

Firefi ghters need to be aware of the potentialrisk of exposure to RF radiation. Mobile and portable transmitting equipment may bedesigned to be used close to the body. Thiscan result in exposure to small amounts of non ionizing radiation which does not alter cell structure, but rather has a warming effect on human cells.

Large amounts of exposure to RF radiationhas the potential to affect the body by:

causing cataracts to form; F

affecting the operation of pacemakers and F

metallic implants; and

impacting on pregnant women. F

To ensure RF exposure is limited always use the hand piece on portables and standat least 1 m away from mobile aerials when transmitting.

Note: once a mobile radio has been left on a channel for two seconds it will “remember” that channel. This means when switched on again, the mobile radio will be on the last channel selected before it was switched off.

Portable radios

Portable radios are self contained hand held radios. They also operate on VHF. They have a shorter range than a mobile radio as they are generally not as powerful and their small aerials do not operate as effi ciently as a vehicle mounted aerial.

It is important to wait approximately 2–3seconds after depressing the PTT button before talking to give the network time to allocate the appropriate repeater channel.




The keypad functions are explained below.

13MOTOROLA

MTS 2000

21

CALL PHON PROG

3

54 6

87 9

0* #

HOME

5

6

Nofunction

7

9

10

Nofunction

11 Nofunction

1 2

8

Nofunction

3No

function

4

ABC

119

7

5

13

3

15

1

Nofunction

1

3

Nofunction

2

12

Figure 145 – CFA portable controls

Portable Controls1 ON/OFF and volume

control2 Scan select knob (ON/

OFF)3 Channel selector4 Light emitting diode –

RED ON: Transmitting/receiving

5 Monitor (squelch)button

6 Personality Selector(Long press – 3seconds) Scan Channel Select button

7 Transmit (PTT) Key Push to Talk, Release to listen

8 Microphone9 Alpha-numeric display10 Keypad and Channel

selection11 Scan Edit Select button12 Universal connector.

When installing accessories, turn theradio off and on again

13 Battery latches

Figure 146 – key pad functions on DSE portable radio in trunking mode

Battery Low

Squelch

Logged ON

Unused

Scanning

Call in Absence

MOTOROLA

MTS 2000

21 3

54 6

87 9

0* #

HOME

Clear Key

Display (3)

PTTKey

Dedicated Call Key

Personality Selection Key

Call Clear Key

Status KeyKeypad Edit Key

ABC

119

7

5

13

3

15

1

On/OffVolume Control

External Alarm On-Off/CallIn Absence Stack

Interrogate Control

Alias/Number Switch

Emergency CallActivator

Rotary SelectorSwitch

LED




Another feature of the State Mobile Radionetwork is a Group Call where a call can bemade to a number of radios within a defi ned geographic area.

The Conventional mode provides an openchannel that allows all radios on the same channel to communicate with all other radios on the same channel and within range, without any time limit.

In Convention mode, there are two types of channels:

Fire Ground Channels, sometimes called F

Simplex channels, used for short-range (line of sight) transmission betweenradios; and

Incident Channels, utilising repeaters for F

extending the range of a transmissionfrom one radio to other radios by re-broadcasting a message from a high point.Repeaters can be fi xed or portable.

Figure 147 – operation of the State Mobile Radio

DSE Radio Communications

DSE’s radio system can be used in two modes:

the State Mobile Radio or trunking mode; F

and

Conventional mode. F

The State Mobile Radio (SMR) or Trunk Radio network provides for statewide one-to-one and one-to-many communications.

The State Mobile Radio network operates in a similar way to a mobile telephone network:calls can be made exclusively from one radioto another.

Radios log-on to a network through contact with a series of radio bases, referred to astowers. When a radio has contact with any oneof these bases it has contact throughout thestatewide radio network. Calls are time-limited.




6MNO5JKL4GHI

9WXY8TUV7PRS

#0*

1 2ABC 3DEF

PUSH to talk

ON/OFFVolume Switch

Flashing GreenSearching for network

Red - Transmitting

Recieving messsgeon traffic channel

Searching for Control Channel toConnect to network

Connected to network

Call Recievedin absence

Display

Srch Emer Scan Phon Call Dim Menu

Emer

Scan

Phon

Call

Dim

Menu

Sel Mon

H/L Home

Sel

Mon

H/L

Home

Keypad Edit/Call

Clear

Rotary Stored MemorySelection Switch

Z

Z

Srch

Emer

Call

Z

Z

Call List scroll UP - (Mobile ID or Phone number)

Call List scroll DOWN - (Mobile ID or Phone number)

Call In Absence stack interrogate - Review calls received mobile was unattendedInitiate emergency call

No Function

No Function

Dedicated Call - Initiate a call to a pre-programmed ID

Status mode - Enter ID to which call is to be made, Press DIM to initiate status call, and then 2 digits to indicate the required status Switch Call List display from mobile or phone number, to alias or name, if programmed. Switch On/Off external alarm output - Horn/Lights alarm for use when out of vehicle

Clear key - Clears call and returns mobile to default display mode.

from Trunked mode to Conventional mode

Operational mode select - Press and hold until beep to change mobile from Trunked mode to Conventional mode

Clear key - Clears call and returns mobile to default display mode.

Figure 148 – key pad functions of a DSE radio in Trunked mode




Figure 149 – key pad functions of a DSE radio in Conventional mode

ON/OFFVolume Switch

Red - Transmitting

Recieve modeQuiet/Monitor

Scan On/Offand Scan Edit

External AlarmOn/Off

Rotary ChannelSelection Switch

6MNO5JKL4GHI

9WXY8TUV7PRS

#0*

1 2ABC 3DEF

PUSH to talk

Display

Srch Emer Scan Phon Call Dim Menu

Emer

Scan

Phon

Call

Dim

Menu

Sel Mon

H/L Home

Sel

Mon

H/L

Home

Z

Z

Srch

Emer

Call

Home

Z

Z

Call List scroll UP

Call List scroll DOWN

No Function

No Function in Conventional mode

Scan Select - Push and hold for User Programmable Scan edit

No Function

Dedicated Call - Initiate a call to a pre-programmed ID

No Function

No Function

Switch On/Off external alarm output - Horn/Lights alarm for use when out of vehicle

Clear key - Returns mobile to default display mode.

from Trunked mode to Conventional mode

Operational mode select - Press and hold until beep to change mobile from Conventional mode to Trunked mode

Monitor - Cycle receiver through programmed monitor modes




Figure 150 – key pad functions of Tait TP1960 analogue portable

Press totalk key

Display

Leftselection

Rightselection

StatusLEDs

Alphanumerickeypad

# Confi rmchannelchange

Scroll up/down

through list ofchannels/function

3-wayselector

16-wayselector

Power/volumecontrol

Antenna

The coverage of the radio in Conventional mode is especially dependent on the performance of the radio, its aerial and whether there are anyobstacles in its path, for example, hills or heavy tree cover. It is generally of the order of a fewkilometres for vehicle-mounted radios and less than a kilometre for handheld radios.

Using Conventional mode has distinctadvantages for a large number of people in a particular area in situations such as fi refi ghting.However, some of the disadvantages maymean that it is not suitable for day-to-day use.

Managing Radio Traffi c – the Check System (DSE)

In the event of radio traffi c becoming, or potentially becoming, over crowded a personmay be nominated to control radio traffi cfrom a central point.

All people must “check” with that person andbe given the “go ahead” instruction beforemaking a radio call.

For the latest information refer to the DSERadio Communications Manual available on the Information page of DSE FireWeb.

CFA Tait P25 Radio Equipment

CFA and DSE existing analogue Motorola radios have been in service since 1995 andare now near the end of their service life. CFA is progressively replacing these radios with the new Tait P25 radio equipment.




Figure 151 – key pad functions of Tait TM9155 analogue mobile

Note: *Digital operation only.

On/Off

Volume

Alphanumerickeypad

# Confi rmchannel change

Display

Keypadmicrophone

Radio statusLEDs

Leftselection

Scroll up/downthrough list of

channels/function

Rightselection

Externalspeakeron/off

Speaker

The roll-out to CFA brigades and locationscommenced in late 2010 and is expected tobe complete by mid 2012.

The new Tait P25 radio equipment is digitaland analogue capable and will operate on the existing CFA analogue systems andnetworks (excluding the analogue SMR trunked network).

The analogue version of the new Tait radio operates in a similar way to the existing Motorola radios. When the CFA DigitalRadio Network is in place the radios will bereprogrammed to operate in digital mode offering a range of additional functions.




Call Signs

Each two-way radio on a network is given its own unique call sign, or its own name, including control centres, mobiles and portables. For example:

a base radio may have the call sign – F

Narracan Group;

the computer aided dispatch centre may F

have the call sign – Vicfi re;

a mobile radio fi tted in a tanker may have F

the call sign – Tanjil Tanker; and

a portable radio used by the Crew Leader F

on the Tanjil tanker may have the call sign– Tanjil portable 1.

This means that there will be no confusionabout who is sending transmissions atan incident.

Radio Procedures

It is essential that radio communication on the fi reground is clear, brief, precise,accurate and inclusive. To ensure this isachieved there are a number of proceduresthat you need to know, understand andcomply with.

Voice procedure

During radio communications you can ensure that messages are clear and easy to understand by speaking correctly. The following factors are very important.

Rhythm

Speak naturally and with a normal rhythm; F

use complete phrases that make F

sense; and

do not use speech fi llers such as err, um, F

and ah, as these interrupt the rhythm.

Speed

Speak steadily at medium speed; F

if your message is to be written down, F

pause between phrases; and

release the transmit button during F

pauses to conserve power and to allowan emergency message access tothe network.

Volume

Talk slightly louder than in a normal F

conversation, but do not shout;

do not allow your voice to fade away at the F

end of a message; and

keep your mouth close to the F

microphone and at a constant distance of approximately 5 cm.

Pitch

Your voice should be pitched higher than F

normal; and

avoid dropping your voice on the last F

syllable of each word and on the last word in each phrase, as people tend to do in normal conversation.




Sentences

Sentences should be kept short with easily F

recognisable words;

avoid words likely to cause confusion; and F

where appropriate, use the phonetic F

alphabet (see below) to clarify or reinforce the transmission content.

The phonetic alphabet

When using radios to disseminate information, often words and letters canbe misunderstood due to distortions orinterference. For instance, the letters “m” and “n” sound very similar over a radio link, as do, p, b, d, g and e.

To negate the effects of such distortions ormisunderstandings, the world-wide standardphonetic alphabet, where individual lettersare replaced by whole words, has beenadopted (see table below).

A Alpha N November

B Bravo O Oscar

C Charlie P Papa

D Delta Q Quebec

E Echo R Romeo

F Foxtrot S Sierra

G Golf T Tango

H Hotel U Uniform

I India V Victor

J Juliet W Whisky

K Kilo X X-ray

L Lima Y Yankee

M Mike Z Zulu

This system is used, in conjunction with the pro-words “I spell”, to communicate wordsor a series of letters (such as a numberplate) by using the phonetic words instead of the letters.

For example:

“Registration number of the vehicle is, I F

spell, November Papa Charlie, 736”.

“The property name is Camel Creek, I F

spell, Charlie, Alpha, Mike, Echo, Lima,Charlie, Romeo, Echo, Echo, Kilo”.

Pro-words

Pro-words are standard communicationwords or phases that have an accepted meaning – like verbal shorthand. You need to become familiar with commonpro-words, as listed in the table below, asthey reduce radio transmission time andincrease understanding. The use of standard terminology and pro-words by all serviceswhen working together at an incident means that communications will be uniformly the same and effective.

Pro-word Meaning

Affi rmative Yes or correct.

All stations

General call from a base radio

to all mobiles and portables on

its network.

Cancel Ignore my previous statement.

Confi rm Reinforce a statement.

CorrectionI have made an error in my

transmission.




Pro-word Meaning

DisregardIgnore my last transmission or

request.

ETA Estimated time of arrival.

ETD Estimated time of departure.

Figures

Used before groups of fi gures

– except before call signs and

map reference.

Fire callAlert that the message will

involve details of a fi re.

Go ahead (see send)

I am ready to receive your

transmission.

Grid A grid reference follows.

I say again I am repeating information.

I spellI will spell the word

phonetically.

MAYDAYLife is at risk – all other

transmissions to stop.

Message I have a message to transmit.

NegativeNo, or this is incorrect, or

permission is not granted.

Nothing heard

I have not received a reply or

heard from the radio whose call

sign I have just used.

Out to you

My transmission to you has

ended, but I intend calling

another radio straight away.

Out I have fi nished transmitting.

Radio check

Is my signal being received.

Red Flag Warning

Signifi cant change to any

critical information that may

adversely affect the safety of

personnel.

RogerI have received and understood

your last transmission.

Pro-word Meaning

Say again

Please repeat all of your last

transmission (or the portion

indicated).

Send (see

go ahead)

I am ready to receive your

transmission.

SITREP Situation report of the incident.

StandbyI must pause and will come

back when ready.

Wait

I must pause for up to fi ve

seconds – unless urgent, no

other station is to transmit.

WilcoMessage received and will be

complied with.

WordbackDescription of the type and

situation of a fi re or incident.

Transmitting numbers

Quite often, a transmission will include numbers. Similar to letters and words, numbers can be distorted or confused over a radio therefore, a standard way of pronouncing them has been adopted as perthe following table.

Number Pronunciation Number Pronunciation

0 Zero 5 Fife

1 Wun 6 Six

2 Too 7 Sev-en

3 Three 8 Ate

4 Fower 9 Niner




When transmitting numbers (except for callsigns and map references) the pro-word “fi gures” should be used. For example, “approximately 750 litres left” would be “approximately, fi gures, sev-en fi fe zero, litresleft.” Ensure that each digit is pronounced separately except in cases of exact multiplesof one hundred or one thousand.

Transmitting time

When transmitting time, the 24 hour clockmodel is used to avoid confusion. Time in the24 hour clock model is represented as a fourfi gure number. The fi rst two fi gures being the hours after midnight (from 0100 to 2300), thesecond two fi gures being minutes.

The word hours must follow a transmission of time. The table below gives examples and the correct pronunciation when transmittinga time.

Time 24 hr Pronunciation

12:08 am 0008 hrs zero zero zero ate hours

09:00 am 0900 hrs zero nine hundred hours

10:30 am 1030 hrs ten thirty hours

12:16 pm 1216 hrs twelve sixteen hours

3:45 pm 1545 hrs fi fteen forty-fi fe hours

6:28 pm 1828 hrs eighteen twenty-ate hours

10:00 pm 2200 hrs twenty two hundred hours

11:58 pm 2358 hrs twenty tree fi fty-ate hours

Receiving and Transmitting Messages

Now that you understand radio procedures, you should be ready to receive and transmit messages.

Receiving a message

When you receive a message, the procedurefor answering is as follows:

1 Give the call sign of the station you arereplying to.

2 Give your call sign.

3 Say, “send”.

For example:

You receive a call – “Fiskville tanker, this F

is Fiskville”.

You reply – “Fiskville, this is Fiskville F

tanker, send”.

This will acknowledge to the calling station that you are able to hear them and that youare prepared to take their message.

Be aware that there may be some variation in the pro-words used for receiving a message.A common pro-word is to say, “go ahead” instead of “send”.

Transmitting a message

Before you begin to transmit, be clear about who you are calling and what you want to say. You should also listen fi rst beforeyou transmitting to make sure you are not breaking in on other transmissions.

Wait three seconds before transmitting.




Your transmissions must be clear andconcise. Remember, if a radio message is begun too quickly after the PTT button ispressed, the fi rst part of the message may be lost. To prevent this, pause briefl y afterpressing the PTT button. The following isthe accepted procedure for transmittinga message.

1 Give the call sign of the station you are calling and your call sign.

2 The station being called will acknowledge.

3 Repeat the call sign of the station youare calling, your call sign and give your message.

4 Receive acknowledgement.

For example:

You initiate a call – “Fiskville, this is F

Fiskville tanker.”

You receive the reply – “Fiskville tanker F

this is Fiskville, send.”

You send your message – “Fiskville, F

Fiskville tanker is going out for fuel.”

You receive acknowledgement – “Fiskville F

tanker, Fiskville, roger.”

Correcting mistakes

When sending a message, you may realise you have made a mistake. To fi x the mistakethe word “correction” is used. The last word correctly transmitted is repeated as a catchword.

For example, “Fiskville, this is Fiskville tanker,fi re is under control. Correction is not yetunder control.”

The word “is” was the last correct word transmitter and is repeated as the catchword.

Repetition

To provide emphasis, or to ensurecomprehension by the receiver, the sender may repeat a word, phrase, or a completemessage using the pro-words “I say again”.

For example “Fiskville Tanker, this is Fiskville,you are to remain at the end of Black Street. I say again, at the end of Black Street.”

If a message is unclear, the receiver may askthat a message, or part of it, be repeated. A receiver asks for repetition or correction by using the pro words “Say again” followed by the specifi cs:

Say again F word before;

Say again F word after;

Say again F all before;

Say again F all after; or

Say again F all between.

For example, you would send “FiskvilleTanker, say again all between are andstreet.” Fiskville would reply “Fiskville, are to remain at the end of Black Street.”




Communication diffi culties

If two radios are having diffi culty communicating, radio traffi c can be improved by a third station acting as arelay. For example, an operator listening on a mobile may notice that another mobileis having trouble receiving transmissions from the communications centre and so acts as a relay, passing the messages onto the other mobile and back to the communications centre.

Communicating with aircraft

Increasingly, fi re, police, ambulance and emergency service vehicles are being supported at incidents by aircraft. At large incidents, many of the vehicles present may appear similar from the air.

One method adopted to enable the air observer to communicate effectively witha particular vehicle is to place large alpha-numeric signs (combinations of letters of the alphabet and fi gures) in prominentlocations on a vehicle’s roof, a label with identical identifi cation is fi xed to thevehicle dashboard.

You need to ensure you know youridentifi cation details, as you may needaircraft assistance or need to be advised to move from a water bombing area.

Coded messages (CFA)

Numbered codes may also be used toindicate how a crew is responding toan incident.

For example:

Code 1 F indicates that an appliance is to respond to an incident using lights and/or sirens.

Code 3 F indicates travel under normal traffi c conditions, no lights or siren.

Figure 152 – aerial identifi cation number on a tanker




Operational Procedures (CFA)

Lack of discipline and poor radioprocedures on a network can have serious consequences. If an emergency transmission cannot get through it canresult in a fatality. Therefore, a numberof operational procedures are in place to ensure that radio operators follow a set discipline and provide information in aparticular sequence.

One method of maintaining a formal sequence of messages is shown below. It isbased on the model used by the Bureau of Emergency Services Telecommunications(BEST) in Victoria.

These messages indicate the following:

Turn out F – you have left your homelocation (station or workplace) and are proceeding to the incident.

On scene F – you have arrived at theincident scene.

Messages sent immediately after arrival at the incident includes the following:

Wordback F – a precise defi nition of the status of the fi re or the incident.

SITREP F – a situation report which gives a more detailed description of the incidentincluding the information shown in the table opposite.

Messages F – these allow opportunitiesfor additional requests or to providefurther information.

Turn-out On scene

Wordback

SITREP

Messages

Structure

Non-structure

Optionalmessages

and SITREPsReturning In station

Not yetunder control

Under control

Stop

Grass

Scrub

Incident

False alarm

Figure 153 – sequence of radio traffi c




Situation types

This enables you to be more specifi c aboutthe incident. It may involve:

structure fi re or F non-structure fi re;

grass or scrub fi re; F

an incident; F

false alarm; or F

special service. F

The use of such defi nitions enables yourdispatcher, or base operator, to quickly locateand record the appropriate information.

Incident status

This is given as part of a wordback and includes the regular advice to your base about the status of the incident that you are attending. It enables possible requirementsto be anticipated and also gives an indication of the time you will remain at the incident.

Some terms are:

Investigating F – further investigationis required to establish the status andprecise location of the fi re, or incident.

Not yet under control F – the fi re or incident has the potential to spread or increase indiffi culty. The appliances and personnel inattendance may not be suffi cient.

Under control F – the resources in attendance and en route are suffi cient to contain the incident.

Stop F – the resources presently in attendance at the incident are suffi cient. Resources that are en route are notrequired and may return to theirown locations.

These are also standard defi nitions used todescribe the size and status of a fi re as perthe table below.

Spot 0.5 hectare.

Small 0.5–5 hectares.

Medium 5–50 hectares.

Large More than 50 hectares.

Going Fire spreading on the perimeter.

Contained Fire not spreading on the perimeter but requires work to bring it under control.

Controlled Fire only requires patrol.

Safe Fire can be left without further patrol.

Figure 154 – standard defi nitions of size and status of a fi re




Returning and “in station” messages

These messages indicate to your base that:

Returning F – the calling mobile radio operator’s vehicle has left the incident and is returning to its station or workplace. The crew is available to respond to another incident.

In station F – indicates that the vehicle has returned to its home location and isavailable to respond to another incident.

Emergency Transmissions

There is a recognised communication procedure to be used where there is a threatto the lives of fi refi ghters or civilians.

The priority for emergency transmissions orwarnings (from highest to lowest) is:

1 MAYDAY;

2 Red Flag Warning; then

3 other messages such as Fireground Information Updates – a regular broadcast of key information including weather, communications, plan of attack, warnings of hazards and fi re activity.

Use of the MAYDAY message

The “MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY” message is only to be used when:

the person(s) transmitting the MAYDAY F

signal is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance.

Note: MAYDAY calls may need to be relayed where communication diffi culties are being experienced.

Priority of call

MAYDAY calls have absolute priority over all other transmissions.

Action by the control station

This call will be addressed to the control station. The control station will deal with alltraffi c and control originated by this call.

Should the control station be unable toreceive the MAYDAY call, an interceptingstation will acknowledge the call and assume temporary control. This station will inform the control station of the call and will continue toact as the control station until the emergency is over, or until the normal control station canmake contact with the station transmitting the MAYDAY signal.

Action by other persons

All persons other than the control station hearing MAYDAY will:

immediately cease all transmissions; F

continue to listen for and log further F

transmissions relating to the call; and

maintain silence until such time as the F

control station transmits a message indicating that normal work may be resumed.




Your MAYDAY call

Should include:

Identifi cation: F “Fiskville tanker 1.”

Location: F “Bacchus Marsh Mount WallaceRoad – Map 319, grid ref 538 614.”

Situation: F “Threatened by approaching bushfi re from the North West.”

What assistance is required: F “Requireaerial support from water bombers.”

Aerial identifi cation number if relevant. F

For example:

“MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY, this is Fiskville tanker 1 on the Bacchus Marsh MountWallace Road – Map 319, grid ref 538 614.We are being threatened by approaching bushfi re from the North West. We require aerial support from water bombers. Our aerial ID is 20U.”

Note: be sure your message is acknowledged from your control station.

Red Flag Warning

As discussed in Chapter 1, a Red Flag Warning is issued when there is a signifi cant change to any critical information that mayadversely affect the safety of personnel.

Fireground Information Update

The Fireground Information Update is tobe used to distribute important and urgent fi reground information. It is to become thevehicle for the planned distribution of key safety information to all fi refi ghters on a routine basis, in a manner that they canpredict and readily access. It may be a radiobroadcast or printed copy and containsinformation about weather conditions andforecast changes, key decisions aboutfi reground sectorisation and control, andinformation about current backburning operations, for example, location, timing and commander.

A Fireground Information Update does not require an acknowledgment processthus allowing quick and comprehensivedistribution of the information, but shouldbe widely distributed to fi refi ghters on the fi reground.

Notes





Chapter 9Summary

A radio network generally consists of base F

stations, mobile radios and portable (hand held) radios.

Emergency personnel use two-way radios F

to receive and transmit information.

A base station radio will generally transmit F

the longest distance, followed by mobilethen portable radios.

Each radio on a network is given its own F

unique call sign.

To ensure that messages are clear F

consider the following:

rhythm; •

speed; •

volume; •

pitch; •

sentences; and •

correcting mistakes. •

The phonetic alphabet is used to spell F

words or a series of letters.

Pro-words are standard communication F

words that have an accepted meaning,like shorthand.

The pro-word “fi gures” is used before F

the transmission of numbers other than grid references.

Time is transmitted using the 24 F

hour clock.

The procedure to follow when receiving a F

radio message is:

give the call sign of the station you are •replying to and your call sign; and

say, “Send”. •

The procedure for transmitting a radio F

message is:

give the call sign of the station you are •calling and your call sign;

listen for the station being called to •acknowledge;

repeat the call sign of the station you are •calling and your call sign;

give your message; and •

listen for acknowledgement from the •station you have transmitted to.

A MAYDAY transmission indicates that F

the person transmitting is threatened bygrave and imminent danger and requestsimmediate assistance.




For MAYDAY calls, the person transmitting F

should include the following information:

identifi cation; •

location; •

situation; and •

what assistance is required. •

The priority for emergency transmissions F

or warnings (from highest to lowest) is:

MAYDAY; •

Red Flag Warning; then •

other messages. •



Personal Preparation

Firefi ghting is hard work and you must bephysically fi t in order to carry out many of therequired tasks.

You need to consider you situation if you are affected by:

illness; F

injury; F

tiredness resulting from, for example, F

previous fi refi ghting activities, sleeplessness or home activities; and/or

drugs, including prescription drugs F

or alcohol.

It may not be appropriate or safe for you torespond.

Chapter 10Preparing for Response to Bushfi reOn responding to a call out you will need to ensure that certain preparations have been completed. These preparations involve your physical well being and ensuring that you arefully equipped for the task about to be undertaken. Prior to proceeding to a fi re personal protective clothing and equipment, food and fl uid requirements are identifi ed and the mosteffective route to the fi re is determined, taking into account local conditions.


personal preparation; F

call outs; F

pre-departure checks; F

locating the fi re; and F

map reading. F

Call Outs

On receiving a call out, you should respond as per your agency’s procedures or brigade pre-plans.

Response may be via the following locations:

the fi re station or work centre; F

directly to a fi re; or F

to a Staging Area. F

When responding you must report to theOffi cer-in-Charge on arrival to ensure that:

your presence is recorded; F

you are briefed on the situation; F

you are allocated to a vehicle and crew; F

tasks are allocated in accordance with F

your level of competence; and


equipment is checked.



Chapter 10: Preparing for Response to Bushfi re

Pre-departure Checks

On arrival at the station or work depot youshould check:


equipment;

extinguishing media and equipment; F

food and fl uids; F

maps; F

hose; F

batteries; F

fuel; F

cooling system; F

lights and warning lights; F

sirens; and F

tyres. F

Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

CFA and DSE fi refi ghters are issued withstandard clothing, including safety helmet,long sleeve overalls or two piece ensemble, boots, gloves goggles and dust/smokemask.

Safety checks

Remember: wear non-synthetic loose fi tting undergarments, for example, cotton or lightweight woollen garments under your personal protective clothing and equipment. Make sure that your protective clothing is worn correctly.

Check your... Check for...

Overalls/ensemble

Are they clean?

Free from tears, fraying or broken clips?

GlovesAre they clean?

Free from holes/tears?

Dust/smoke masks

Disposable, are they new?

Are they clean?

Helmet

Is the internal head harness and outer shell ingood condition?

Is the chin strap if fi tted, fi rm? (Remember that helmet protection will not be adequate unless the chin strap is done up.)

Boots

Are your boots in serviceable condition?

Adequate sole grip?

Any holes in soles?

Firm support and fi t.

Goggles

Are they clean?

In good workingcondition?

Has the elasticised strap perished?

Away bag

Does it include:

Clothing?

Toiletries?

Medication and/or prescriptions where relevant?




Extinguishing media and equipment

To check the extinguishing media, check thelevel of water in the appliance tank. If theappliance uses foam, make sure that there isenough foam concentrate in the appliance’s Class A foam container(s)/tank.

As you will be communicating by radio(an important piece of equipment when communicating over a large fi reground), you must check that your two-way radio is operating on the correct channel.

There are many checks that you need to make on the small equipment. These are discussedin the sections devoted to the equipment.

Food and fl uids

Make sure that there are suffi cient ration packs and bottled water and electrolyte replacement drinks/powder in your vehicle to meet the immediate needs of the crew.

Firefi ghting demands that high levelsof physical and mental fi tness must besustained for long periods. To maintain that level of performance your body needsfood and water; food to provide energy andnutrients, and water to replace fl uids lostthrough sweating. Without them your bodycannot function at its optimum level, leadingto a decrease in performance and poor decision making.

In emergency situations there can sometimesbe long delays setting up catering facilities. To fi ll this gap, CFA has developed a highenergy ration pack with enough food and beverage to provide energy and hydration for up to six hours.

For hygiene purposes make sure any food issealed and kept in a cool place.

DSE fi refi ghters should refer to the Health and Fitness section of Fireweb for the latestinformation on general fi refi ghter nutritional information. CFA members will fi nd nutritionalinformation in the Operational Catering Guidelines.

Locating the Fire

Confi rm the location

In many cases the notifi cation will come through VicFire or your duty offi cer. You mayalso be told of the existence of a fi re by the general public or as a result of a sighting froma fi re spotting tower. Regardless of how you are notifi ed, your main concern is reaching the fi re as quickly and safely as possible.yLocal knowledge will be invaluable to you.

Local knowledge

Local knowledge is particularly important inemergency response. Local knowledge maysuggest likely fi re behaviour and can assist inthe safe deployment of responding vehicles to the fi re location.

Terrain

Knowledge of the terrain, vegetation type, fuel hazard and arrangement in which afi re is burning may suggest possible fi rebehaviour. Local terrain may lead to thedevelopment of complex fi re behaviour.

The terrain can impact the safety of an operation in terms of the deployment of responding vehicles to the fi re location.




Access to the fi re or deployment of appliances or heavy machinery may be onthe same level as the fi re, down slope of thefi re or, up slope of the fi re.

Terrain may also adversely effect two wayradio communications resulting in blackspotswhere direct radio communications withresponding vehicles is not possible.

Local conditions

Local weather and conditions may determinethe initial level of response. The urgency of response and resource requirements associated with a fi re burning in cool weather, in terrain where the fuel hazard islow, fuel moisture content is high and wherethere is minimal threat to life and propertywould be quite different to a fi re that was burning under high fi re danger weather conditions, in terrain with high fuel loadings, low moisture content and a high level of threat to life and property.

Weather

Knowing weather conditions at the time of the call can assist crews to determine themost effective and safe route to the fi re. For example, weather conditions will affect the direction and rate of spread of the fi re.When gathering weather details, respondingcrews should consider any indications of change (present or forecast) that may affect their safety and impact the overall responseand suppression strategies and tactics implemented.

Note: crews must be watchful for any changes in wind speed or direction and the effects of local topography on fi re behaviour.

Getting to the fi reLocal knowledge will provide the most effective route to the fi re. You will need to consider both walking and vehicular access. Keep in mind the space needed to turnvehicles around, and the potential for them to become bogged. You need to be familiar with the following:

topography (lay of the land) including hills, F

gullies and creeks;

roads and tracks not accessible for F

conventional 2WD vehicles;

narrow roads with single access and F

limited parking areas;

road surfaces – sealed/unsealed/pot- F

holed/corrugated/undriveable after rain;

road/tracks with locked gates – need to be F

able to locate the keys;

train crossings/boom gates; F

narrow bridges or causeways with reduced F

load limits;

local landmarks; F

days when local user traffi c increases F

greatly, for example, market days, cattle sales, and during harvesting;

quick retreat or escape routes; F

safe zones; F

fi re breaks (natural and purpose built); and F

obstacles to responding appliances F

such as –

other road users; •

visibility (smoke, day, night); •

fallen timber; •

downed power lines that can energise •metal/wire fences for some distance;

fi re intensity; •

direct fl ame contact; and •

terrain. •




It is this local knowledge that will help you to fi nd the fi re quickly, avoiding traps andselecting the safest and most effective route. This will not always be the shortest route.

Map Reading

Maps are a fl at representation of the earth’s surface at a given point in time. They canprovide you with a detailed insight into thelocal landscape and its natural features through the use of signs and symbols.

They are produced at various scales,showing various levels of detail, and printedwith a grid system to help pinpoint yourlocation or the location of a specifi c incidentor feature.

Why are maps important?

They show where water supplies, roads,vegetation and landforms are located.Knowledge of how these features arerepresented on a map helps in planning fi re prevention activities, suppressing fi res and inresponding to other emergencies.

Map reading skills are particularly important in emergency response. Maps provide you with information to enable you to:

determine your position; F

locate natural and man-made features; F

plan fi re prevention and suppression F

strategies by identifying topographicalfeatures that will impact bushfi rebehaviour;

locate an incident; F

select a suitable route to an incident; F

identify the location of static water F

supplies;

identify anchor points and escape routes; F

understand unfamiliar terrain; F

assign areas of responsibility; F

identify boundaries; and F

communicate the location of the incident, F

and more importantly your location, by the use of grid references.

Are maps reliable?

It is important to note the date on which a map was produced or revised. This will tellyou how current the information is.

If it has been a long time since the map wasdeveloped a lot may have changed. Towns may have been established, roads and railways built, forests and scrub may havebeen allowed to grow or been cut down and boundaries may have changed.

There is also the possibility that access roads have deteriorated or been upgraded.

Using a map to select a suitable route to or from an incident

The best route to or from an incident is one that gets you to your destination quickly, safely and with the least effort and stress on fi refi ghters and the appliance.

When selecting routes you should study theinformation on the map carefully.




Factors that need to be considered whenselecting a route include:

the method of travel, for example, 4WD F

tanker, 2WD tanker or on foot;

the vehicle dimensions; F

status of roads and tracks, for example, F

sealed, single or multiple lane, loads onbridges, dead-ends, turning circles andheight limits;

vegetation types, for example, plantations, F

thick close country or open paddocks;

water features, for example, lakes, rivers, F

dams and streams;

threat from incident, for example, hazmat F

vapour cloud movement and direction of the fi re;

ground shape, for example, ridge lines, F

slopes, cliffs and gorges; and

other traffi c, for example, normal F

traffi c congestion and expected traffi ccongestion caused by the incident.

Types of maps

There are many different types of mapsavailable, each of which concentrate onspecifi c types of information but can be used for a range of purposes. Available maps include:

topographical maps; F

local map books, for example, Spatial F

Vision’s VICMAP Book and Shire Council;

metropolitan street directories; F

VicRoads Country Street Directory F ; and

specialist maps, for example, land use, fi re F

history and geology.

Topographical maps

Topographical maps show natural and man-made features on the landscape includingthe following.

Man-made features:

roads; F

structures, for example, farm houses, F

churches, halls, and bridges;

railway lines; F

telephone and power lines; F

dams; and F

air strips. F

Natural features:

hills; F

ridges; F

forests; F

rivers; F

creeks; and F

swamps. F

A topographical map shows the earth’snatural, physical and man-made features in such a way that close study of the mapcan give you a detailed “picture” of the area represented. The ability to read amap (understand the way maps depictvarious features) is an important tool in fi reprevention and suppression.




Local maps

These are maps that a CFA District, brigade, local council, DSE or Parks Victoria Offi ce or police station may produce to suit theirspecifi c needs. For example, the book maycontain street directory maps that only covertheir area of interest.

Metropolitan street directories

Metropolitan street directories show lesstopographical details than the mapsdiscussed previously but are more suitable for navigating on road networks in urbanareas.

VicRoads Country Street Directory

The VicRoads Country Street Directorydisplays more generalised information andhas a good town index in the back of thebook.

Spatial Vision’s VICMAP Books

The Spatial Vision VICMAP Map Books provide coverage of Victoria using fi veseparate map books. The books providedetailed topographical maps and town mapsat a range of scales.

Caring for maps

Maps are a valuable resource and care needs to be taken when using them. Most damage to maps occurs when they areopened while in a moving vehicle or in the open air. There are many ways you can fold a map to protect it from being damaged. The cover of most maps will have a diagram illustrating the best way to fold the map.

Maps should not be taken for personal recreational use; they must always bereturned to their proper storage locationfor future emergency use on return from anincident.

Marginal information

Information printed outside the map face is known as marginal information. It isimportant that you become familiar with thisinformation as it assists users to establish the currency of the map, it’s scale and howto interpret the way features have been depicted on the map.

The position of marginal information may vary from map to map and there may also be variations in the type of information included.

Common marginal information

The majority of maps have the followingmarginal information.

Type of map – whether it’s topographical F

or cadastral.

Map title – the title of a map is usually F

taken from the name of the largest town, the area or a key landmark.




Sheet number – most maps are part of F

a series. Individual maps are uniquely numbered to specify which component of the series you have. The sheet number is a referencing system used to identify each individual map sheet in relation to theother maps in the series.

Index to adjoining maps – the name or F

sheet number, or both, of adjoining maps.

Contour interval – the difference in height F

between one contour line and the next. Contour lines join points of equal height above or below sea level and thereforeshow the shape of the ground.

Map scale – the relationship between F

distances on the map and distances on the ground. This relationship is constantin whatever direction the distances aremeasured.

Grid numbers – to help pinpoint a location F

by the use of grid references.

Magnetic variation – the relationship F

between true, grid and magnetic north:

true north (TN) is the direction to the •earth’s geographic North Pole;

grid north (GN) relates to the lines on •the map (usually vertical); and

magnetic north (MN) is the direction •to the earth’s magnetic pole (thedirection the north point on the compassindicates – it is constantly moving).

Edition number – tells you how many F

times the map has been printed and whenit was last printed.

Production details – details of the agency F

or organisation that produced the map.

Field revision – each map is fi eld checked. F

This provides you with information onwhen the map details were last checked (as opposed to the edition number which may just be a reprint).

Photography – the date the aerial F

photographs, from which the map wasplotted, were taken.

DUNOLLY7624

CRESWICK7623

BALLARAT7622

CASTLEMAINE7723

BACCHUS MARSH7722

BENDIGO7724

ST ARNAUD7524

SKIPTON7522

BEAUFORT7523

Figure 156 – index to adjoining mapsGrid

Convergence

Grid/Magneticangle

GNTN

MN

Each map product will have local information on differences between true north, grid north and magnetic north.

Figure 157 – magnetic variation




Legend or key – an explanation of the F

symbols, colour coding and other informationthat has been used to depict objects andfeatures that cannot be drawn to scale.

Map scale

As mentioned previously, a map is a representation of a given area of land at agiven time. Because a map is smaller than the area it represents, all distances must be reduced by a common amount, for example, drawn to scale.

The scale of a map determines how much information it can show – the larger the area covered by a map, the less the degree of detail and accuracy.

The scale of a map tells you by how muchthe area has been reduced in size. A map scale can be expressed in three ways:

in words – “one centimetre represents one F

kilometre”;

as a linear scale or scale bars – the easiest F

way to show ground distance on a map.However, care must be taken as the linearscale or scale bars can vary between different maps; or

in numbers – written as a ratio (1:100,000) F

or as a representative fraction (1/100,000).

Figure 159 – linear scale bar

SCALE 1:100,000

1 centimetre represents 1 kilometre

Kilometres Kilometres1 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5

School, police station, fire station, ambulance......

SES, Hospital, helipad .......................................

Lifesaving Club...................................................

Pipeline, disappearing underground.....................

Power transmission line .......................................

Trigonometric station, landmark point...................

Tree cover.............................................................

Plantation..............................................................

Contours, hill shading............................................

Depression contours............................................

Cliff.......................................................................

S

G� ��

��

83 ��

� ��

RE

LIE

FF

EA

TU

RE

SV

EG

ET

AT

ION

River, creek...................... ............................

Aqueduct, channel, drain...............................

Lake: perennial, intermittent...........................

Dam or weir, dam carrying road......................

Lock..............................................................

Land subject to inundation.............................

Swamp or marsh............................................

Shoreline with mud or sand flats.....................

Exposed wreck, lighthouse............................

Navigation beacon,........................................

Parks under National Parks Act.....................

Public land, restricted area.............................

Local Government Area boundary..................

State boundary...............................................

1:100 000 single format index.........................

1:50 000 double format index.........................

HY

DR

OG

RA

PH

YA

DM

INIS

TR

AT

ION

MELTON SHIRE

��

��

GIBBO 8424-N

TR

AN

SP

OR

T

Management Vehicles OnlySubject to Seasonal ClosureSubject to Height or Weight LimitsRoad Permanently ClosedRoad Unmaintained

Built up area..................................................

Freeway, route marker, highway, bridge .......

Secondary road: sealed, unsealed................

Local road: sealed, unsealed........................

Vehicular track: 2WD, 4WD..........................

Walking track or bicycle track........................

Private access, proposed road.......................

Great Dividing Trail.........................................

Surf Coast Walk, Bicentennial National Trail.

Australian Alps Walking Track.......................

Road Restrictions..........................................

MVO SSC SHWL RPC RU

Levee bank..................................................

Embankment, cutting....................................

Railway, tramway..........................................

Railway station, railway siding.......................

Railway/tramway: disused, dismantled..........

Railway bridge, railway tunnel.......................

��

(MVO) (SSC) (SHWL)

(RU) (RPC)

Figure 158 – map legend or key




As maps are available in various scales, it isimportant to consider the amount of detail required for the task at hand when choosing a map. The following are examples of thescale of available mapping:

Topographical maps: F

1:25,000; •

1:50,000; and •

1:100,000. •

VicRoads State Directory F :

1:250,000. •

What exactly does “scale” mean?

When we talk about something being drawnto scale, whether it is a map or a plan of a building, we mean it has been drawn to a ratio between true measurements and those on the map.

For example, if you are using a map with a scale of 1:100,000, for every one unit of measurement on the map the correspondingdistance on the ground is 100,000 units.Therefore, if it is 1 cm from point A to pointB on the map it is 100,000 cm or 1 km onthe ground.

This is an accurate measurement of distanceon the ground but it is not practical for our purposes to talk about distance in terms of centimetres. To make this fi gure useful, weneed to convert it into metres or kilometres.

We can do this by using a simple formula:

Ground distance (in kms)

=Map distance (in cms) x scale

100,000

Bearing in mind the following:

10 mm = 1 cm

100 cm = 1 m

1,000 m = 1 km

(therefore, 100,000 cm = 1 km)

Using the previous example of a mapdistance of 1 cm on a 1:100,000 map:

Ground distance = (1 x 100,000)/100,000

Ground distance = 1 km

This formula works no matter what scalethe map is. For example, if the measured distance on a 1:50,000 map was 4 cm then:

Ground distance = (4 x 50,000)/100,000

Ground distance = 2 km




Using the map scale to determine distance on the ground

Judging the distance between points on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground is not easy. By using the map scaleyou can accurately calculate the distanceon the ground between two points from the equivalent two points on a map. The more practice you have measuring distances on amap, the more confi dent you will feel working with maps.

Determining a straight distance

To determine the distance between twopoints in a straight line is a simple twostep process.

Step 1

Using a ruler, measure the distance F

between points A and B. You can also usea piece of paper or string, just mark off thedistance between the two points along theedge of the paper or on the piece of string.

Step 2

Place the ruler, paper or string along the F

linear scale or scale bar and read off the distance between the two points in kms; or

if you have a fi gure for the map distance, F

use the formula as explained previously.

Determining the distance along a curved road or route

To determine the distance between twopoints when there are bends or curves is afour step process.

Step 1

Place a sheet of paper or string on the F

map and mark off point A. (You canalso use a ruler, just note down each measurement from bend to bend and add them up at the end.)

Step 2

Mark off the fi rst bend, move the paper F

or string so that its edge follows the feature you are measuring, ensuring yourprevious mark is still lined up with the corresponding point on the map.

Step 3

Mark off the second bend and repeat Step F

2 until you reach point B.

Step 4

Place the ruler, paper or string along the F

linear scale or scale bar and read off the distance between the two points in kms; or

if you have a fi gure for the map distance, F

use the formula as explained previously.

B

A

8

87

7 6

65

5

4

4

3

3

2

2

1

1

Kilometres Kilometres2 1 0 2 4 6 8 10

Extract of map courtesy of Geoscience Australia.© Commonwealth of Australia (Geoscience Australia) 2010.

Figure 161 – measuring a curved distance Figure 160 – measuring a straight distance

B

Kilometres Kilometres2 1 0 2 4 6 8 10

A





Grid lines and grid references

Superimposed on a map is a grid system of equally spaced vertical and horizontal lines intersecting at right angles to form squares.These lines are known as grid lines and theresulting squares are known as grid squares.

The distance between adjacent lines is dependent upon the scale of the map. Forexample, the space between adjacent lineson a 1:100,000 topographical map is 1 cm. This means that the corresponding distance on the ground is 1 km.

Australian topographic maps, includingSpatial Vision VICMAP books use a coordinate grid system known as the MapGrid of Australia (MGA), based on theGeocentric Datum of Australia (GDA94).

All topographic maps using the Map Gridof Australia (MGA) grid system, includingspacial reference map books, display the GDA94 logo.

Figure 162 – GDA94 logo

When taking and giving grid references it isimportant to note the relevant map book ormap name and edition.

Maps are normally printed so that north is approximately at the top of the sheet whenthe map is the correct way up. Therefore,the grid lines are printed so that one set of lines runs approximately north–south and the other set of lines run approximately west–east.

The position of a point within a square isindicated by its distance east of a north–south line (known as eastings) and north of a west–east line (known as northings).




Locating features on a map

Grid lines enable you to pinpoint a location on a map and communicate this information to others. Each grid line is numbered alongthe map border and, to assist people in using grid lines, every tenth line is thickerand is numbered at various places along its length.

Eastings and northings

Locating the position of a feature on a maprequires an understanding of eastings and northings.

Eastings are the vertical grid lines running F

north to south on the map (top to bottom). Their numbers increase towards the east.

Northings are the horizontal grid lines F

running from west to east on the map (leftto right). Their numbers increase towards the north.

Grid references

A grid reference is the point where eastings and northings cross on the map. Todetermine a grid reference for a specifi clocation, you fi rst have to identify which gridsquare it is in. The grid square is referencedfrom the bottom left corner.

For example, the road junction “A” on a1:100,000 map in Figure 164 is in the grid square referenced by the easting 53 and the northing 61, expressed as grid 53 61 (a four-fi gure grid reference).

But, as the distance between grid linesis 1 km on the ground, we have onlyidentifi ed the junction as being within asquare kilometre.

This is not accurate enough forfi refi ghting operations.

Note: when giving a grid reference eastings are always given before northings. An easy way to remember this is “in the house and then up the stairs”.


A

61

53

Figure 164 – four-fi gure grid reference

19E 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Eastings

14

13

12

11

10

9E

Northings

Figure 163 – eastings and northings




Six-fi gure grid reference

For greater accuracy, a six-fi gure gridreference is required. To do this, we need to divide the grid lines encompassing therelevant grid square into 10 – either mentally or by holding a ruler along the grid line.

This divides the grid square into 100 smallersquares of 100 square metres on the ground(dependant on the map scale).

We can now give a six-fi gure grid referenceto road junction “A”. The numbering of the lines forming the small squares indicates thenumber of tenths of a unit that are east of easting 53 and north of northing 61.

Junction “A” is in the small square 53.8 east and 61.4 north, in other words, easting 538 and northing 614. Consequently, the six-fi gure grid reference to road junction “A” isgrid 538 614.

Ground shape and route selection

The shape of the landscape is particularly important in emergency response. Knowing the shape of the ground can help you:

predict the likely perimeter (boundary and F

shape) of a fi re;

identify suitable locations for observing the F

fi re or incident;

identify a suitable location for establishing F

a Control Point or an Operations Point;

identify the best location(s) for F

construction of a control line;

determine routes for safe access to F

an incident;

determine possible sites for a helicopter to F

land or collect water;

determine where you are; and F

determine a safe escape route from a fi re F

or other emergency situation.

Determining the shape of the ground from a map

Contours are lines drawn on a mapconnecting points that are exactly the sameelevation above, or below, sea level. Theheight, slope and shape of the ground surface can be determined by interpreting the contours.

109876543210

109876543210

A

© Commonwealth of Australia (Geoscience Australia) 2010.

Figure 165 – six-fi gure grid reference




Contours can indicate the position of physical features such as:

a spur – a minor feature, generally in the F

form of a ridge, running out from a hillor mountain;

a crest – the highest part of a hill or F

mountain range;

a knoll (or knob) – a low, isolated hill; F

a saddle – a depression between adjacent F

hills or mountain tops that is higher than the surrounding gullies or valleys(generally located at the top of gullies running off the ridge line);

a gorge – a deep ravine (a valley with very F

steep sides) which has been eroded over a period of time;

undulating ground – ground that rises and F

falls gently;

ridge lines – the line across the top F

of a range of hills or mountains fromwhich the ground slopes down in opposite directions;

a plateau – an elevated area of land that is F

relatively fl at; and

aspect – the direction that the slope faces. F

The difference in height between eachcontour is the same and is called the contourinterval. The contour interval, expressedin metres on the majority of maps, can befound in the legend.

The most important contour lines are calledindex contours. An index contour can beidentifi ed by the fact it is thicker than othercontours and has its height noted at intervalsalong its length.

It would be impractical to mark everycontour, particularly on small scale maps. Therefore, the scale and the contour interval dictate which heights are noted. For example, on a 1:100,000 map with a contourinterval of 10 m, every 50 m contour may benoted. The height is usually printed facing uphill which helps you to determine thedirection of slope.

Crest

Spur

Undulating ground

Knoll (knob)

Saddle Gorge

Ridge line Plateau

Figure 166 – physical features

Height(m)

160

100704010

130

Steep slope Gentle slope7010

0

130

1040

– contour intervals




You should also be aware that contour linesthat are:

close together mean that the altitude F

changes rapidly and the slope issteep; and

spaced wide apart, or where there are no F

contour lines at all, indicate there is littleor no change in altitude and the terrain is relatively fl at.

Note: there may be localised but important features, such as a sharp gully, which may fall between contours but which may not show up on a map. This is especially the case if the contour interval is greater than 10 m.

Reporting a location

It is extremely important to be able to reportlocations in a clear and concise manner.Before reporting a grid reference over the radio or telephone say the pro-word grid,that is, “Grid 123 456”. To avoid confusion,determine the grid reference and write itdown before sending the message. Do not determine the grid reference while transmitting the message. Unless it is veryclear which map is being used, start the grid reference with the map name or number andthe scale of the map, for example, “Beaufort7853-S 1:50,000 grid 795 496” or “VICMAP South West Region Edition 2, Map 396, grid470 684.”

Notes





Chapter 10Summary

Maps are a fl at representation of the F

earth’s surface at a given point in time. They can be used to:

locate natural and man-made features; •

plan fi re prevention and •suppression activities;

assign areas of responsibility; •

understand unfamiliar terrain; •

identify boundaries; •

locate an incident or escape route; and •

determine your position. •

The revision or production date on a map F

indicates how current the information is.

Topographical maps show natural and F

man-made features on the landscape.

Metropolitan street directories show F

road networks in urban areas with less topographical detail than topographical and cadastral maps.

Marginal information provides you with key F

points to assist you in interpreting a map.

The scale of a map tells you by how much F

the represented area has been reduced in size.

All topographic maps drawn using the Map F

Grid of Australia (MGA) system display theGDA94 logo.

When responding to a call out, fi refi ghters F

will respond as per agency procedures.

A safety check covering extinguishing F

media and equipment should be completed prior to leaving the station or work centre.

Local knowledge of an area (terrain, F

weather conditions, local conditions, etc.)can be invaluable when responding toa fi re.

When selecting a route to the fi re keep the F

following in mind:

space needed to turn an •appliance around;

road and track access conditions; •

obstacles; •

narrow bridges or causeways with •reduced load limits;

safe refuges; and •

quick retreat or escape routes. •




Superimposed on maps is a system of grid F

lines called eastings and northings.

Grid lines running north to south are F

known as eastings (vertical lines ona map).

Grid lines running west to east are known F

as northings (horizontal lines on a map).

A grid reference is used to refer to a F

specifi c location by describing a point where an easting crosses a northing. It isalways communicated with the eastingsfi rst, northings second.

Knowing the shape of the landscape can F

help you in:

predicting the likely perimeter of a fi re; •

identifying suitable locations for •observing the fi re or incident;

identifying suitable locations for a •Control Point or an Operations Point;

identifying the best location(s) for •construction of a control line;

determining routes for safe access to •an incident;

determining possible sites for a •helicopter to land or collect water;

determining where you are; and •

determining safe escape routes. •

Contours are lines drawn on a map F

connecting points that are exactly the same elevation above or below sea level. Physical features represented on a map can be determined by interpreting the contours.

A crest is the highest part of a hill or F

mountain range.

A gorge is a deep ravine that has been F

eroded over a period of time.

A knoll or knob is a low, isolated hill. F

A plateau is an elevated area of land that is F

relatively fl at.

Undulating ground rises and falls gently. F

A saddle is a depression between adjacent F

hills or mountain tops that is higher thanthe surrounding gullies or valleys.

The direction that a slope faces is called F

the aspect.

A ridge line is the line across the top F

of a range of hills or mountains from which the ground slopes downward in opposite directions.

Contour lines close together mean that the F

elevation changes rapidly and the slope issteep.

Contour lines spaced wide apart, or where F

there are no contour lines at all, indicatethere is little or no change in elevation and the terrain is relatively fl at.



Chapter 11Proceeding to the FireWhen proceeding to the fi re you need to remain alert and observant. Your observations may assist in gaining access to the fi re with minimal damage to vehicles, equipment orthe environment. On approach to the fi re and while at the scene you may notice evidencethat relates to the cause of the fi re. This evidence should be brought to the attention ofyour Crew Leader.


initial observations; F

confi rm and report fi re location; and F

evidence of fi re cause. F

Initial Observations

You need to be alert and observant as youtravel to the fi re, noting the following:

the colour, quantity, number and direction F

of the smoke column(s);

the nature and behaviour of the fi re; F

vehicle and personnel activity near the fi re; F

if gates on access routes to the fi re are F

closed, locked, or open; and

possible water points. F

Remember that the direction of the smoke will be infl uenced by prevailing winds. Consider the variation that local elevationand topography may have on wind direction.

On approach

The approach may be determined by theterrain. The safety of the crew is the prime concern.

Care also needs to be taken to avoiddamage to vehicles and the environment.You should take into consideration the location of roads and tracks around the fi re and the locations of safety zones, and shouldhave identifi ed at least two escape routes.

Wind direction is all important in your approach to the fi re. In the case of an activebushfi re, try to approach from upwind, avoiding a frontal approach. Remember toothat fi res will travel more slowly down slopes as discussed previously. The colour of the smoke can indicate the location of the head of the fi re. The greater the intensity of the bushfi re the darker the colour of the smoke.

On arrival your vehicle should be positioned in a safe area where fi re observations can be made and a quick exit can take place in theevent of a rapid development in fi re intensity.



Chapter 11: Proceeding to the Fire

Confi rm and Report Fire Location

Once the fi re has been physically locatedyour CFA Incident Controller or DSEOperations Offi cer will confi rm the fi re location, type and activity with the brigade’sbase operator, VicFire, and/or the DSE Duty Offi cer, as appropriate.

The message may be along the lines of “Arrived at Dixons Creek fi re, fi re size approximately 5 ha and going in a southeasterly direction” (radio protocols used).

Evidence of Fire CauseThe cause of the fi re will be determined byexperienced investigators, however, there are a number of things that you can do to assist investigators in their task.

On approachFirst responding crews should always be alert to any evidence of the cause of the fi re.Take note of the following:

any people present in the area, or F

departing the area as you approached;

vehicles/bikes in the vicinity of the fi re, for F

example, type, colour, and registration;

any obvious signs of human presence F

such as wheel tracks, litter or other material that may have been used to start the fi re; and

in more remote areas, take note of horse F

tracks, motor bike tracks and camp fi res.

You should pass on any relevant informationor observations to your Crew Leader/Offi cer-in-Charge.

Preserving the point of origin

On arrival at a bushfi re it is important to preserve the point of origin. This is the areawhere the fi re started and may contain vital evidence needed for the cause tobe investigated.

Be conscious of the fact that the area that is burnt should not be disturbed any morethan can be avoided. Crucial evidence of the cause of the fi re could be lost if not protected.

To preserve the point of origin:

do not disturb the area by driving over it or F

hosing away any evidence of the cause;

if possible, keep fi refi ghting activity F

and fi refi ghter access in the area to a minimum; and

seal off access to the area using tape, F

rope, a parked vehicle or a person to keep the area from being disturbed.

In large scale fi res, investigators will belooking for patterns of fi res in the area. The point of origin should be protected for the entire duration of fi refi ghting operations,particularly in the case of small fi res.

Figure 168 – investigating the point of origin



Chapter 11Summary

Firefi ghters’ initial observations of the F

fi re can assist the Crew Leader in quickly sizing up the situation on arrival. Look for:

colour, quantity and direction of smoke; •

nature and behaviour of fi re; •

gates on access routes, for example, •closed, locked or open.

Once the fi re has been physically F

located your CFA Incident Controller or DSE Operations Offi cer will confi rm the fi re location, type and activity with the brigade’s base operator, VicFire, and/orthe DSE Duty Offi cer, as appropriate.

When assessing the fi re consideration F

should be given to:

the size of the fi re; •

fi re behaviour; •

risk to life and property; and •

resources. •

Firefi ghters should take note of the F

people and vehicles in the vicinity while approaching a fi re.

On arrival at a bushfi re it is important to F

preserve the point of origin by keepingactivity in the area to a minimum. Where possible avoid entering or disturbing the point of origin of the fi re.

Notes





Chapter 12Combating the Bushfi reBushfi re suppression activities are not just the obvious such as attacking a fi re. Theyalso include other activities such as setting up an incident command and communication structure, and managing logistics and the availability of resources.

To ensure safe, effective and effi cient bushfi re suppression, it is crucial that you understand your duties and follow the Incident Chain of Command on the fi reground at all times.


teamwork and fi refi ghting; F

briefi ngs; F

command and communications; F

assessing fi re conditions; F

fi refi ghting strategies and tactics; F

built asset protection; F

mineral earth control line; and F

mopping up. F

Teamwork and Firefi ghting

Successful fi refi ghting relies on individuals working together as part of a team. As a member of a team, you must stay in contact with your colleagues at all times, either by sight or radio. You must make sure that:

you understand your task and how it F

fi ts in with the work of other fi refi ghtersaround you;

the person in charge of you knows where F

you are and what you are doing;

you know where other fi refi ghters are and F

what they are doing;

you stay in regular contact with your Crew F

Leader; and

you know the escape plans and, in the F

event that you have to leave the area quickly, you can be contacted.

Frequent communication is important. Makeregular situation reports so that you can give and receive important information about thefi re and your safety.

Each fi refi ghter should follow the instructions provided by their crew leader; to achieve thesuppression objectives, safe operations, and teamwork.



Chapter 12: Combating the Bushfi re

Working as part of a crew

You should never work alone. Keep an eyeon where the other members of your creware when you are on the fi reground.

Remember: safe work practices, look after your mates and work together (referred to in DSE as the “buddy system”).

Good team work includes:

working cooperatively to achieve F

common goals;

following procedures; F

asking for help when needed; F

being supportive; and F

recognising and acknowledging the F

achievements of other team members.

By demonstrating these simple behaviours on a day-to-day basis and in the way you go about your activities you will help toimprove the performance and effectiveness of your crew.

Briefi ngs

In the interests of working safely, effectively and effi ciently, it is crucial that you are adequately briefed prior to commencing any task. This will ensure that you know andunderstand the incident situation and the task that you and your team, or crew, havebeen given to carry out.

Briefi ngs should be conducted using a process of delegation, with supervisors atevery level of the incident management structure being responsible for briefi ng personnel under their control or direction.This process is designed to ensure people at all levels receive consistent andtimely information.

For example, after being briefed by the Incident Controller the Operations Offi cer isresponsible for briefi ng Sector Commanders,who in turn become responsible for briefi ngStrike Team and Task Force Leaders undertheir command. Strike Team Leaders andTask Force Leaders are responsible forbriefi ng Crew Leaders who in turn brief crew members.

Types of briefi ngs

Types of briefi ngs and debriefi ngsmay include:

safety, for example, weather updates, F

change in incident status and changein objectives;

initial deployment; F

subsequent deployment; F

start of shift; F

delegation; F

handover; F

end of shift; F

changeover; F

general information; and F

After Action Review (AAR). F




Briefi ng format

Supervisors at all levels of the incidentmanagement structure are to use the briefi ngformat identifi ed by the acronym SMEACS. This format is to be used for all types of briefi ngs to ensure relevant details under the following headings are passed on.

Situation – details of the incident, life and property threatened, location, weather current and predicted and resource deployment.

Mission – incident objectives, for controland suppression.

Execution – strategies, tactics and taskingfor sectors, strike teams and crews.

Administration and logistics – IncidentControl Centres, Operations Points andStaging Areas.

Command and communications – incident management structure, communications plan and radio channels.

Safety – weather both current and predicted,so as to be aware of any impending dangers to personnel from wind or weather changes, known or anticipatedfi re or other hazards.

All briefi ngs are to end with a short question and answer session. This will allow those who have been briefed to check their understanding of any points and allow the person delivering the briefi ng to confi rm that any critical issues have been clearly understood.

Note: if you are unsure about any point – ask again.

Command and Communications

The safety and success of fi resuppression hinges on the command andcommunications systems that are set up to control the incident.

For safe, effective and effi cient fi resuppression, it is imperative that allfi refi ghters are not only aware of, and understand, the command structure andcommunication procedures in use, but thatthey also comply with them at all times.

Incident management structure

You will operate within an incident control system called Australasian Inter-AgencyIncident Management System (AIIMS).This system brings together and managespeople, procedures, facilities, equipment and communications in a common organisational structure. This structure expands andcontracts in accordance with requirements tomanage the incident.

This provides a clear path of delegation of responsibilities and helps to ensure that the health and safety of all personnel is better able to be monitored by the appropriate allocation of activities.

AIIMS operates using the followingprinciples; management by objectives;functional management and span of control.This ensures that there is only one IncidentController.




Functional roles

AIIMS functional roles include the following:

Incident Controller F – responsible for the overall management of the incident.

Planning Section F – responsible forthe collation of incident resources,current information and predictions of any future development of the incident, and preparation of the Incident Action Plan (IAP).

Operations Section F – responsiblefor management and supervision of combating forces. This is the function within which a bushfi re fi refi ghter operates.

Logistics Section F – responsible for the provision of facilities, services, materialsand fi nance.

Information Section F – responsible forthe provision of information about anincident to affected communities to promote appropriate responses andenable effective decision-making, therebyhelping to reduce potential loss of lifeand property.

While operating on the fi reground you reportto and receive instructions and information from your Crew Leader.

In CFA, if your crew is fi rst on scene the CrewLeader may be the Incident Controller and take responsibility for all AIIMS functions.In DSE, the crew leader will only take onthe operations function, the other function remain with the Duty Offi cer.

LogisticsSection

InformationSection

AirOperations

Staging AreaManager

Task ForceLeader

Incident Controller

OperationsSection

DivisionCommander

SectorCommander

Strike TeamLeader

CrewLeader

Crew(Firefighters)

Safety Officer

PlanningSection

Figure 169 – typical management structure for a large incident




As an incident develops in complexity these roles will normally be delegated to other people with relevant competencies.

Figure 169 opposite shows a typicalmanagement structure for a large incident and shows the reporting relationships withinthe incident chain of command.

Communications

Communications are vital to the successful outcome of bushfi re suppression or any other incident. A communications plan isdeveloped to provide communications forthe whole of the incident, as determined by its size and complexity.

It is important to understand that the communications plan is determined (aftertaking into account known factors relating to current and predicted incident status),agreed to and approved by all members of the Incident Management Team (IMT) and approved by the Incident Controller.

To improve communications we need to:

recognise the role that a communications F

plan plays in safe, effective and effi cientoperational management;

follow the communications plan, (default F

in the initial stages of the incident andthen the incident specifi c plan once it is established) and use only nominatedequipment and channels;

communicate up and down the chain F

of command;

follow established radio discipline and F

procedures; and

ensure that mobile phones and UHF F

radios are only used for operationalcommunication when specifi ed in thecommunications plan.

Operations section

The operations section has its own specialcommunication needs which are identifi edin the communications plan. Therefore, theplan must identify:

who the personnel are that need to be able F

to communicate with each other;

the most suitable means of doing this; and F

the equipment and radio channels F

required to ensure uninterrupted communications for safe, effective andeffi cient operation throughout the entire period of the incident.

Communications are used to ensure atwo-way fl ow of information between theOperations Offi cer, Division Commander, Sector Commander, Strike Team Leader and Crew Leader.

Figure 170 on the next page is an example of a typical Operations Section radio communications plan.




Command Channel

Fire Ground Channel

Fire Ground Channel

Incident Control Centre (ICC)Incident Controller

Operations PointOperations Officer

63

62 62

62

Radio channels63 6462

Wildfire

Sector (Alphabetical/geographical)

SectorCommander

Sector (Alphabetical/geographical)

SectorCommander

64

N

S

W E

West flank

(may also be reference as

the Right Flank)

Eastflank

(may also be reference as the Left Flank)

Strike Team

/Task Force

Leader

Crew

Leaders

Strik

e Te

am/T

ask

Forc

eLe

ader

Cre

w L

eade

rs

Str

ike

Team

/Tas

k Fo

rce

Lead

er

Cre

w L

ead

ers

Strik

e Te

am

/Tas

k Fo

rce

Lead

er

Cre

w L

eade

rs

Strike Team/Task ForceLeader

Crew

Leaders

Strike Team

/Task ForceLead

er

Crew

Leaders

Figure 170 – example of an Operations Section radio communications plan




Use of different radio channels

Allocation of radio channels is based on known and predicted incident factors.

For example, at a small roadside fi re, allradio traffi c may be handled using a singleradio channel. The use of multiple radio channels may be needed as the incident increases in size or communicationsbecome more complex due to increasednumbers of resources, larger area, and diffi culties with radio transmission in hilly ormountainous terrain.

Radio channels will be allocated orreallocated (changed) to cope with the many different conditions and needs of the incident.

Radio channels may be allocated to:

the Operations Point; F

the Staging Area(s); F

Division or Sector Commanders; F

Strike Team Leaders; and F

Crew Leaders. F

To ensure you are able to carry out your functional role within the “big picture” itis critical you remain on, or change to, the channel you have been allocated. It is important to acknowledge channel changemovement within the chain of command.

Continually monitor your radio and radiotraffi c to ensure that you are operating onthe correct channel. You must be on yourallocated channel to receive and transmitinformation, emergency or safety warningsas discussed in Chapter 9.

Assessing Fire Conditions

If you are the fi rst crew on scene, you willbe involved in the initial size-up of the fi re. This is where all the characteristics of the fi re are noted and reported up the chain of command.

You can assist the Crew Leader/IncidentController in carrying out a size-up bypassing on information about the fi re that you have identifi ed through your observations.The Crew Leader/Offi cer-in-Charge will collate all the information provided by crewmembers with his or her own observations, and use this to make decisions aboutincident objectives and strategies.

Factors to consider

Questions that need to be answered

the fi reWhat is the size of the area already burnt?

The fi res’s behaviour

How intense is it?What direction is it travelling in? What is its rate of spread?What fuel conditions exist(dry, high loads)?

Risk to life and

property/assets

Are lives in immediate danger? What property/assets are at risk? Are any environmentallysensitive areas endangered?

Suppression diffi culty

Chances of fi rst attack success?

Resources

What assistance or resources are needed? Where are water supplieslocated?




Firefi ghting Strategies and TacticsAs explained earlier in this chapter, we work within an incident management structure(AIIMS), part of which outlines the need formanagement by objectives using strategies, tactics and tasks. To better understand thisprinciple, we need to know and understand the meaning of each of the factors:

objective F – a statement of what is to be achieved;

strategy F – a statement of how theobjective is to be achieved. It is the method used such as direct attack, indirect attack, parallel attack or a combination;

tactic F – the tasking of personnel andresources to implement the incidentcontrol strategy; and

task F – the job given to any fi refi ghting force or unit, that is, who is to do the job.

The difference between strategies, tacticsand tasks can be quite confusing initially. The following example, putting them into context, should make things clearer.

A low intensity grass fi re is heading easttowards the Hume Highway:

Objective F – stop the fi re crossing theHume Highway and blackout the edgebefore 1500 hrs.

Strategy F – direct attack to extinguish fi re and follow up with a mineral earthcontrol line.

Tactic F – task force consisting of tankers and a grader are to attack the east fl ank,knock down the edge and construct a mineral earth control line.

Task F – tankers to attack the fi re’s edge,grader to follow up with a 6 m wide mineral earth control line extending the full perimeter of the fi re.

Methods of attack

The Incident Controller or DSE Operations Offi cer will ensure that a risk assessmentis conducted in order to determine and approve an appropriate strategy. The strategy selected for use at a fi re whether in grassland, forest or at any other incident will depend on this risk assessment, taking into account the safety of fi refi ghters as a fi rstpriority. The strategy will identify the methodto be used to attack the fi re:

direct attack; F

parallel attack; or F

indirect attack. F

Direct attack (low fl ame intensity)

A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity bushfi res that can be easily and safely reached by fi refi ghters. Firefi ghters work from an anchor point directly on the edge of thefi re. This edge then becomes the establishedcontrol line.

In grass fi re situations, water is commonly used to knock down and extinguish the fi re edge working either from the head of thefi re (where conditions allow) or along the fi refl anks. Firefi ghters may also use foam and fi re retardants to extinguish the fi re. A mineral earth control line may be constructed using heavy machinery such as a grader, following up along the blacked out edge to furtherstrengthen the control line.




In scrub and forest fi re situations, dryfi refi ghting techniques are more commonly used. A mineral earth control line may be constructed using hand tools or heavymachinery such as bulldozers, working from an anchor point along the fi re’s perimeter.Care must be taken not to drag burningmaterial across the control line into unburnt fuels and to work as close to the fi re edge aspossible. Fuel between the control line andthe fi re edge is allowed to burn out.

Water, Class A foam or retardants may not effectively extinguish a forest fi re but may assist in supporting fi refi ghters who are establishing a mineral earth control line.

To perform a direct attack you can use:

water contained in knapsacks, tankers, F

aircraft or in hose lines from a static watersource, for example, a hose lay;

bulldozers and other earth moving F

equipment; and

hand tools such as rakehoes, slashers, F

axes and chainsaws.

The terms head attack and fl ank attack are used in bushfi re suppression to describe two variations of direct attack techniques forsuppressing a bushfi re. You should be aware of how these two methods of attack differ.

A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of the fi re and then working towards the point of origin (see fi gure 171).

The anchor point is the blacked out fi re edge at the head of the fi re.

This type of attack is used only for low intensity bushfi res and in moderate weather conditions where you can get close enoughto attack the burning edge and can be sure that there will be no unexpected fl are ups or spotting activity.

A fl ank attack involves approaching the fi reon the fl anks and working directly on them.

One version of a fl ank attack is to work from the rear using the blacked out edge as ananchor point to work progressively towards the head of the fi re in an attempt to “pinch”it out (see fi gure 172).

Knock down head

Anchor point is the blacked out fire edge

Point of origin

Wind direction

Figure 171 – head attack on a low intensity fi re

Head

Anchor point is the blacked out fire edge

Point of origin

Wind direction

Figure 172 – fl ank attack on a high intensity fi re




This technique is used when it is impracticalor unsafe to establish an anchor point at the head of a fi re front, for example, highintensity grass fi re.

In either a head or fl ank attack, once the fi re’s edge has been knocked down, amineral earth control line may be constructedaround the blacked out edge. This is done to contain any remaining burning materials and to further strengthen the control line.

Advantages

Provides maximum safety for fi refi ghters, F

for example, the ability to move into the black if required;

generally, the least area is burnt of all F

methods;

fuel is removed from the immediate path F

of the fi re, allowing the earliest possiblecontrol; and

parts of the fi re edge that have self F

extinguished may be quickly incorporatedinto the control line.

Disadvantages

Firefi ghters working at the fi re’s edge can F

be exposed to heat and smoke;

fences and natural barriers may present F

obstacles; and

an irregular control line may be produced, F

taking longer and being more diffi cultto patrol.

Parallel attack (low to moderate fl ameintensity)

The parallel method of attack commonly involves the construction of a control line parallel to the fi re, or just a short distance away from the fi re’s edge. You should beable to see the fi re edge to observe changesin fi re behaviour (see fi gure 173 opposite).

The distance from the fi re edge willdepend on:

the intensity of the fi re edge and spotting; F

the type of fuel; F

weather conditions; F

topography; and F

equipment used. F

In general, control lines are constructed asclose as possible to the fl anks of the fi re.Irregularities in the fi re’s perimeter can bebypassed using this technique. You can usea range of equipment to construct controllines, for example, handtools, ploughs, graders, bulldozers and chain saws.

Burning out

Burning out means the deliberate burning of small patches of unburnt fuel within the fi reperimeter. It can also mean burning smallpatches of unburnt fuel between the fi recontrol line (constructed as part of a parallelattack) and the fi re.

These remaining patches of fuel between the main fi re and the control line may be burnt out by other fi refi ghters under the close supervision of their crew leaders. Thisgenerally occurs from the point of origin usingthe blacked out edge as an anchor point as the work on the control line proceeds. Control line construction must stay ahead of any burning out activities but not so far as to be unable to retreat into the black iffi re conditions deteriorate. This is calledtaking the black with you and is a vital part of fi refi ghter safety.

If this is not possible, you must patrol the control line to ensure that it is not crossedwhen the main fi re reaches it.




When using the parallel attack method, you must:

commence control line construction from F

an anchor point;

monitor the progress of the fi re and note F

any weather changes; and

ensure you have two escape routes. F

Advantages

The control line may be shorter, straighter F

and quicker to construct than indirect attack;

crews will be less exposed to heat and F

smoke; and

the control line will be easier to patrol. F

Disadvantages

There will be an increased risk of the F

fi re escaping;

an increased risk to personnel; and F

the total fi re area will be greater than that F

in a direct attack.

Note: when using this technique, you must always remember that the fi re is constantly changing due to factors such as fuel and topography. The distance that you can work from the fi re edge is dependant on fi re intensity – the further away you work from the fi re edge, the greater the personal risk if the fi re changes direction or intensity increases.

Wind direction

Figure 173 – attacking parallel to the fi re edge where head fi re intensity or spotting ahead of the fi re prevents a direct attack




Indirect attack (low to very high intensity and large and inaccessible bushfi res)

The indirect method requires the use of either a natural fi re barrier, the construction of acontrol line some distance from the fi re’s existing perimeter or a combination of both (see fi gure 174).

The fuel between the control line and themain fi re is backburned when conditions are safe to do so. By backburning some distancefrom the bushfi re’s existing perimeter, the fi reis robbed of fuel. This technique is generally used when access is not available to the fi re edge, the fi re is too intense or is spotting, orfor environmental reasons. The fi re is allowedto burn to predetermined control lines.

Backburning is potentially hazardous and needs experience, knowledge and skill to ensure a successful outcome. This activityis only to be carried out when identifi ed aspart of the overall control objective strategy in the Incident Action Plan and followingauthorisation by the Incident Controller. You will only carry out this task under directionand supervision.

Advantages

Generally the only means to control fi res F

with long distance spotting;

controls more intense bushfi re; F

reduces the exposure of fi refi ghters to F

bushfi re hazards;

allows more time for planning and F

assembling resources appropriate to the incident;

allows the location of a control line to be F

chosen with greater regard to crew safety and environmental considerations;

allows more time for the construction of a F

control line; and

the control line may be shorter and F

straighter than in a direct attack.

Disadvantages

Requires considerable resources and F

planning;

the total fi re area will be greater than that F

in either of the previous methods;

greater area to be controlled and patrolled, F

therefore, an increased risk of the fi re breaking through the control lines and the need for additional resources;River

Control lineand backburn

Road

wind

Figure 174 – indirect attack




the fuel between the fi re and the control F

line may have to be backburned or burntout – the two fi res joining may result in intense fi re activity at the junction zone(where the fi res meet) and an increasedchance of spotting; and

the backburn may fail or escape, creating F

the diffi culty of controlling the main fi re and the backburn.

Built Asset Protection

Protecting built assets is part of a defensive strategy used when a fi re is too intense to be safely or effectively attacked.

Crews, under the direction of a Crew Leader,may be tasked to:

eliminate or reduce the risk to built assets F

and other high value assets of beingdamaged by fi re;

only protect what is within the capability F

and training of the crew at the time and only after appropriate risk mitigation;

take actions to prevent an asset catching F

fi re; and

suppress any superfi cial fi res on the F

external parts of structures.

Examples of built assets include, but are not limited to, the following.

Structures, for example: F

houses; •

sheds; •

public buildings; •

schools; •

factories; and •

shops. •

Recreational assets, for example: F

walkways; •

cultural sites; •

picnic facilities; and •

parks. •

Machinery, for example: F

tractors; •

cars; •

trucks; •

farming machinery; •

bulldozers; •

graders; and •

road making. •

Infrastructure, for example: F

bridges; •

railway lines; •

roads, freeways; •

power stations, substations, power •poles, and high voltage transmission lines;

water reservoirs, pumping stations, and •pipelines;

gas plants and pipelines; •

oil refi neries and/or depots; •

telecommunications; and •

fi re lookout towers. •




Protecting assets

The Crew Leader will conduct a riskassessment to identify whether the crew is trained and equipped to deal with situations they may encounter in protecting any asset.

If protecting a structure the following considerations and/or actions will apply andwill be carried out when the fi re is in its initial stage and easily suppressed from outsidethe structure.

Extinguishing embers on, around, or under F

a structure; or

initial small outbreaks of fi re involving the F

structure on:

exterior walls; •

decks; •

roofs; and •

gutters. •

Bushfi re fi refi ghters will not enter a structure:

to engage in internal fi refi ghting; or F

where there is a risk of structural collapse. F

Asset preparation pre-fi re

Preparaton

Your Crew Leader will manage the pre-fi reasset preparation strategy in conjunction with the Operations Offi cer. It is important that you maintain communications when you are implementing asset protection.

Once the asset is identifi ed and a size-up and risk assessment are completed, a protection strategy will be implemented and your crew will be tasked accordingly.

You must ensure you understand your instructions.

Implement your personal risk mitigation, for example WATCHOUTS and LACES as discussed in Chapter 1.

Often all that can be done to protect assets is to position the appliance, setup hose lays and remove combustible material from around the asset to minimiseignition sources.

Well before the fi re arrives, defensive actionsshould be taken. These will include:

protecting yourself; F

ensuring you have a safety zone; F

identifying hazards; F

creating a defendable space; F

removing fuel where required; and F

wetting down areas. F

Positioning the appliance

When positioning the appliance;

reverse in to ensure it is ready to leave the F

area if necessary;

ensure it does not block access or escape F

routes for other appliances;

site the appliance so that it: F

is protected from radiant heat; •

has access to water where applicable; •

needs minimal hose to attack fi res; and •

has a “lookout”, usually the pump •operator who stays with the appliance;

do not park near heavy fuel loads; F




look for green lawns, gravel surfaces or F

cleared areas to park;

keep doors and windows closed; F

leave the engine running with the lights F

and fl ashers on; and

check the operation of the pump motor. F

Hose lays

Run hose lines to strategic locations; 38 mmhose lines are recommended.

Deploy two lines. F

Leave the hose lines in obvious locations, F

and protect the couplings.

Working lines can be pre-positioned, one F

around each side of the asset.

Hose lines should be long enough to meet F

behind the asset.

Working lines should be left in place until F

the asset is safe.

Sprinkler systems

Sprinklers may be used to wet down theasset and/or surrounding vegetation. Thesecan be set up prior to the fi re and activated when it is required. Some owners may have installed a sprinkler system as part of theirBushfi re Action Plan.

Communication

Keep in continuous communication on bothpreparedness and the fi re situation with your Crew Leader, other crew members, and the occupier of the asset if it is possible to do so.

Ember spotting

Assets can be under attack from embersand spotting well before the fi re reaches thestructure and many hours after it has passed.An ongoing process needs to be in place to check for, and extinguishing, embers.

Hazards

It is important to identify and report any potential hazards to your Crew Leader.

Safety zone

Ensure you know where the safety zones areand you can access these if you need to.

Defendable space

The Crew Leader will determine, as a resultof a risk assessment and size-up, the safestcourse of action based on the fuel, weather and topography around the asset. The anticipated fi re behaviour will determine howmuch area will be required to ensure crewsafety. This is called the defendable space.

Other considerations will includecommunications, water supplies and access.

An option may be to carry out preparationworks around the asset. then leave before the fi re approaches.




Potential ignition points on an asset

Likely ignition points on an asset include:

the roof; F

the building material used; F

open vents; F

open or broken windows; F

doorways; F

verandahs and eaves; F

under house spaces; F

on and under decks; F

fl ammable materials; and F

garden mulch and shrubs. F

A walk around the asset should identify allitems that may increase the chance of the asset being impacted by the approaching fi re. These may include:

door mats; F

garden furniture; F

fi rewood supply; F

shade cloth; and F

dogs kennels. F

Time permitting, these items should all be removed.

Hazards

Fuels and chemicals

The Australian hazardous labelling system has nine classes of dangerous goods with subsections according to the type of hazardapplicable. Multiple signs may sometimesbe visible when multiple types of chemicalsare stored.

Your strategy would be to identify the risk,and report it to your Crew Leader who will plan to isolate and protect the hazardousitems from fi re.

If in doubt – get out.

If you notice a different colour smoke coming from a shed, there is a fair chance it could be hazardous chemicals burning. The best approach is to evacuate and report it to yourCrew Leader. Ensure the crew stand upwind and uphill from burning hazardous materials.

Some hazards crews may encounter duringasset protection are fl ammable liquids, gas,electricity and chemicals.

You need to be alert for these signs andconsult your Crew Leader for direction.

Gas and electricity

Identify the location and size of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders and tanks and advise your Crew Leader.

Clear the area around the liquid petroleum gas and tanks. Where possible, small cylinders may be moved to a fuel reduced area.

Clear around electricity poles. Predetermine line and pole falling areas. Keep clear of these areas and mark it if necessary.Figure 175 – hazardous materials warning signs




During the passage of the fi re front

Ensure the following actions are taken during the passage of the fi re front.

Minimise your exposure to radiant heat F

and smoke.

Mobility – it is important not to be hooked F

up to hose lines that prevent you from moving while the fi re is passing. Avoidusing long live hose reels.

Ensure sprinkler systems have been F

activated (where installed).

Extinguish superfi cial spot fi res on F

the asset.

Asset protection post fi re

Safety

Extreme danger is still present after the fi repasses. Your Crew Leader will conduct post-fi re size-up for safety.

Watch for hazards which may include:

downed power lines/poles, damaged solar F

panels and wind generators;

hazardous trees; F

airborne contaminates, for example, F

asbestos may be present; it is therefore advisable to report this and leave the area;

debris on the roads may include rocks, F

logs, burning vehicles, and fallen powerlines;

spot fi res; F

smoky conditions; and F

weakened bridges or cattle grids. F

After the fi re front has passed, undertake thefollowing actions.

Avoid exposure to toxic smoldering F

materials;

assist in extinguishing burning vegetation F

within close proximity to the asset;

ensure the asset is safe before moving on F

to others;

remain vigilant and assess new F

safety hazards; and

refer residents’ requests and questions to F

your Crew Leader to undertake positivepublic relations to leave the public with positive feelings.

Figure 176 – protecting assets enables a community to recover more quickly from the effects of a bushfi re

Farm sheds Domestic dwellingsLivestock Community assets




Mineral Earth Control Line

A control line is an important part of fi re suppression activities and will be constructed around most DSE fi res.

One form of control line is a man-made ornatural fuel-free path. It prevents the spreadof fi re. When constructing control lines,the term mineral earth (or bare earth) issometimes used. This term refers to groundwhere all vegetation cover has been removed and only rocks and soil are exposed.

The mineral earth should be exposed for thelength and width of the control line.

A control line can be constructed by using:

hand tools, for example, axes, slashers, F

rakehoes and chainsaws, to removeunburnt surface fuels from the fi re; and

machinery, such as bulldozers, graders, F

bobcats and farm tractors fi tted with a plough or a blade.

Mopping Up/Blacking Out Operations

Mopping up, (sometime referred to as blacking out) is a vital part of the fi re suppression process. It is a dirty and timeconsuming task which may continue for many days after the fi re has been controlled.

Mopping up:

may begin as soon as the progress and F

spread of the fi re has been contained; and

should be carried out on foot to allow F

close inspection of potential hot spots.

Note: mopping up carried out on foot allows close inspection of potential hot spots.

The process of mopping up entails “blacking out” a strip inside the fi re perimeter.Thorough mopping up involves locating, breaking open or exposing and extinguishing any smouldering fuel above the ground, at ground level and below ground. This eliminates potential sources of re-ignitionand escape.

Figure 177 – mineral earth control line

Figure 178 – fi refi ghters extinguishing smouldering fuel at ground level




The work is done manually with hand tools,by wetting fuels or both. In a grass fi resituation, wetting the fuel may be enough.

Note: blackout and patrol is a critical part of the fi re suppression process. Many fi res, considered contained, have rekindled or started fresh outbreaks due to poor or insuffi cient patrol or mopping up being undertaken. Firefi ghters must continue to be alert and aware of hazards during these operations.

Initially fi refi ghters should concentrate on making the fi re perimeter safe by:

extinguishing any elevated burning/ F

smouldering fuels;

extinguishing smouldering/burning F

materials laying on the ground;

placing any smouldering fuel found F

outside the control line into the burntout area;

breaking up fuel concentrations to release F

heat; and

turning smouldering logs into a position F

where they will not roll into unburnt areas.

When the edge is controlled, any patches of unburnt fuel can be burnt out or contained within the control line. A strip inside the perimeter must then be blacked out toextinguish all burning or smouldering material. The width of this strip will vary. YourCrew Leader will tell you how far inside the control line this work should be undertaken.As with other fi refi ghting activities, whenmopping up, consider your hose line as your lifeline.

Remember: whether moving up or adding an additional hose length to prevent hose damage, be sure to wet down ahead of your hose to create a cool damp area free of hot embers and threat from naked fl ame.

Factors to consider when mopping up

Factors to consider when mopping up include:

depth; F

weather conditions; F

fuel type; and F

safety. F

Depth of mopping up

Commencing at the edge and mop up for20–30 m into the burnt ground is most common practice. The depth of blackingout will, however, depend on a number of factors, including:

the size of the bushfi re – it may be F

possible to mop-up the entire area of smallor spot fi res; in large fi res the depth of mopping up will depend on fuel, weather and topography;

Figure 179 – making the perimeter safe




nature of the fuels – heavy, smouldering F

fuels like stumps and logs, or tall burning hollow trees showering sparks across thecontrol line from inside the mopped up perimeter increase the risk of reignition,therefore, depth of mopping up needs totake account of this; and

terrain or topography – control lines on F

slopes with burnt ground above unburnt ground pose a risk of smouldering material tumbling down hill into unburnt fuel across the control line; mopping up mustbe extended further up slope to reduce this risk.

Weather conditions

The likelihood of severe weatherapproaching may make a greater depth orarea of mopping up and additional patrols necessary, particularly on the eastern fl ank,as a wind change from the west to southwest would blow towards this direction carryingembers onto unburnt fuel.

Different fuels

Logs and stumps: F

you may have to roll a log over to •extinguish the underside. To avoid it rolling down hill or into an unburnt area,use a rock or earth mound as a chock ordig a trench to roll the log into;

you may have to split a log open or •have an experienced chainsaw operatorremove the burning end to allow you to extinguish any burning material inside.If you have insuffi cient water, use your rakehoe to create a suitable bare earth break around it; and

when mopping up stumps, fi rstly cool •down the stump and surrounding area.You may need to use a shovel to access hot root holes or an axe to open thestump up.

Trees: F

be sure to black out all smouldering •bark and elevated fuels to prevent itspotting into unburnt fuel;

burning stag trees near the fi re edge •should be extinguished to stop showering sparks and embers ignitingadjacent unburnt fuels. If this cannot be carried out safely, refer to Chapter 1:Hazardous Trees.

Note: the use of chainsaws to assist fi refi ghting operations must only be carried out by trained, competent and endorsed people.

When mopping up in grassland or bush, F

take care not to spread burning embersback into the unburnt area.

Dry animal manure needs to be broken F

apart and thoroughly wet down.

Be sure to black out fence posts, as they F

are a valuable asset.

Safety

Falling trees and limbs can kill. These F

can continue to fall for many days afterthe main fi re has passed. Look up and maintain a close watch while working under canopies. Report any dangers to your Crew Leader, refer to Chapter 1,Hazardous trees.




You need to exercise extreme care when F

applying water to hot beds of burning fuel, as instantaneous production of steam may cause a violent reaction, throwing dust,smoke and steam back into your face.

Watch out for rolling logs and material F

burning underground in stump holes.

Stay at least two tree heights clear and up F

slope of any burning stag trees.

Watch out for insects, reptiles and vermin F

that may have been disturbed as a result of the fi re.

Be aware of hot ash beds. F

Patrolling the perimeter

Patrolling the perimeter commences once the control line is established and may continue during and after the mopping upprocess. It ensures that any problems on or near the fi res perimeter do not lead to the rekindling or spread of the fi re.

Firefi ghters patrolling the perimeter shouldlook for anything that could threaten the control line including:

inside the control line – burning materials F

or hot spots which may include ground, surface or elevated fuels such as treesor branches that may be burning or smouldering; and

outside the control line – fresh F

outbreaks caused by new or previousspotting activity.

Problems encountered should be dealt with immediately and may involve the use of:

hand tools and Class A foam and/or water F

to extinguish stumps, trees or fence poststo avoid breakaways; and

heavy machinery and chainsaw operators. F

The frequency of patrols will be determinedby factors such as:

fuel hazards; F

fi re intensity; and F

current and forecast weather conditions. F

Patrolling the perimeter may be done on foot, or in a vehicle. Firefi ghters should always follow safe work practices and “buddy up” if on foot.

If patrolling from a vehicle be aware of the dangers of travelling in smoke, andwatch out for fi refi ghters on foot working inthe area.

All fi refi ghters involved in patrol should takenote of safety zones and places where a vehicle can be turned around, and should have identifi ed at least two escape routes in the event that they are required to leave thearea quickly.

Figure 180 – take care while working under canopies

Notes





Chapter 12Summary

Successful fi refi ghting requires solid F

teamwork.

You must make sure that: F

you know your task; •

your Crew Leader knows where you are •and what you are doing;

you know where the other members of •your crew are and what they are doing;

you stay in contact; and •

you know your escape plan. •

Good team work behaviours include: F

working cooperatively; •

following procedures; •

knowing when to seek assistance and •asking for help when it is needed;

being supportive; and •

recognising and acknowledging the •efforts of your crew mates.

When fi refi ghting, always stay in contact F

with other people either by sight or radio.

All briefi ngs conducted should conform to F

the SMEACS format.

A SMEACS briefi ng includes: F

Situation;

Mission;

Execution;

Administration and logistics;

Command and communications; and

Safety.

All F briefi ngs are to end with a shortquestion and answer session to ensure understanding by all parties.

The command and communications F

systems are crucial to the safety and success of fi re suppression activities.

You will work within an incident control F

system (AIIMS).

AIIMS functional roles include Incident F

Controller, Information Section, Planning Section, Operations Section and Logistics Section.

Continually monitor your radio and radio F

traffi c to ensure that you are operating on the correct channel.

You must be on your allocated channel F

to receive and transmit information, emergency or safety warnings.




When assessing the fi re consideration F

should be given to:

the size of the fi re; •

fi re behaviour; •

risk to life and property; and •

resources. •

Direct attack is when fi refi ghters work F

directly on the edge of the bushfi re and this edge then becomes the established control line.

A parallel attack involves the construction F

of a control line parallel to the fi re, or just a short distance away from the fi re’s edge.

Different forms of direct attack include F

directly knocking down the head of thebushfi re or a fl ank attack that involves approaching the bushfi re from the fl anks and then pinching out the head.

Indirect attack commonly involves the F

construction of a control line some distance away from the fi re’s edge. The fuel between the control line and the fi refront is backburned.

For high intensity fi res the construction F

of a control line may be a considerabledistance from the fi re fl ank or head andrequire a backburn when conditions aresuitable. This type of operation shouldonly be performed by endorsed personnel when authorised by the Incident Controller.

Protecting built assets is part of a F

defensive strategy used when a fi re is too intense to be safely or effectively attacked.

If protecting a structure the following F

considerations and/or actions will applyand will be carried out when the fi re is inits initial stage and easily suppressed from outside the structure.

Extinguishing embers on, around, or •under a structure; or

initial small outbreaks of fi re involving •the structure on exterior walls, decks, roofs and gutters.

Bushfi re fi refi ghters will not enter a F

structure to engage in internal fi refi ghting or where there is a risk of structural collapse.

The defendable space is the area required F

to ensure crew safety. It is determinedby the Crew Leader as a result of a risk assessment and size-up. Other considerations include communications, water supplies and access.

Hazards relating to built asset protection F

include:

fuels and chemicals; and •

gas and electricity. •

Ensure the following actions are taken F

during the passage of the fi re front.

Minimise your exposure to radiant heat •and smoke;

mobility – it is important not to be •hooked up to hose lines that prevent you from moving while the fi re is passing;

ensure sprinkler systems have been •activated (where installed); and

extinguish superfi cial spot fi res on the •asset.




Extreme danger is still present after the F

fi re passes. Your Crew Leader will conductpost-fi re size-up for safety. Watch forhazards which may include:

downed power lines/poles; •

dangerous trees; •

airborne contaminates, for example, •asbestos may be present; it is therefore advisable to report this and leave thearea;

debris on the roads may include rocks, •logs, burning vehicles, and fallen powerlines;

spot fi res; •

smoky conditions; •

weakened bridges or cattle grids. •

Mineral earth control lines should expose F

mineral earth for the length and width of the control line.

Mopping up is the process of ensuring a F

contained fi re does not reignite or spread.

The depth of mopping up will depend on F

factors such as the size of the bushfi re,type of fuel involved and local topography.

Different fuels need different treatment F

when mopping up.

Safety is paramount – do not relax your F

guard.

Firefi ghters patrolling the perimeter should F

look for anything that could threaten thecontrol line.

Firefi ghters involved in patrolling the F

perimeter must be aware of safety zonesand escape routes.

Notes





Glossary

Adaptor

A fi tting used to couple different sized hoses, hose of the same size with different threads, or different types of couplings, or to connect the male to male, or female to female parts of the same type of coupling.

Adsorption (as it relates to fuel)

The taking up of moisture during the cool, still,humid conditions of night.

Air attack

The direct use of aircraft in the suppression of bushfi re.

Allocated resources

Resources working at an incident.

AMG

Australian Map Grid.

Anchor point

An advantageous location from which a fi reline can be constructed. It is used to minimise thepossibility of being outfl anked by a fi re while the line is being constructed.

Appliance

A fi refi ghting vehicle, usually equipped with a pump and water supply.

Assets

Anything valued by people which includes houses, crops, forests and, in many cases,the environment.

Back (heel or rear)

The section of the perimeter opposite to and usually upwind or down slope from the head of the fi re.

Backburning

A fi re ignited along the inner edge of a control line to consume the fuel in the path of a bushfi re.

Backing fi re

The part of a fi re which is burning back against the wind, where the fl ame height and rate of spread is minimal.

Blacking out

See mopping up.

Branch

A device fi tted to the end of a hose line to allow the water or other extinguishing medium trav ellingthrough the hose to form an effective fi refi ghtingspray or jet.

Breakaway

The points at which a fi re, after it has beencontained, escapes into unburnt areas across afi reline or fi re edge.

Breathing apparatus (BA)

A device that provides the wearer with breathable air that is independent of the surrounding atmos phere. Allows the wearer to operate in atmospheres that would otherwise be toxic such as smoke.

Brigade

A unit of CFA personnel including Offi cers, crews and sub-brigades.

Burning out

The deliberate burning of small patches of unburnt fuel within the fi re perimeter. It can alsomean burning small patches of unburnt fuel between the fi re control line (constructed as part of a parallel attack) and the fi re.



Glossary

Bush

A general term for forest or woodland, but normally used to describe indigenous forest.

Bushfi re

An unplanned fi re. A generic term which includes grass fi res, forest fi res and scrub fi res.

Candle bark

Long streamers of bark that have peeled from some eucalypt species that form fi re brandsconducive to very long distance spotting.

Canopy cover/canopy density

The foliage cover from the crowns of the trees in a forest. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the area of ground covered.

Centrifugal pump

A pump using centrifugal force to increase the pressure of liquid. Centrifugal force causes the liquid to move along the vanes of an impeller thus acquiring kinetic energy. This is trans formed intoenergy at the pump casing.

Chemical chain reaction

This is the fourth dimension of the fi re tetrahedron. In the combustion process, a chemical chain reaction occurs between the fuel and oxygen and is promoted by heat.

Circulation

The transport of oxygenated blood through thearteries, and the return of oxygen-depleted blood through the veins to the heart, where the cycle is renewed.

Class A foam

A fi refi ghting medium produced by adding ClassA concentrate to water and passing it through afoam or spray nozzle.

Combustion

A chemical reaction between the vapours of acombustible material and oxygen. It releases heat, light and/or fl ames.

Competency

Applying skills and knowledge in the workplace toagreed standards.

Conscious

Awake, alert to what is happening.

Contained

A fi re is contained when its spread has beenhalted, but it may still be burning freely within the perimeter or the control lines.

Containment

Operations designed to restrict fi re and stop it spreading to surrounding structures or areas.

Control line (fi re line)

A natural or constructed barrier, or treated fi reedge, used in fi re suppression and prescribed burning to limit the spread of fi re.

Controlled

The time at which the complete perimeter of the fi re is secured and no breakaway is expected.

Convection column

The rising column of smoke, ash, burning embers and other matter generated by a fi re.

Crew

The basic unit of a bushfi re suppression force. It normally consists of two or more personnel.

Crown fi re

A fi re which burns in the tree tops ahead of and above an intense fi re in the undergrowth. A fast-travelling fi re that is most destructive and usually consuming all available fuel in its path.

Dehydration

Excessive loss of water from the body’s tissues. Dehydration may follow any condition in which there is a rapid depletion of body fl uids.

Delivery hose

Hose made of fabric in various diameters and used to transport water under pressure. Delivery hose may not be internally or externally lined with rubber or plastic.



Glossary

Delivery valve

On a pump, the valved outlet through which water is discharged.

Desorption

The loss of moisture to the atmosphere from dead plant material.

Direct attack

A method of bushfi re attack where wet or dry fi refi ghting techniques are used. It involvessupp ression action right on the fi re edge which becomes the control line.

Distribution lines

Overhead conductors supported by wooden or concrete poles and some steel towers that may operate at high voltage (1000 volts to 66,000volts), including SWER lines (12,700 volts) and low voltage (240 volts to 415 volts).

Division

A portion of the fi re perimeter comprising of twoor more sectors. The number of sectors grouped in a Division should be such as to ensure effective direction and control of operations. Divisions are generally identifi ed by a local geographic name.

Dozer

A crawler tractor fi tted with a blade which can betransported to a fi re on a tray truck or trailer.

Drip torch

A canister of fl ammable fuel fi tted with a wand,a burner head and a fuel fl ow control device. It is used for lighting fi res for prescribed burning and backburning.

Dry fi refi ghting

The suppression of a fi re without the use of water. This is normally achieved by removing the fuel by the use of hand tools or machinery.

Eastings

These are lines running north–south (top to bottom) on a map.

Elevated dead fuel

Dead fuel forming part of, or being suspended in,the shrub layer.

Energy

Source of power which may be released in forms such as heat, light and movement.

Escape route

A pre-planned route away from danger areas at a fi re.

Evaporation

To change or cause to change from a liquid or solid state to a vapour.

Fine fuel

Grass, leaves, bark and twigs less than 6 mm in diameter.

Fingers

Narrow slivers of the advancing bushfi re whichextend beyond the head or fl anks.

Fire behaviour

The manner in which a fi re reacts to the variables of fuel, weather and topography.

Fire brand

A piece of burning material, commonly bark from eucalypts.

Fire perimeter

The entire outer boundary of a fi re area.

Fire retardant

A chemical generally mixed with water, designed to retard combustion. It is applied as a slurry fromthe ground or the air.

Fire spread

Development and travel of fi re across surfaces.



Glossary

Fire tetrahedron

An instructional aid in which the sides of the tetrahedron (comprising four triangular shaped fi gures) are used to represent the four components of the combustion and fl ame production process – fuel, heat, oxygen and thechemical chain reaction.

Fire triangle

A fi gure illustrating the three componentsnecessary for a fi re to burn and continue to burn –oxygen, heat and fuel.

Fire whirl

A spinning column of ascending hot air and gasesrising from a fi re and carrying aloft smoke, debris and fl ame. Fire whirls range in size from less than a metre in diameter to small tornados in intensity.

Firebombing

A technique of suppressing a bushfi re by dropping water, foam or retardants on it from an aircraft.

Firefi ghting vehicle

Any vehicle used by fi re agencies to fi ght fi res,regardless of its intended purpose.

Fireline

A natural or constructed barrier, or treated fi reedge, used in fi re suppression and prescribed burning to limit the spread of fi re.

Fixed wing aircraft

An aircraft which obtains lift for fl ight by the forward motion of wings through the air, for example, an aeroplane.

Flame height

The vertical distance between the tip of the fl ameand ground level, excluding higher fl ame fl ashes.

Flammable

Capable of burning with a fl ame

Flammable vapours

The vapours given off by solids and liquids that combine with oxygen and burn if ignited.

Flank attack

Obtaining control of a fi re by attacking its side (fl anks).

Flanks of a fi re

Those parts of a fi re’s perimeter that are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread.

Foam – Class A

A fi refi ghting medium produced by adding ClassA concentrate to water and passing it through afoam or spray nozzle.

Forest fi re

A fi re burning mainly in forest and/or woodland.

Friction loss

Loss of water pressure during the passage of fl uid through a pipe or hose. Loss due to frictiondepends on factors such as the length of thehose or pipe, its diameter, the rate of fl ow and therestrictions, such as corrosion in a pipe or thenumber of bends in a hose.

Fuel

Any material such as grass, leaf litter and livevegetation which can be ignited and sustains fi re.Fuels can be categorised as fi ne or heavy.

Fuel moisture content

The water content of a fuel particle expressed as a percent of the oven dry weight of the fuel particle (%ODW).

Fuel type

An identifi able association of fuel elements of distinctive species, form, size, arrangement or other charact eristics that will cause predictablerate of spread or diffi culty of control under specifi ed weather conditions.

Going fi re

Any fi re expanding in a certain directionor directions.

Grass fi re

A fi re in predominantly grass vegetation.



Glossary

Grid north

The direction along the north–south grid lines ona map.

Ground fi re

A fi re burning in thick layers of humus and vegetation, found in forest or swampy ground or peat.

Hand crew

A fi re suppression crew, trained and equipped tofi ght fi re with hand tools.

Head of the fi re

The part of the fi re where the rate of spread, fl ameheight and intensity are greatest, usually when burning downwind or up slope.

Heat cramps

Common muscular cramps that may occur in theheat, especially when an unfi t person has worked hard and perspired a lot.

Heat exhaustion

A form of shock, due to depletion of body fl uidsresulting from over exposure to a hot environment.

Heat stress

Illness caused by the body overheating.

Heat stroke

A life-threatening condition that develops whenthe body’s temperature-regulating and coolingmechanisms are overwhelmed and body systemsbegin to fail.

Heavy fuels

Dead woody material, greater than 6 mm in diameter, in contact with the soil surface (fallen trees and branches).

Heel (back or rear)


Hose lay

The practice of running out fi refi ghting hose to enable fi re suppression by the applicationof water. May be conducted from a fi refi ghtingvehicle using hose bins and/or hose reels, or theact of bowling out a length of hose that is rolled up (hose on the bight).

Hot spots

Areas of burnt ground that are still hot and could re-ignite.

Ignition

The process of starting combustion.

Incident Action Plan

A statement of objectives and strategies to betaken to control or suppress an incident, and approved by the Incident Controller.

Incident Controller

The individual responsible for the management of all incident operations.

Indirect attack

A fi re control strategy where the fi re is intended tobe brought under control a considerable distanceaway from its current position, but within a defi ned area, bounded by existing or planned fi re control lines. A common method of achieving this is by backburning.

Initial attack

The fi rst suppression work on a fi re.

Junction zone

An area of greatly increased fi re intensity caused by two fi re fronts (or fl anks) burning towardsone another.

Kilopascal

Unit of measurement of pressure.

Kinetic

A form of energy resulting from motion.



Glossary

Knock down

The rapid application and concentration of water or foam, intended to reduce fi re intensity prior to manual follow-up action.

Ladder fuels

Fuels that provide vertical continuity between strata. Fire is able to carry surface fuels into thecrowns of trees with relative ease.

Liquefi ed Petroleum Gas (LPG)

A gas stored under pressure as a liquid,commonly used to fuel cars and around house-hold appliances such as heaters and ovens.

Litter

The top layer of the forest fl oor composed of loose debris of dead sticks, branches, twigs, and recently fallen leaves and needles, little altered in structure by decomposition. (The litter layer of the forest fl oor.)

Magnetic north

The direction to the magnetic north i.e. the direction a compass points to. It moves around the true North Pole.

Map scale

The relationship between a unit of measurement on a map and the equivalent distance on the ground.The scale of a map can be expressed in words(e.g. one centimetre equals one kilometre), graph-ically by the use of a linear scale or scale bar, and in numbers written as a ratio (e.g. 1:100,000) or as a representative fraction (e.g. 1/100,000).

Megapascal

Unit of pressure (1 megapascal = 1000 kilopascals).

Mineral earth

A term used to describe the ideal condition of aconstructed fi rebreak, being completely free of any vegetation or other combustible material.

Mopping up (blacking out)

Making a fi re safe after it has been controlled, by extinguishing or removing burning material along or near the fi reline, felling stags, trenching logs toprevent rolling, and the like.

Northings

These are lines of a map running west–east (left to right) on a map.

Nozzle

A fi tting at the end of a hose line used to control the volume of water and/or pattern of the discharge of water or extinguishing medium.

Objective

A goal statement of what is to be achieved.

Operations Offi cer

The Offi cer responsible for directing and supervising all work on the fi reground under the direction of the Incident Controller.

Oxygen

Colourless, odourless gas, making up about onefi fth of the air volume of the atmosphere. It is thesupporter of combustion in the air.

Parallel attack

A method of suppression in which a fi reline is constructed approximately parallel to and just far enough from the fi re edge to enable fi refi ghters and equipment to work effectively. The line may be shortened by cutting across unburnt fi ngers.The intervening strip of unburnt fuel is normally burnt out as the control line proceeds, but may beallowed to burn out unassisted where this occurswithout undue delay or threat to the line.

Patrol

(a) To travel over a given route to prevent, detect and suppress a fi re.

(b) To go back and forth vigilantly over the length of a control line during and/or after construction, to prevent breakaways, to control spot fi res and extinguish overlooked hot spots.

(c) A person or group of persons who carry out patrol activities.

Perimeter

The entire outer boundary of a fi re area.



Glossary

Point of origin

The area where the fi re started.

Priming the pump

Removing air from a main pump casing and suction hose line so that atmospheric pressurecan force water from a static water supply up thehose into the pump.

Rakehoe (McLeod tool)

A hand tool used for bushfi re fi refi ghting,consisting of a combination of a heavy rake and hoe.

Rate of spread

The forward progress per time unit of the head fi reor another specifi ed part of the fi re perimeter. The key variables affecting rate of spread are the type, arrangement and quantity of fuel, the dead fuel moisture content,wind speed at the fi re front, the width of the fi re and the slope of the ground.

Rear (heel or back)


Red Flag Warning

A warning issued when there is a signifi cant change to any critical information that may adversely affect the safety of personnel at an incident.

Relative humidity (% RH)

The amount of water vapour in a given volume of air, expressed as a percentage of the maximumwater vapour the air can hold at that temperature.

Representative fraction

See map scale.

Retardant

Chemicals mixed with water to inhibit combustion.

Ribbon bark/Candle bark

Long streamers of bark that have peeled from some eucalypt species that form fi re brands conducive to very long distance spotting.

Rotary wing aircraft

Aircraft which obtain lift for fl ight by the rotation of rotors through the air i.e. helicopters.

Safe

The stage of fi re suppression or prescribed burning when it is considered that no further suppression action or patrols are necessary.

Safety zone

An area cleared of fl ammable materials used for escape if the line is outfl anked or in case a spot fi re outside the control line renders the lineunsafe. In fi re operations, crews progress so as to maintain a safety zone close at hand, allowingthe fuels inside the control line to be consumed before going ahead. Safety zones may alsobe constructed as integral parts of fuelbreaks.They are greatly enlarged areas which can be used with relative safety by fi re fi ghters and their equipment in the event of a blow up in the vicinity.

Sector

A portion of the fi re perimeter under the control of a Sector Commander who is supervising anumber of crews.

Situation report (SITREP)

Brief situation report of fi re, usually given at regular intervals.

Spot fi re

Isolated fi res started ahead of the main fi re by sparks, embers or other ignited material, sometimes to a distance of several kilometres.

Spotting

The ignition of spot fi res from sparks or embers.

Stag

A large, old tree either dead or with signifi cant dead upper branches. Often hollow with anopening at ground level. Once alight, a stag represents a major hazard.



Glossary

Standard operating procedures

A set of organisational directives that establish a standard course of action on the fi reground to increase the effectiveness of the fi refi ghting team. They are written, offi cial, applied to all situations, enforced and integrated into the agency’smanagement of incidents.

Static water supply

A dam, lake, river, creek, pool or tank.

Strategy

A statement detailing how an objective is to be achieved.

Structural fi refi ghting

Fires that occur in structures or buildings.

Suction hose

Hose, made in various diameters, of reinforced rubber or plastic, used to draft water from a staticsupply i.e. ponds, dams, creeks, tanks or rivers.

Sunburn

Injury to the skin, including redness of the skin, tend erness, and sometimes blistering, following excessive exposure to unfi ltered ultraviolet rays produced by sunlight.

Surface fi re

A fi re which travels just above ground surface ingrass, low shrub, leaves and forest litter.

SWER lines

Single wire earth return: a single conductor on poles usually run in rural areas at high voltage (12,700 volts).

Synthetic

Man-made, not natural.

Tactics

The tasking of personnel and resources toimplement the incident strategies. Incident control tactics are accomplished in accordance with appropriate agency procedures and safety directives. Tactics are normally determined at Division/Sector level with a corres ponding allocation of resources and personnel.

Task

A job given to any fi refi ghting force or unit.

Topographical map

A map that shows contours, mountains, valleys, patterns of rivers and all other natural and man-made features on the landscape.

Topography

The surface features of a particular area or region.It may include mountains, rivers, populated areas, roads, railways and vegetation.

Transmission lines

Overhead conductors generally supported by steel towers that may operate at extra high voltage(66,000 volts to 500,000 volts).

True north

The direction to the North Pole.

Unconscious

Not conscious, unaware of what is happening.

Volute

A part of the casing in a centrifugal pump, shaped like the shell of a snail where the water exitsthe pump.

Water hammer (shock)

The shock caused by opening and shutting off a hydrant, pump delivery or controlled branchtoo quickly.

Wetting agent

A chemical added in low concentration to water. It is used in fi refi ghting to break down the surfacetension of water and improve its penetration into fuels.



Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviation Meaning

AAR After Action Review

BEST Bureau of Emergency Services Telecommunications

BOM Bureau of Meteorology

CIIPSCool fuel, Insolate fuel, Insulate fuel, Penetrate fuel, Smothers combution.

CIS Critical Incident Stress

CISM Critical Incident Stress Management

DMO District Mechanical Offi cer (CFA)

DRA Dynamic Risk Assessment

FGP Fire Ground Practice (CFA)

HQ headquarters

hrs hours

IAP Incident Action Plan

IC Incident Controller

ICC Incident Control Centre

IMT Incident Management Team

kPa kilopascal

LACESLookout, Awareness, Communication, Escape Routes, SafetyZones

m metre

mm millimetre

OH&S Occupational health and safety

OIC Offi cer-in-Charge

PPC Personal protective clothing

PPE Personal protective equipment



Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviation Meaning

PTT Push to talk

RF Radio frequency

ROPS Roll over protection system

SMEACSBriefi ng format; Situation, Mission, Execution, Administration and logistics, Command and communication, Safety.

SMR State Mobile Radio

SO Chief Offi cer’s Standing Order (CFA)

SOP Chief Offi cer’s Standing Operating Procedure

SPA Safe Person Approach

SPADRA Safe Person Approach Dynamic Risk Assessment

SPF Sun protection factor

VHF Very high frequency

WATCHOUTWeather, Actions, Try out, Communicate, Hazards, Observe, Understand, Think.

Notes



S A F E T Y F I R S TS A F E T Y F I R S T

Rm Bushfire Firefighter Edn1 Feb11

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Transcript of Rm Bushfire Firefighter Edn1 Feb11