Risk Reduction: Measures and Investments - hvtc.edu.vn · PDF filethe design and...

65 Strong, Safe, and Resilient • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9805-0

This chapter was written by Henrike Brecht with input from Zuzana Stanton-Geddes.

Key Messages for Policy Makers

• Investinprevention:Risingexposuredoesnothavetoautomaticallytranslateintoincreasingrisksifpreventivemeasuresandapproachesareembeddedinthedesignandconstructiondevelopmentinvestmentsexposedtodisasterrisks.

• Riskreductionisnotadepartmentthatcanstandalone:Itsmultidisciplinarynaturerequiresdisasterriskmanagement(DRM)effortstobemainstreamedintosectorsatrisk,andcoordinatedbyahigh-levelministrytoenforceandmonitorimplementation.

• The balance between engineered and nonstructural solutions is crucial:InstitutionalarrangementsthatfacilitateDRMintegrationacrosssectors,land-useregulations,enablingpolicies,betterecosystemmanagement,riskawareness, and a stronger focus on social protection and community-driven development programs are equally important as investments inrisk-reducinginfrastructure.

• Nonstructuralmeasurescanbehighlycost-effective:Thesealsooftenrepre-sentano-regretflexibleapproachtoreducingandmanagingdisasterrisk.

Where Are We Now?

In rapidly urbanizing East Asia and the Pacific, disaster risks are increasingly an outcome of development processes. Unfortunately, too often urban land-useplans and risk reduction strategies are developed in isolation of one another.Developmentprogramsdonotnecessarilyreducevulnerabilitytonaturalhaz-ards.Instead,theyoftenunwittinglycreatenewformsofvulnerabilityorexacer-bateexistingones, sometimeswithtragicconsequences, forexample, throughbuilding in hazard-prone zones or failing to apply disaster-resilient building

Risk Reduction: Measures and Investments

C h A P t e r 4

66 Risk Reduction: Measures and Investments

Strong, Safe, and Resilient • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-9805-0

codes.MuchofthecurrentdevelopmentpracticeandprogramminginEastAsiaandthePacificfailstoaddressriskreduction.Asaresult,naturalstructures,forinstance,wetlands,mangroves,dunes,andfloodplains,thatformnaturalbuffersbetweenpeopleandnaturearebeingeliminatedinthequestforgrowth,leavingpeopleandassetshighlyexposedtodisasters(box4.1).

Most national disaster systems in East Asia and the Pacific are still reactive in their actions, with the majority of disaster spending allocated after instead of before a disaster occurs.Oftenlinkedtoskewedincentivesandoverrelianceonpost-disasteraid,thisattitudeposesaseriouschallengeformainstreamingdisas-ter risk reduction into urban, social, economic, environmental planning, anddevelopment.InmostcountriesinEastAsiaandthePacific,riskreductionisnotaddressedthroughoutsectoralframeworksandinstitutionalstructures,countrystrategies,andpoliciesandinthedesignofprojects.Arangeoffactorshindereffectivemainstreaming, includingweakengagementbythedevelopmentsec-tors,limitedauthorityofcurrentnationaldisastermanagementorganizationstorequiresectorstoincluderiskreductionmeasures,weaklegalframeworksandpolicies,lackoffunding,anddifficultiesinimplementationandaccountability,assummarizedinchapter2.

Countries traditionally rely on engineered solutions that can become obso-lete in the context of rapid urban growth and climate change uncertainties.Despiteprogressintakingabalancedapproachtodisasterprevention,govern-mentsinEastAsiaandthePacificstillhavethetendencytoconcentrateonhardwaresolutions,neglectingpolicies,planning,andinstitutionstoachievecost-effective,efficient,andparticipatoryriskreduction.Inthecaseofflood-ing,forinstance,physicalflooddefensescanaddressonlyanelementoftheissueatstake.Insteadoffirstassumingthatmoreembankmentsandpipesarethe answer, a more holistic environmental approach could be considered,includingoptionssuchaswetlandsrestoration.Justasimportantisthewill-ingnesstopreservenaturalcapitalandrelocateorlimiturbanandindustrialexpansionawayfromhigh-riskland,suchaslow-lyingcoastalzones.Asacity

Box 4.1 Building in harm’s Way

An example for rapid development in vulnerable locations is the Ayutthaya Province in Thailand, where industrial parks expanded on former swamps that used to yield good quality rice precisely because of regular flooding. The 2011 floods overwhelmed the six-meter-high levees built to protect these estates. As a result 891 factories in industrial estates that employed about 460,000 people were closed. The country-wide fatality count in the country exceeded 800, and a World Bank study estimated the total losses at US$46 billion. Insured losses were estimated to reach US$12 billion—the highest number on record for a single flood event, according to Swiss Re.

Sources: Thai Industrial Estate and Strategic Partners Association and World Bank 2012d.

Risk Reduction: Measures and Investments 67


develops, large-scale engineered solutions such as floodprotection schemescanfacechallengesevenbeforetheyarecompleted(seetable4.1forspecificsectors).ThiswasthecaseinHoChiMinhCity,Vietnam’srapidlygrowingcommercial center built in a low-lying flood area. The 2001 Master Planintendedtomitigatefloodingthroughimproveddrainagebuthadtocontendwithhigher-than-expected increases inpeak rainfall before individualmea-sureswereimplemented.

table 4.1 Sectors Where Inertia (Lock-Ins) and Sensitivity to Climate Change Are Great

Sector ExampleTime scale

(years)

Water Dams, reservoirs 30–200

Land-use planning Mew development in flood plains or coastal areas >100

Coastal and flood defenses Dikes, sea walls >50

Building and housing Insulation, windows 30–150

Transportation Port infrastructure, bridges, roads, railways 30–200

Urbanism Urban density, parks >100Energy production Coal-fired plants 20–70

Source: Hallegatte 2009 in World Bank 2012c.

Where Do We Want to Be?

“Anticipate and prevent” instead of “wait and see.”Asdescribedinchapter1,governments inEastAsia and thePacifichavemadeadvances in theareasofstrengthening capacities, institutional systems, and legislation, particularly toaddressshortcomingsintheareasofdisasterpreparednessandresponse.Effectivedisaster prevention relies on a shift away from traditional disaster responsetowardmultisectoralriskreductioncooperationwithstakeholdersacrossdiffer-ent government levels as well as the private sector and communities at risk.Disastersshouldnotbeconsideredasinevitable,temporarydisruptions,whichcanbemanagedreactivelyand irregularly throughhumanitarianresponseandreconstruction,butratheraseventsthatrequireamoreproactiveapproachthatreducesthecostsofhazardsbeforedisasterevents.Thisshiftrequiresastronginvestmentinnationalcapacitiesforgovernmentstoleadandimplementcom-prehensiveriskreductionagendasandtocoordinatebetweenministriesanddif-ferentstakeholders.

Disaster-prone areas can reap large benefits from risk reduction measures.Disasters in21countries inAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericahavedamagedordestroyed63,667 schools since1989. Forty-sixpercent of these schoolsweredamagedordestroyedinfrequentlyoccurringdisastersratherthaninoccasionaland large catastrophes (UN 2011). This large amount of damage leads to anunacceptablelossofchildren’sandteachers’lives,extensivelossesingovernmentbudgets,andareductionofenrollmentrates.Investinginearlywarningsystems,for example, is a preparedness measure that pays off. In some countries, theenhancement of early warning systems has led to striking results in reducing



mortalityrisk,suchasinHongKongSAR,China(UN2011).Buildingresilientcritical infrastructure, in particular safe schools, is a risk reduction priority.Becauseitisnotcost-effectivetoretrofitallschoolsatrisk,prioritizationmeth-odsareappliedthatshowthehighestcost-benefitratios.Constructionstandardsandbuildingcodesneedtomatchthelevelofrisk.Seebox4.2forfurtherinfor-mationaboutcountry-wideearthquakemanagementprogramandappendixEforanactionplanforbuildingearthquakeresilience.

Making decisions on the choice of measures, risk assessments, and cost-ben-efit analyses helps to define a pragmatic mix of instruments depending on a country’s capacity and available funds (see also chapter 2). The cost-benefitanalysis calculates where maximum gains in risk reduction can be made andincludestheidentificationofascenariowithandwithoutriskreductioninterven-tion,quantificationoftheimpactsinbothscenarios,andcalculationofthecostsandbenefitsoverthelifetimeofagiveninvestment.Measuresthatbringbenefitsundera rangeof scenariosare importantwhendealingwithdisaster risksanduncertaintiesrelatedtorapidurbanization,growthpatterns,orclimatechangeimpacts.Arobustdecision-makingprocesscanhelpcountriesdetermine low-regretstrategiesthatarecost-effectiveinthelongrun.Box4.3illustrateshowVietnam is dealing with risk and uncertainties in Ho Chi Minh City. Thisapproachunderlines thatdisaster riskmanagement is an iterativeprocess; the

Box 4.2 What Countries in east Asia and the Pacific Can Do to Prepare for the Next Big earthquake

History, observations of damage after strong earthquakes, and engineering assessments and analyses all find that the following public buildings and infrastructure and their key nonstruc-tural features and equipment are highly vulnerable and should or could be addressed first:

• Schools, hospitals, and critical government buildings, such as firehouses and police sta-tions and other buildings needed for emergency response.

• Public infrastructure, including key highways and bridges, airports, electric power genera-tion and distribution systems, water and wastewater systems, and telecommunications systems.

Country-wide earthquake risk management programs involve risk assessments, followed by multiphased risk reduction programs that can take from a few years to decades to com-plete. Such programs have been successfully carried out in several countries. The programs typically consist of three phases:

1. risk audit of a specific sector, such as public schools. This should be a quick study based on experience and very limited engineering analyses.

2. Detailed risk assessment, including cost-benefit analysis for the particular sector.3. Implementation, that is, reducing the risk through strengthening and renovation of the

structures and bracing their important equipment and nonstructural components.

Source: World Bank 2010. See also Appendix E.



decisions taken today should allow countries to adapt, should conditions andneedschange.

A blend of hard and soft measures is critical to reduce risk because structural measures can prove unsustainable under large hydrological, land subsidence, and urbanization uncertainties. Hard or gray measures include, for example,investments in infrastructure, from levees and dams to retrofitting of criticalbuildings.Floodcontrolreservoirs,forinstance,collectwaterintimesofheavyrainfallandthenreleaseitslowlyoverthecourseofalongertimeperiod.Softmeasuresincludeinstitutionalarrangements,land-useregulations,publiceduca-tion,socialprotectionandcommunity-drivendevelopment,andDRMinterven-tions,aswellas theprovisionofeconomic incentives topromotea risk-basedapproachtodevelopment.Delineatingfloodzonesinland-useplansandissuingpoliciestorestrictdevelopmentinthesezonesisanexampleofasoftmeasure.Morecountriesaretakingabalancedapproach,withtheNetherlandsbeingoneoftheforerunners.TheDutchRoomfortheRiverprogrammovesdikesinlandanddeepensriverbedsonalargescaletocreatemorespaceforaquaticsystems.InEastAsia and thePacific,Vietnam is takingamorebalancedapproachbyrestoringitscoastline,whereasinJakartaandManila,floodmitigationplansarelookingatintegratingnonstructuralmeasuresintotheirstrategies.Similarly,fol-lowingthegreateastJapanearthquakeandtsunami,thegovernmentofJapanisactivelypromotingabalancedstrategy.

Shifting from engineered infrastructure (gray) solutions to a balance of gray and green defense mechanisms has shown to be effective in terms of outcomes and saving costs. Greeninfrastructuremeasuressuchasraingar-dens, bioswales, permeable pavements, and urban green spaces provideco-benefits in the form of improved streetscapes, provision of local jobs,reductionoftheheatislandeffect,andimprovedairquality,amongothers.However,codesandregulationsstillneedtobemodifiedtoallowtheuseof

Box 4.3 Dealing with Uncertainties: experience from ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

As a city develops, large-scale flood protection schemes often face new challenges even before they are completed, as, for example, in Ho Chi Minh City, where the 2001 Master Plan to mitigate flooding through improved drainage had to contend with higher than expected increases in peak rainfall. Currently the Ho Chi Minh City Steering Center of Urban Flood Con-trol is preparing an Integrated the Flood Management Strategy to synchronize the existing master plans regarding the storm sewer system, flood control system, and space development through 2025 and to adapt Ho Chi Minh City to climate change. These efforts are also a response to increases in precipitation and tide levels observed over the last decade already exceeding those projected. Unanticipated changes raise concerns that the original plans may not manage flooding in the city and could even make it worse in some areas. The strategy will be decided through a robust decision support system framework.

Source: World Bank 2012b.



green infrastructure in lieu of traditional gray methods. Over time, as theapproaches are used on a larger scale and in different areas of the world,moreinformationshouldbegatheredtodeterminewhetherthesemeasuresarerobustandperformadequatelyinthelongterm.Guidelinescanthenbedevelopedtoinformtheuseofgreeninfrastructuremethodsandenabletheirapplication tobe scaledupwhereappropriate.Box4.4offersexamplesofcitiesthatadoptedagreeninfrastructureapproach.

Box 4.4 Cities’ experience with a Green Infrastructure

In New York City, modeling showed that a green strategy will reduce more storm water volumes at significantly less cost to New Yorkers than the all-gray strategy previously con-templated (figure B4.4.1). The green infrastructure option builds on the cost-effective gray infrastructure but also includes investments such as stream buffer restoration, green roofs, and bioswales, whereas the gray solution concentrates solely on human-engineered tanks,

Figure B4.4.1 New York City-wide Costs of Combined Sewer Overflow Control Scenarios after 20 Years

Source: Adapted from City of New York 2010.

Green strategy

Cost-e�ective gray investmentGreen infrastructure: public investment

Green infrastructure: private investmentPotential tanks, tunnels, and expansions

Optimize existing system

Cost

(US$

, bill

ions

in 2

010

dolla

rs)

$0

$1.0

$2.0

$3.0

$4.0

$5.0

$6.0

$7.0

$2.9

$1.5

$2.9

$6.8

$0.9

$2.4

$5.3$0.03

Gray strategy

$3.9

box continues next page



tunnels, and storm drains. Cost savings with the green infrastructure plan total more than US$1.5 billion (City of New York 2010).

In Seattle, residents are reimbursed for installing “rain gardens,” which are designed using native plants and special soil to reduce rainwater runoff, instead of allowing infiltration into the ground. Storage of rainwater for future use in watering lawns and gardens is also encouraged.

In Chicago, permeable pavement and “cool” pavement are being used in alleys to increase urban rainwater infiltration and decrease the heat island effect from conventional paving material.

In enkoping, Sweden, phyto-remediation has been used to treat sewage by pumping sludge onto 190 acres of coppiced willow trees. These trees filter out the pollutants in the sewage, and, when harvested, the willows are used as biofuel to generate electricity.

Sources: Authors and City of New York 2010.

Box 4.4 Cities’ experience with a Green Infrastructure (continued)

Using existing social protection and community-driven development inter-ventions canbeparticularly effective, especially for smaller scaledisasterpre-paredness investments. Including DRM elements into social protection andcommunity-drivendevelopmentprograms,describedindetailinchapter2,hasthepotentialof substantiallyreducingdisasterresponsecostsbydrawingonapreexistingnetworkofcaseworkersandcommunityfacilitatorsandonalreadyfunctioningsystemstodeliversupporttohouseholds.Thesetypesofapproachesareconsistentlycost-effective(becausetheyareabletosaveoncontractors’prof-its).InthePhilippinescostsavingsrangedfrom8percentforschoolbuildingsto76 percent for water supply investments when compared with traditionallyimplementedinfrastructure(AraralandHolmemo2007).

What Needs to Be Done?

Although no single disaster reduction model works for all and strategies will vary across countries, measures exist that have been proven to be solutions with high cost-benefit ratios.Externalassistancecanprovidefinancingintheformoflendingandgrants.Itcanalsohelptoderiveinnovativestrategies,forexample,through panels of highly respected experts who can advise on the best waysforward.Instrumentsthatareusefulfordecisionmakersincluderiskmaps,eco-nomiccost-benefitanalysis,impactevaluations,andclimateforecasts.Asmen-tionedinchapter2,partnershipshaveprovencriticalforsuccessfulriskreductioninitiatives. Strong coordination and collaboration between different levels ofgovernmentareespeciallyimportantbecausetheyallowforlocalstrengthswhileacknowledgingthatlocalgovernmenthavelimitedresources.

1. Get the balance in financing right.Theportionofthedisasterbudgetspentonreliefandrepairoftenbyfaroutweighsthefractionspentonprevention.



Thisholdstrueforbothgovernmentanddonorspending.TheU.S.federalgovernment,forexample,spentUS$3.05billionondisasterresponseversusjustUS$195millionondisasterpreventionannually from1985 to2004(Healy and Malhotra 2009). Yet the level of government preparednessgreatlydeterminestheextentofsufferingandloss.Costsforpreventioncanbereducedthroughaddressingriskfactorsearlyon,developingparticipa-torycommunityapproaches,andcombiningitwithregularinfrastructuredevelopment.Forexample,schoolbuildingsandotherpublicinfrastructureinhazardousareascanbebuilttocyclonenormssothattheycanbeusedasshelters.

2. Minimize the consequences of poor or unplanned urbanization by bridging risk reduction and urban planning through the right balance of structural and nonstructural measures.Governmentscanminimizelossesbyfactoringriskreduction intodevelopment. Integratingdisaster risk reduction is especiallyimportantinkeyeconomicsectorsandinsectorsthathavethehighestlossesduetodisasters.Gettingtherightbalancebetweeninfrastructureinvestmentsandnonstructuralmeasuresmayincludeastrongerfocusonimprovinginsti-tutionalarrangements,regulationsandcoordination,sharingriskinformation(see chapter 3), and investing in systems, including social protection andcommunity-drivendevelopmentprograms,thatcanallowarapidoutreachtohouseholdsandcommunities(seechapter2).Strengtheninghazardforecastandhydrometservicesisano-regretinvestmentwithahighcost-benefitratio(seeWorldBank2012a,andchapter5).Restoringnaturalecosystemscanalsobemorecost-effective thanengineered solutions.TheWorldBank flagshipreportonfloodriskmanagementcanhelpcountriesinEastAsiaandthePacificinselectingandimplementingtherightchoiceofmeasureswhendealingwiththechallengeofurbanflooding(box4.5).

3. Enforce multisectoral responsibilities and strong central coordination. Thedepartment in charge of response and relief many times is ill-equipped toprovide guidance onmitigationmeasures and investments.Tomainstreamdisasterriskreductionintosectorsandlineministries,threefundamentalstepsareneeded:First,sectoralriskassessmentsneedtobedeveloped.Forexample,in the transport sector, this would translate to mapping vulnerable roadstretches.Second,technicalguidelinestoaddresstheidentifiedvulnerabilitiesmustbespecified.Thisincludes,forexample,relocationofroadstohigherground, largerculverts,andbioengineeringsolutions for slopestabilization.And,third,awarenessraisingandtrainingisneededforalllevelsofgovern-mentbutalso,forinstance,forroadengineersandconstructionworkers.Toenforceandmonitortheimplementationofriskreductioninitiatives,ahigh-level ministry will need to provide the coordinating guidance, overarchingpolicies,andmonitoringmechanismsacrossgovernment.Somecountriesmayrequiretwodifferenttypesofagencies—ahigh-levelcoordinatingagencyfor



policymainstreaming,andadedicateddisasterresponseagencythatcanfallwithinanappropriateministry.

4. Consider disaster and climate change risks within a robust decision-making process.Althoughrapidgrowthofassetsandpeopleinhazardousareasisthesinglebiggestdriverofrisk(IPCC2012),impactsofclimatechangecanmate-rializeinthefuturethroughincreasingvariabilityandextremeevents.Goodclimatechangeadaptation(CCA)startswitheffectiveDRM.Asafirststep,integrationofDRMandCCAinstitutionsisneededincountrieswhereinsti-tutionalduplicationthreatenseffectivenessofaction.Intermsofprocesses,arobustapproachtodecisionmaking,consideringchangingenvironmentsandclimateuncertainties,canhelpinidentifyingalow-regretDRMstrategy.

how Can the World Bank help?

Including risk reduction into development that can help minimize disaster losses.InEastAsiaandthePacific,theWorldBankissupportingarangeofpreventiveactivities,suchashelpingIndonesiaandthePhilippinestoiden-tifythemostcriticalschoolsandretrofitthem.InCanThoandJakarta,theBuilding Urban Resilience Program, funded by the AusAID East Asia

Box 4.5 Guiding Principles for Integrated Urban Flood risk Management

1. Every flood risk scenario is different; there is no flood management blueprint. 2. Designs for flood management must be able to cope with a changing and uncertain

future. 3. Rapid urbanization requires the integration of flood risk management into regular urban

planning and governance. 4. An integrated strategy requires the use of both structural and nonstructural measures and

good metrics for “getting the balance right.” 5. Heavily engineered structural measures can transfer risk upstream and downstream. 6. It is impossible to entirely eliminate the risk from flooding. 7. Many flood management measures have multiple co-benefits over and above their flood

management role. 8. It is important to consider the wider social and ecological consequences of flood manage-

ment spending. 9. Clarity of responsibility for constructing and running flood risk programs is critical.10. Implementing flood risk management measures requires multistakeholder cooperation. 11. Continuous communication to raise awareness and reinforce preparedness is necessary. 12. Plan to recover quickly after flooding and use the recovery to build capacity.

Source: World Bank 2012b.



Infrastructure Growth Fund, is helping to increase the resilience of urbaninfrastructure through city-level investments. Many current infrastructureinvestmentsautomaticallybuildindisasterriskreduction.Forexample,theWestern Indonesia National Roads Improvement Project and the VietnamSecond Northern Mountains Poverty Reduction Project have componentsthat build in resilience against disasters. Strengthening forecast and earlywarningsystemsisano-regretmeasurewithatraditionallyhighcost-benefitratio(seealsochapter5).

Integrating disaster risk reduction, which is especially important in key eco-nomic sectors at risk and in sectors that have the highest losses due to disasters.TheWorldBank is supportinggovernments tomainstreamrisk reduction intoinvestments.ForexampleintheLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,forkeysec-tors,includingagriculture,transport,andurbanplanning,sectoralriskassessmentsare being conducted, identifying critical infrastructures at high risk. Based ontheseassessments,newguidelinesandspecificationsaredevelopedtomakepub-licinvestmentsresilientfromdisasters.Althoughthisoftenrequiresslightlyhigherupfront investment, cost-benefit analyses of life-cycle costs can determine thereturn rate for these investments. Government staff and engineers are beingtrainedinthenewguidelines,andthemechanismisinstitutionalizedbyincorpo-ratingitintoministerialbusinessprocesses.Inareasatrisk,itismorecost-effectivetostrengthenexistingschoolbuildingsthantoentirelyrebuildthem.TheWorldBankisalsosupportingIndonesiaandthePhilippinestoidentifythemostcriticalschoolsandretrofitthem.

Helping to implement the right balance between structural and nonstructural measures. Restoringnatureiscost-effectivebecauseofthemultiplebenefitsandlong-lastingeffects(See,forexample,Dedeurwaerdere1998;KayandWilderspin2002;Tidwell2005;Wells,Ravilious,andCorcoran2006).Mangroveforests,forexample,supportfisheriesbyprovidingbreedinggrounds,theylessentheimpactoftoxicsubstancesinwaterandsoil,andtheyserveasabufferagainstfloodsandtyphoons. The World Bank’s Vietnam Coastal Wetlands Protection Projectplanted370milliontreesalong460kilometersofcoast.Byprojectclose,erosionhadbeenreducedbyasmuchas40percent,andtheareaofcoastlineaccretionhadincreasedby20percent.Box4.5showsaselectionofopportunitiesonhowtoreducerisk.

Promoting risk-sensitive land-use planning and resettlement.Afterthe2006earthquakeandthe2010volcaniceruptioninYogyakarta,Indonesia,thegovern-ments and communities considered the reconstruction as an opportunity torebuildsafer settlements.Resettlementwasofferedtopopulationsat riskasalast-resort measure—when risks could not be sufficiently mitigated throughothermeans.Thecommunitiesunderwentaconsensus-buildingprocessinvolv-ing all stakeholders (community, nongovernmental organization, government,privatesector,traditionalleaders).Theywereeducatedabouttherisksandgiventheoptionofdifferentresettlementschemes.Resettlementwasnotmandatorybutremainedvoluntaryforthecommunities.



Sharing risk information among stakeholders to strengthen collective resil-ience. TheWorldBankandGlobalFacilityforDisasterReductionandRecovery(GFDRR)havebeen supportingat-riskcountries to reduce their risk throughcutting-edgelending,technicalassistance,andknowledgeproducts.ExamplesoftheWorldBank’sstrategicworkaredescribedinchapter3andincludedevelop-ingopen-sourceriskassessmentplatforms,makingsectoralinvestmentstoolsforriskreduction,andusingland-useplanningtoreducerisks.Riskassessmentsareimportantdisasterandclimate-riskmanagementtoolsforidentifyingrisk,quan-tifyingthepotentialimpacts,andprioritizingmitigationmeasures.Anexampleisthe Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative (PCRAFI),illustratedinbox3.3.Opentoallusers,thePCRAFIdatacaninformgovernmentanddonorprojectsrelatedtomacroeconomicplanning,disasterriskfinancing,urbaninvestments,infrastructureplanning,andrapidpost-disasterdamageesti-mation.Theseapproachesandtoolsareadaptabletootherregionsoftheworld.

Supporting DRM and CCA synergies through investments. The Bank’sapproach to small capacity-constrained states, such as Kiribati, Papua NewGuinea,theSolomonIslands,andVanuatu,carefullybalancescommunityresilientinvestmentprogramswithbuildingDRMandCCAinstitutionsatnationalandsubnationallevels.Learningfrompastexperiencewhenhighlyfragmentedinvest-ments couldnotdemonstrate significant results, this approach is basedon theprinciplesof(1)integratingDRMandCCAunderthebannerofresilientdevelop-ment,(2)poolingoffundingtoavoidoverstretchingalreadystretchedinstitutions,(3)demonstratingactionontheground,and(4)buildingtheabsorptivecapacityofPacificislandcountriestoaccommodateincreasedfutureclimatefinancing.

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CityofNewYork.2010.NYC Green Infrastructure Plan: A Sustainable Strategy for Clean Waterways.NewYork.

Dedeurwaerdere,A.1998.“Cost-BenefitAnalysisforNaturalDisasterManagement:ACase-StudyinthePhilippines.”CentreforResearchontheEpidemiologyofDisasterWorkingPaper143,UniversitéCatholiquedeLouvain,Louvain-La-Neuve,Belgium.

Hallegatte, S. 2009. “Strategies to Adapt to an Uncertain Climate Change.” Global Environmental Change19(2):240–47.

Healy,A.,andN.Malhotra.2009.“CitizenCompetenceandGovernmentAccountability:Voter Responses to Natural Disaster Relief and Preparedness Spending.” http://myweb.lmu.edu/ahealy/papers/healy_prevention_070808.pdf.

IPCC. 2012. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation.SpecialReportofWorkingGroupsIandIIoftheIntergovern-mentalPanelonClimateChange.EditedbyC.B.Field,V.Barros,T.F.Stocker,D.Qin,



D.J.Dokken,K.L.Ebi,M.D.Mastrandrea,K.J.Mach,G.-K.Plattner,S.K.Allen,M.Tignor,andP.M.Midgley.Cambridge,U.K.:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Kay,R.,andI.Wilderspin.2002.“Box4.4:MangrovePlantingSavesLivesandMoneyinVietnam.”InWorld Disaster Report Focus on Reducing Risk,95.Geneva:InternationalFederationofRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties(IFRCRCS).http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/WDR/32600-WDR2002.pdf.

Tidwell,M.2005.“Goodbye,NewOrleans:It’sTimeWeStoppedPretending.”AlerNetonlineArticle5,December2005.AccessedSeptember2012.

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Wells,S.,C.Ravilious,andE.Corcoran.2006.In the Front Line: Shoreline Protection and Other Ecosystem Services from Mangroves and Coral Reefs.Cambridge,U.K.:UNEPAWorldConservationMonitoringCentre.

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———. 2012a. “A Cost-Effective Solution to Reduce Disaster Losses in DevelopingCountries: Hydro-meteorological Services, Early Warning, and Evacuation.” PolicyResearchWorkingPaper6058,WorldBank,Washington,DC.

———.2012b.Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century,byA.Jha,R.Bloch,andJ.Lamond.Washington,DC:WorldBank.http://www.gfdrr.org/gfdrr/urbanfloods.

———. 2012c. Inclusive Green Growth: The Pathway to Sustainable Development.Washington,DC:WorldBank.

———. 2012d. Thai Flood 2011: Rapid Assessment Report for Resilient Recovery and Reconstruction.Thailand:WorldBank.

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