RIO+20 POLICY BRIEF #4: Biodiversity and ecosystems for a planet under pressure 1

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We share this planet with millions of other species and varieties of life, and depend on ecosystems for all our basic needs. While current trends in biodiversity and ecosystem services are sharply and dangerously negative, the right actions, developed and implemented promptly, can restore a biologically rich and ecologically viable planet. This policy brief sets out the main challenges facing the world as we seek to protect and enhance our vital biodiversity and its human benefits. In addition, we suggest pathways that will lead us towards a more sustainable future.

Rio+20 Policy BriefsOne of nine policy briefs produced by the scientific community to inform the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20). These briefs were commissioned by the international conference Planet Under Pressure: New Knowledge Towards Solutions (www.planetunderpressure2012.net).

RIO+20 POLICY BRIEF #4Biodiversity and ecosystems for a planet under pressureTransition to sustainability: interconnected challenges and solutions

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Summary of key points and policy recommendations

zz Incorporatezthezmultiplezvalueszofzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszintozpolicyzandzmanagementzdecisions.

zz zCreatezgreenzeconomieszbasedzonz‘inclusivezwealth’,zwhichzincludeszallzformszofzcapitalz–znatural,zsocialzandzhumanzaszwellzaszfinancialzandzmanufacturedz–zandzinzwhichzintergenerationalzwellbeingzincreaseszoverztime.

zz zIncorporatezbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszintozwater-zandzland-usezplanningzatzallzscaleszfromzlocalztozglobal,zincludingzbothzprotectedzareaszandzproductionzlandscapeszandzseascapes.

zz zImplementzpolicieszandzpracticeszthatzreducezinequitieszinzaccessztozthezbenefitszderivedzfromzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservices,zandzensurezthatzthosezwhozbearzthezcostzofztheirzprovisionzarezfairlyzcompensated.

zz zRestructurezecosystemzgovernancezandzmanagementztozrecognizezthatzecosystemsztranscendzpoliticalzboundaries.

zz zDevelopzglobalzgovernancezinstitutionszthatzworkzinzpartnershipzwithznationalzinstitutions,zlocalzorganizationszandzthezprivatezsector,ztozaddresszglobal-scalezdriverszofzbiodiversityzchange.

zz zImplementzthezStrategiczPlanzforzBiodiversityz2011–2020zandzthezAichizTargetszatzallzscales.

RIO+20 POLICY BRIEF #4: Biodiversity and ecosystems for a planet under pressure 3

THE BIODIVERSITY CHALLENGE“Biodiversity underpins and mediates many benefits that people obtain

from ecosystems – protecting, restoring and sustainably managing ecosystems is thus crucial to a better future”

T hezbenefitszprovidedzbyzecosystems,zwhichzincludezthezmyriadzofzfunctionszcarriedzoutzbyzwater,zairzandzsoil,zarezessentialzforzhumanzlivesz

andzlivelihoods.zBiodiversityz–zthezvarietyzofzcharacteristicszinzplants,zanimalszandzotherzorganisms,ztheirzabundancezandztheirzinteractionszinzthezworld’szterrestrialzandzaquaticzecosystemsz–zunderpinszandzmediateszthezsustainedzdeliveryz

ofzthesezecosystemzbenefits.zForzthesezreasons,zecosystemszmustzbezprotected,zrestoredzwherezdamaged,zandzmanagedzsustainably.z

Humanzpressurezonzbiodiversityztodayziszunprecedented.zDespitezglobalzcommitmentsztozreducezthezimpactszofzhumanzactivitieszonzthezplanet’szecosystems,zthezlosszofzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszcontinueszand,zinzsomezcases,zisz

accelerating.zThiszrapidzdeterioration,zexperiencedzatzallzscaleszfromzlocalztozglobal,zrepresentszazsignificantzandzirreversiblezlosszofzourzheritagezandzcurtailszoptionszforzfuturezgenerations.zAcceleratedzlosszofzbiodiversityziszlikelyztozcontinuezunlesszthezmainzdriverszofzchange,zwhichzincludezclimatezchange,zlandzusezchangezaszwellzaszincreasingzdemandszonzecosystems,zarezmitigatedzsubstantially.

Towards a sustainable development pathwayRecentzattemptsztozreducezthezratezofzlosszofzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszindicatezthat,zwhilezmanyzactionszandzinterventionszcanzreverseztheztrend,zmostzhavezsozfarzfailedztozstemzthiszloss.zTwozthemeszproposedzbyzthezRio+20zSummitzarezcriticalztozdefiningzazsustainablezdevelopmentzpathwayzthatzsecureszazreasonablezstandardzofzlivingzforzthezglobalzpopulationzwhilezpreservingzourzecosystemszandzresources:z

1.z Thezneedztozmoveztozanzeconomiczmodelzthatzreflectszthezthreezpillarszofzsustainability:zsocial,zenvironmentalzandzeconomic.zThiszapproach,zknownzaszthezgreen economyzmodel,zvalueszecosystemzservicesz–zbothzmonetaryzandznon-monetaryz–zappropriatelyzandzrecognizesznaturalzresourcezconstraintszbyzallocatingzthezcostszofz‘externalities’z(i.e.zthezcostszofzactionszcurrentlyznotztransmittedzthroughzprices,zsuchzaszpollution)zcorrectly.zThezgreenzeconomyzrepresentszmuchzmorezthanzjustzazfocuszonzlesszharmfulztechnologies;zitzrepresentszazcomprehensivezapproachztowardszazviablezandzdesirablezfuturezforzall.z

2.z Thezneedzfor institutions and governance systems thatzcanzguidezandzsupportzthezprotectionzandzsustainablezmanagementzofzbiodiversityzandzecosystems,zandzthezequitablezflowszofzthezbenefitsztheyzprovideztozpeoplezeverywhere.zThesezinstitutionszmustzbezableztozcopezwithzchangeszinzecosystems,zsteerzawayzfromzabruptzchangezinzecosystemzfunction,zandzprovidezazbufferzfromzthezmostzdetrimentalzconsequenceszofzunavoidablezchanges.z

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ISSUES OF MAJOR CONCERNGlobalzextinctionsTheztargetzsetzbyzworldzleaderszatzthezWorldzSummitzonzSustainablezDevelopmentzinz2002ztozhaltzthezdeclinezofzbiodiversityzbyzthezendzofz2010zhasznotzbeenzachieved.zAboutzonezthirdzofzthezmorezthanz50,000zspecieszonzthezInternationalzUnionzforzConservationzofzNaturez(IUCN)zRedzListzremainzthreatenedztozsomezdegreez(seezFigurez1).zTraditionalzvarietieszofzcrops,zvegetableszandzdomesticzanimalszarezalsozdisappearingzfast.

HomogenizationzofzbiotazandzlandscapesInzadditionztozazreductionzinztheztotalznumberzofzspecieszandzgeneticzvarietieszonzthezplanet,zthezremainingzlivingzsystemszarezincreasinglyzbecomingzdominatedzbyzazfewzveryzsuccessfulzspecies.zDiversezandzlocallyzadaptedzspecieszandzecologicalzcommunitieszarez

beingzreplacedzbyzmuchzlesszdiversezmanagedzcroplandszandzplantationszaszwellzaszbyzdepleted,zsimplifiedzandzoftenzpollutedzaquaticzecosystems.zSuchz‘bioticzhomogenization’ziszatzleastzaszimportantzaszglobalzextinctionszinzreducingzthezsecurityzofzthezbenefitszpeoplezderivezfromzecosystems,zfromzthezprovisionzofzfoodztozculturalzvalues.z

LosszofzresilienceIncreasingzevidencezsuggestszthatzchangesztozecosystemszlimitztheirzabilityztozregulatezenvironmentalzfluctuationszandzchange.zExtremezeventszsuchzaszfloods,zfires,zdiseasezoutbreakszandzstormzsurgeszarezlesszbufferedzaszazresult,zincreasingzthezvulnerabilityzofzecosystemszandzpeopleztozdisasterszandzdelayingztheirzrecoveryzfromzdisturbances.z

ExceedingzcriticalzthresholdsDeclineszinzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservicesztendztozbez

unexpected,zabruptzcollapseszthatzarezmorezlikelyztozoccurzoncezaztippingzpointzhaszbeenzpassed.zExampleszofzsuchz‘regimezshifts’zincludezbushzencroachmentzandzdesertificationzinzAfrica,zcoralzbleachingzinzAsiazandzsalinizedzrangelandszinzAustralia.z

Furthermore,zcoastalzareaszworldwidezarezbecomingzaffectedzbyzexcessiveznutrientzloadszoriginatingzmostzfrequentlyzfromzagriculture,zsewagezandzindustrialzwastez(Figurez2).zThesezcausezvastzalgalzbloomszandzcreatezoxygen-depletedzzoneszwherezfishzandzotherzmarinezorganismszcanznozlongerzsurvive.zFuturezriskszincludezforestzdiebackzinzthezAmazonzbasinzandzwidespreadzcollapsezofzcoralzreefszbecausezofzoceanzacidification.zReversingzchangeszlikeztheseziszatzbest,zveryzslowzandzexpensivezandzatzworst,zimpossible.zThereziszanzurgentzneedztozactznowzbeforezsuchzthresholdszarezreached.z

Figurez1.zSpecieszandzecosystemszarezdecliningzfast.zRecentztrendszinztheznumberzofzthreatenedzspecieszinzdifferentzanimalzandzplantzgroupsz(left)zandzinzthezareazoccupiedzbyztwozkeyzecosystemsz(right).zSources:zButchartzetzal.z(2010)zandzIUCNzRedzListz(2011);zseezalsozSecretariatzofzthezConventionzonzBiologicalzDiversityz(2010).

1996/98z 2000z 2002z 2003z 2004z 2006z 2007z 2008z 2009z 2010z 2011

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8,000

6,000

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1970z 1980z 1990z 2000z 2010

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RIO+20 POLICY BRIEF #4: Biodiversity and ecosystems for a planet under pressure 5

Figurez2.zBeyondztheztippingzpoint?zOxygenzdepletionzinzcoastalzmarinezecosystems.zDocumentedzhypoxicz(oxygen-depleted)zzones,znowzmorezthanz500zinzthezworld,zarezdoublingzeveryzyear,zcausingzfishzmortality.zAlthoughzitzcanzoccurznaturally,zhypoxiaziszmostzfrequentlyzcausedzbyzeutrophication,zi.e.,zthezoverloadingzofzwaterszwithznutrients,zespeciallyznitrogen,zphosphorouszandzsiliconzand/orzorganiczmatter.zMajorzsourceszofzthisznutrientzpollutionzarezagriculturezandzlivestockzproduction,zsewagezandzindustrialzwaste,zpluszadditionalzcomplexztemperaturezandzwaterzexchangezimpactszfromzclimatezchange.zNutrientzeffectszonzwaterzoxygenzlevelszarezexacerbatedzwhenzlocalzwaterzbodieszbecomezstratifiedzandzmixingzofzlayersziszprevented.zThezmapzshowszthezlocationzofzsystemszthatzremainzhypoxicz(redzcircles),zsystemszthatzarezeutrophiczandzthereforezatzriskzofzbecomingzhypoxicz(yellowzcircles),zandzsystemszthatzhavezrecoveredzfromzhypoxiaz(greenzcircles),zprimarilyzthroughzreductionzofznutrientzloads.zSources:zRabalaiszetzal.z(2010),zDiazzandzSelmanz(2010),zSTAPz(2011a);zMapzfromzwww.wri.org/project/eutrophication/gallery/maps.

ADDRESSING ROOT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSTY LOSS

B iodiversityzconservationzmustzbezexpandedztoztacklezthezrootzcauseszofzloss,zwhilezatzthezsameztimezmeetingzsocietalzneeds.zThiszhasz

beenzrecognizedzexplicitlyzinztheznewzStrategiczPlanzforzBiodiversityz2011–2020zagreedzuponzatzthez10thzConferencezofzthezPartiesztozthezConventionzonzBiologicalzDiversityz(CBD)zinzNagoyazinz2010z(seezwww.cbd.int/sp).zThesezrootzcauseszarezcomplexzandzincludezsocial,zeconomiczandzinstitutionalzfactors.zWithinzthezframeworkzofzthezeconomiczandzinstitutionalzreformszproposedzbyzthezRioz+20zSummitz(seezboxzonz

pagez3),zwezrecommendzfourzpriorityzareasztozstemzbiodiversityzlosszwhilezsupportingzsustainablezandzfairzdevelopment.z

PRIORITYzAREAz1z–zIncorporatezthezmultiplezvalueszofzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszintozpolicyzandzmanagementzdecisionszGlobalzeconomiczsystems,zmarketszandzpolicyzdecisionszdoznotzcurrentlyzreflectzactualzcostszandzbenefits.zConventionalzmacroeconomiczmodelszconsiderzecosystemszandzbiodiversityzaszinexhaustiblez

resourceszwithzwhichztozcreatezwealth;ztheyzfailztozreflectzfullyzanyzchangeszinztheirzcapacityztozdozso.zInzcontrast,zthezgreenerzeconomieszofzthezfuturezwillzneedztozbezbasedzonzthezconceptzofz‘inclusivezwealth’.zThiszincludeszallzformszofzcapitalz–znaturalz(land,zwater,zsoil,zbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservices),zsocialz(institutionszandzsocialznetworks)zandzhumanz(education,zhealthzandzskills),zaszwellzaszfinancialzandzmanufacturedzcapitalz–zandzaimsztozimprovezhumanzwellbeingzbyzbuilding,zmaintainingzandzvaluingzthemzall.zBecausezmanyzofzthezecologicalzprocesseszthatzunderpinzthezprovisionzofzgoodsz

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essentialzforzhumanzexistencezarezpoorlyzunderstood,zorzsimplyznotzamenableztozeconomiczvaluation,ztheirzvalueziszunderestimatedzbyzpolicymakers,zpractitionerszandzthezgeneralzpublic,zandznotzconsideredzinzpolicyzandzdecision-makingzanalyses.zTakingzthemzintozaccountzinzmorezinclusivezmetricszofzhumanzprogressziszazmajorzchallenge.

Inzaztrulyzgreenzeconomy,zintergenerationalzwellbeing,zaszmeasuredzbyzinclusivezwealth,zwouldzincreasezoverztime.zSomezcountrieszarezexperimentingzwithzadjustedzsystemszofznationalzaccounts,zinzwhichzdecreaseszinznaturalzresourcezstockszandzincreaseszinzpollutionzarezsubtractedzfrom,zratherzthanzaddedzto,zthezwealthzofztheznation.zRecentzmovesztozreplaceztraditionalzindiceszofzprogressz(e.g.,zgrosszdomesticzproductzorzGDP)zwithzmeasureszofzsocieties’zoverallzwellbeingz(suchzaszinclusivezwealth)zappearzpromising.z

PRIORITYzAREAz2z–zIncorporatezbiodiversityzzandzecosystemzserviceszintozland-usezplanningIndustrial,zhigh-inputzagriculture,zforestry,zaquaculturezandzfishingzarezradicallyztransformingzecosystemszatzthezexpensezofzsuchzecosystemzserviceszaszfreshwaterzsupply,zsoilzqualityzandzclimatezregulation.zIntensivezcommercialzproductionzreduceszthezdiversityzofzcultivatedzorzdomesticatedzspecieszandzvarieties,znarrowingzfuturezchoiceszandzdecreasingzfoodzsecurity.zAtzthezsameztime,zdestructivezfishingzandzaquaculturezpracticeszarezseverelyzdamagingzoceanzecosystems.z

Morezeffectivezandzintegratedzland-zandzocean-usezplanningziszessentialzforzsustainability,zbutzreconcilingzlocalzandzglobalzneedszandzvalueszposesztechnical,zsocioeconomiczandz

moralzdifficulties.zPlanningztoolszmustzincludezmultiplezcriteriazandztargets.zForzthisztozbezpossible,zwezneedzimprovedzinformationzonzthezspatialzdistributionzofzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzbenefits,zandzbetterzunderstandingzofzthezecologicalzconsequenceszofzvariouszlandzandzoceanzuses.z

Integratedzplanningzapproacheszatzglobalzscalezmustzbezaccompaniedzbyzthezpromotionzofzbehaviouralzchangeszthatzleadztozazshiftzinzconsumptionzpatternszandzazreductionzinztheztotalzamountzofzlandzandzwaterzneededzforzthezproductionzofzfood,zfuelzandzfibrez(e.g.,zlifestyleszbasedzonzlowerzenergyzconsumptionzandzdietszbasedzlesszonzmeatzinzaffluentzsocietieszorzsectors).zBiodiversityzandzecosystemzconsiderationszmustzbezincorporatedzintozproductionzsystemszatzthezlocalzscale,zanzadequatezsystemzofzprotectedzareaszmustzbezestablishedzregionally,zandzthezunderlyingzdriverszofzbiodiversityzlosszmustzbeztargetedzglobally.z

PRIORITYzAREAz3z–zImplementzpolicieszandzpracticeszthatzreducezinequitieszinzaccessztozthezbenefitszderivedzfromzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservices,zandzensurezthatzthosezwhozbearzthezcostzofztheirzprovisionzarezfairlyzcompensatedzMorezaffluentznationszorzsocialzgroupszplacezlargerzdemandszonzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservices.zThesezdemandszarezoftenzmetzfromzdistantzsources,zorzbyzexceedingzlocalzsustainablezsupply.zAszazresult,zecosystemszarezimpoverishedzorzalteredzinzwayszthatzreducezthezlong-termzsupplyzofzbenefits.zWhilezallzpeoplezsufferzfromzbiodiversityzandzecosystemzservicezdeclines,zthezmostzaffectedzgroupsz–zinzmostzcasesz

thezpoorz–zareznotznecessarilyzthosezthatzdrivezthezdemand.zEconomiczandzinstitutionalzframeworkszthatzfailztoztakezintozaccountzthezequitablezdistributionzofzbenefits,zincludingzthosezofzfuturezgenerations,zwillzonlyzperpetuatezthesezinequitieszandzthereforezcannotzbezsustainable.

Azmorezjustzdistributionzofzbenefitszrequireszgoodzpolicieszbasedzonzsufficientzandzopenlyzavailablezinformationzaboutzwhere,zwhenzandztozwhomzecosystemszprovidezbenefits,zandzhowzchangeszinzecosystemszaffectzthesezbenefitzflows.zApproacheszthatzcompensatezthosezprovidingzservicesztozremotezuserszshowzsomezpromise,zespeciallyzinzthezcasezofzwaterzandzcarbonzpayments.zForzexample,zpaymentzforzwatershedzserviceszandzwater-qualityztradingzprogrammeszalreadyzinvolvezsomez3.24zbillionzhectareszglobally.zSimilarly,zcreatingzresourcezgovernancezinstitutionszthatzgivezgroupszthatzarezdependentzonzparticularzbenefitszazsayzinzhowzthosezbenefitszarezmanagedzwillzprovidezincentiveszforzbetterzstewardship.z

Twozconditionszarezcriticalzforzthezsuccesszofzpaymentszforzecosystemzserviceszandzsimilarzschemes.zFirstly,ztheyzmustzbezcarefullyzdesignedztozproduceznetzpositivezenvironmentalzimpactsz(e.g.ztozreducezdeforestation).zSecondly,zfairzandzequitablezcompensationzneedsztozbezensured.zAchievingzbothzwillzrequirezinnovativezinstitutionalzframeworks.z

PRIORITYzAREAz4z–zFindzznewzandzbetterzwaysztozgovernzecosystemsThereziszoftenzazmismatchzbetweenzecosystemszandzgovernancezstructures.zSpecies,zwater,znutrientszandzpollutantszmove,zandzecosystemzprocessesztakezplacezirrespectivezofznationalzboundaries.zYetzthezgovernancezarrangementszthatz

RIO+20 POLICY BRIEF #4: Biodiversity and ecosystems for a planet under pressure 7

affectzbiodiversityzandzecosystemsztypicallyzhavezpoliticalzjurisdictions.zManyzdriverszofzbiodiversityzchangezoperatezatzthezinternationalzscale,zandzthereforezfallzoutsidezthezfullzcontrolzofzthezaffectedzareas,zmakingzintegratedzmanagementzdifficult.zMarinezsystemszarezazgoodzexample,zsincezthereziszazlackzofzgovernancezforzareaszoutsideznationalzexclusivezeconomiczzones,zandzfishzstockszcanzstraddlezcountries’zjurisdictions.z

Thesezgovernancezchallengeszarezfurtherzcomplicatedzbyzthezacceleratedzandzincreasinglyzfar-reachingzexchangezofzmaterials,zorganismszandzinformationzamongzdistantzlocations.zOnezsoberingzexamplezofzthisziszthezaccumulationzofz

plasticszandztheirzchemicalztoxinszinzthezworld’szoceans.z

Inzmanyzpartszofzthezworld,zbiodiversityzconservationziszbeingzembeddedzmorezcomprehensivelyzinzandzacrosszmanagementzsectors.zInzsomezcaseszadministrativezboundarieszhavezbeenzreconfiguredztozmatchzbiophysicalzones.zExampleszincludezaligningzwaterzmanagementzareaszwithzthezhydrologicalzsystemszthatzprovidezthezwater,zaligningzecosystemzprocesseszwithzadministrativezrealities,zandzidentifyingzbiodiversityzpriorityzareas.zCooperationzbetweenzcountrieszinzthezmanagementzofzsharedzecosystemsziszmorezchallenging.zNevertheless,ztransboundaryzconservationzareasz

T hezMillenniumzEcosystemzAssessmentzemphasizedzthatzifzthezglobalzcommunityzcontinueszonzitszcurrentzpath,zthezdeclineszinzbiodiversityz

andzecosystemzbenefitszwillzimpedezfuturezeffortsztowardszsustainablezdevelopmentzandzpovertyzreduction.zThezrecentzGlobalzBiodiversityzOutlookz3zshowszthatzifzwezdoznotzstemzthesezdeclineszwezriskzpassingztippingzpointszthatzcouldzseriouslyzcompromisezhumanzwellbeing.zHowever,zbothzsourceszhighlightzthezfactzthatzdifferent,zmorezsustainablezdevelopmentzpathszarezpossible.zThezconceptszofzazgreenzeconomyzandzaz

CONCLUSIONS“...if the global community

continues on its current path, the declines in

biodiversity and ecosystem benefits will impede future efforts towards sustainable development and poverty

reduction.”

globalzenvironmentalzgovernancezsystemzalignszwellzwithzthesezpositivezscenarios.zAgainstzthiszbackground,zthez193zPartiesztozthezCBDzrecentlyzadoptedzazStrategiczPlanzforzBiodiversityz2011–2020zforzimplementationzbyzthezentirezUnitedzNationszsystemz(notzonlyzbiodiversity-relatedzconventions),zwhichzincludesztargetszthatzaddresszmanyzofzthezchallengeszoutlinedzhere.z

Itziszimperativezthatzwezfocuszourzeffortszonzthezkeyzpriorityzareasz

havezshownzpromisezinzAfrica,zthezAmericaszandzEurope.

Globalzgovernancezinstitutions,zworkingzinzpartnershipzwithznationalzinstitutions,zlocalzorganizationszandzthezprivatezsector,zarezessentialztozaddresszthezinternational-scalezphenomenazthatzarezamongzthezlargestzdriverszofzbiodiversityzloss.zForzinstance,zmechanismszsuchzaszReducingzEmissionszfromzDeforestationzandzForestzDegradationz(REDD+,zazUnitedzNationszcollaborativezscheme)zandzthezInternationalzSeafoodzSustainabilityzFoundationz(azcoalitionzofzfishzcanningzcompanies,zconservationzgroupszandzscientists)zappearzpromising,zalthoughznumerouszuncertaintieszmustzbezovercome.z

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outlinedzabovezandzintegratezbiodiversityzandzecosystemzserviceszintozeconomiczmeasureszaszwellzaszpolicyzandzdevelopmentzplanning.zWezmustzalsozrestructurezthezwayzthatzecosystemszarezmanaged,ztozaccountzforztheirzexistencezbeyondznationalzandzinternationalzborders.zIfzthiszcanzbezachieved,zwezwillzbezmuchzbetterzpositionedztozdevelopzanzequitablezeconomyzembeddedzwithinzsustainablezsocialzandzecologicalzsystems,zandztozcreatezthezglobalzinstitutionszthatzmakezthiszpossible.

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References and further readingArrow,zK.zetzal.z2004.zJournal of Economic Perspectivesz18:z147–172.z

Brussaard,zL.zetzal.z2010.zCurrent Opinion in Environmental Sustainabilityz2:z34–42.

Butchart,zS.H.M.zetzal.z2010.zSciencez328:z1164–1168.

Carpenter,zS.R.zetzal.z2009.zProceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesz106:z1305–1312.

Diaz,zR.zandzSelman,zM.z2010.zzwww.wri.org/project/eutrophication/gallery/maps

Díaz,zS.zetzal.z2006.zPLoS Biolz4:ze277.zdoi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040277

Duraiappah,zA.zetzal.z2005.zEcosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.zAvailablezatzwww.maweb.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf

Haberl,zH.zetzal.z2007.zProceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesz104:z12942–12947.

IUCN.z2011.zIUCNzRed List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1.zhttp://www..iucnredlist.org.

Lambin,zE.F.zandzMeyfroidt,zP.z2011.zProceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesz108:z3465–3472.

Leadley,zP.W.zetzal.z2010.zBiodiversity Scenarios: Projections of 21st century change in biodiversity and associated ecosystem services.zCBDzTechnicalzSeriesz50.zAvailablezat:zhttp://gbo3.cbd.int/home.aspx

López-Hoffman,zL.zetzal.z2010.zFrontiers in Ecology and the Environmentz8:z84–91.

Mace,zG.M.zetzal.z2010.zCurrent Opinion in Environmental Sustainabilityz2:z3–8.

MillenniumzEcosystemzAssessment,z2005.zSynthesis Report.zAvailablezatzwww.maweb.org/en/Global.aspx

ThezScientificzCommitteezofzDIVERSITASzandzthezUnitedzNationszScientificzandzTechnicalzAdvisoryzPanelztozthezGlobalzEnvironmentalzFacilityz(STAP),zwithzthezcollaborationzofzthezGlobalzEnvironmentalzFacilityzSecretariatz(GEF)zandzthezSecretariatzofzthezConventionzonzBiologicalzDiversityz(CBD).

Authors:zSandrazDíaz,zBelindazReyers,zThomaszBergendorff,zLijbertzBrussaard,zDavidzCooper,zWolfgangzCramer,zAnanthazDuraiappah,zThomaszElmqvist,zDanielzP.zFaith,zGustavozFonseca,zThomaszHammond,zLouisezE.zJackson,zCorneliazKrug,zAnnezLarigauderie,zPaulzW.zLeadley,zPhilippezLezPrestre,zMarkzLonsdale,zThomaszE.zLovejoy,zGeorginazM.zMace,zHiroyukizMatsuda,zHaroldzA.zMooney,zAnne-HélènezPrieur-Richard,zMirjamzPulleman,zEugenezA.zRosa,zRobertzJ.zScholes,zEvazSpehn,zBilliezL.zTurnerzII,zMerylzJ.zWilliams,zTetsukazuzYahara.

Editing,zdesignzandzlayout:zGreenzInk,zUKz(www.greenink.co.uk)

Compiled by:Pereira,zH.M.,zLeadley,zP.W.,zetzal.z2010.zSciencez330:z1496-1501.

Rabalais,zN.N.,zetzal.,z2010.zBiogeosciencesz7:z585–619.

SecretariatzofzthezConventionzonzBiologicalzDiversity,z2010.zGlobal Biodiversity Outlook 3.zAvailablezatzhttp://gbo3.cbd.int/home.aspx

SecretariatzofzthezConventionzonzBiologicalzDiversity,z2011.zBiodiversity and livelihoods – REDD-plus benefits.zAvailablezatzwww.cbd.int/forest/redd

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