RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR · under mountain terrains. The irrigated area is over 0.32 m ha. The...
Transcript of RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR · under mountain terrains. The irrigated area is over 0.32 m ha. The...
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Status Paper on Rice in Jammu and Kashmir
S.Najeeb, A.B.Shikari and G. A. Parray*
*Associate Director ResearchSK University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-J),
Chatha, Jammu-180 009, INDIA
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
I. Jammu and Kashmir
II. Introduction
Jammu and Kashmir is the sixth largest State in India and covers a geographical area of about 2,
22,236 square kilometres with varied topographical features. The state has approximately one
per cent of country’s population, with 15 lakh families. Agriculture is an important occupation,
because 73% of population resides in rural areas and 70% of the total workers are directly or
indirectly involved in cultivation, contributing 20.59% of state’s GDP(Anonymous,2014).
Agriculture is the main source of income for thousands of families with 1.14 m ha of cultivated
land covering just 0.05% of total geographical area for the reason that major percentage of it is
under mountain terrains. The irrigated area is over 0.32 m ha. The small and marginal farmers
constitute significant percentage (~90%) of farming households and just 20% of the farmers hold
0.5-1.0 ha land.
III. Climate and edaphic features
The state is spread over a wide altitude ranging from 200 to 7000 m amsl including mountainous
landscape. The temperature remains generally low during winter in Kashmir and mercury can go
down to -10°C and rises to 34°C during summer with mean annual temperature of 12.5°C. In
Jammu region the temperature generally ranges between 6°C (winter) to 46°C (summer). The
climate is typically temperate in Kashmir valley and some upper reaches of Jammu Division,
whileas, subtropical to intermediate kind of climate is generally found in Jammu division. The
climate of Ladakh region is cold arid and is unique of its kind and temperature in winter months
can go down to 400C below zero. There is a wide variability in the annual precipitation which
ranges between 80-1500 mm. It is less than 80 mm in Ladakh and more than 1400 mm in some
parts of Jammu region; however, in Kashmir region average annual occurrence of precipitation is
680-750 mm including snowfall during the winter months. So far as edaphic factors are
concerned alluvial, mountain, meadow, podzolic and brown soils are generally found in the state
however, soils vary in their texture from clayey to clayey loam generally found in Kashmir valley
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
whereas, soils in Jammu are by and large clayey loam to sandy loam in texture and in contrast to
these regions soils in Ladakh region are generally sandy to sandy loam in texture.
Agriculture in Kashmir has always been an exceptionally important aspect of people’s lives,
straddling as it does even today, in the highland and lowland zones (Hangloo, 2008). For
centuries agriculture in the valley has been characterized by subsistence farming, primitive
techniques, and low yields. The grave demand for food had always been the guiding principle of
the agriculture of the valley and most of the land was devoted to food grain production,
nevertheless food deficits could not be exterminated and, in many areas, recurrent starvation
and famines were of common occurrence. Multitude of socio-political and environmental
factors have been found guiding principles for agriculture development in Kashmir (Majid,
2003).
Kashmir had remained an abode to a large number of crops, both kharif and rabi, which made it
more inward looking as by and large all needs were met within the region, however, due to
certain climatic restrictions the cultivation has remained limited to only a few crops like rice and
maize that were sown on a large scale and in some isolated pockets wheat was also grown as a
means of food security. Rice being the staple food of the inhabitants of the valley is still the
principal crop cultivated in Kashmir (Hangloo, 1995). It has been cultivated mostly in the flat
areas of the valley with alluvial soil and assured irrigation facilities (Lawrence, 2002). Rice being
the major crop is grown on about 0.261 m ha which comprises of 25% of total area under food
crops of the state and represents just 0.0006% of total rice area in India.
IV. Rice crop distribution
Rice cultivation is an integral component of rich cultural heritage of the state. The crop is grown
on 100% irrigated ecology in Kashmir valley and melting snow is the source of irrigation. The
crop is grown in all districts of Kashmir valley on an area of 0.159 m ha. Rice in the state is grown
across diverse agroecological conditions ranging from subtropical zone of Jammu (> 200m amsl)
to temperate high altitudes region of Kashmir (2300 m amsl) spread between 30.4oN to 34.38 0
N latitude and 74.00E to 75.25oE longitude. Of the total area of 261.35 thousand ha under rice in
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the state, 137 thousand ha (55%) are cultivated in Kashmir and being a staple food of the valley,
it is a primary source of calories in people’s diet compared to wheat and maize. This ranks next
to none with respect to production (5.59 lakh tons) and productivity of 2.2 t/ha (Anonymous,
2011a). The area and production for the last six decades has increased by 33% and 126%,
respectively, whereas the productivity during the corresponding period has increased by 90%
(Fig. 1). The state has an estimated annual requirement of 11 lakh tons of rice against current
production of just 5.5 lakh tons. The short falls are met through imports from the neighbouring
states.
Rice grown ecology of Kashmir valley can broadly be divided into four distinct zones: Plain or
valley basin area (1500-1700 m amsl) that enjoys relatively favourable growing conditions in
terms of water, edaphic and climatic factors. Early maturing indicas, with satisfactory levels of
cold tolerance are the predominant rice varieties grown in this zone. The growing period is
limited to 140-145 days and double cropping is in vogue and usually rice-oilseeds/rice-fodder
oats cropping systems are in common practice. Mountain agroecology (high altitude region)
situated between 2000 to 2300 m amsl in foot hills, constitutes 10-12% of total rice cultivated
area of the valley is characterized by short growing season, low atmospheric temperature, cold
irrigation water and insufficient solar radiation. The favourable growing period is restricted to
120-125 days. The rice varieties cultivated in this area belong to japonica group and double
cropping is usually not found as uncertain climate leaves no scope for second crop. The
population in this region usually are living in a harsher climate which frequently remains cut off
during winter months. This renders the food and nutritional security of the people quite
precarious. Therefore the main focus of development in this region has been to improve the
household and food security for livelihood security through enhanced productivity. In between
the two agroecologies lies the intermediate agroecological zone (1900-2000 m amsl) where an
amalgam of both sub-species can be found. It receives relatively better environment than high
altitude region but enjoys poor growing conditions when compared to the situation prevailing in
the plain basins of the Kashmir valley. It is worth mentioning that most of the landraces are
native to and flourish better in this particular zone and farmers are selling the milled rice of
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
these indigenous landraces at premium price in the local market. The fourth zone is the entirely
water logged area; a conventional rice grown ecology and encompasses more than 25 thousand
ha, although relatively favourable growing ecology for rice but leaves no scope for second crop
like oilseed and fodder oat because of very poor drainage system.
Fig. 1. Trends in area production and productivity of rice in Jammu and Kashmir State
V. Brief glimpses of rice facts in Kashmir valley
In fact up to the late nineteenth and even early twentieth century all rice lands were sown using
the broadcast method (locally called wotur) (Hangloo, 2008) and there were two main methods
for preparing the soil, namely, Tao and Kenlu. Under the Tao system the soil was made
absolutely dry to eliminate moisture before sowing the seeds and according to the Kenlu (wet)
method the field was allowed to remain wet (Lawrence, 2000). For sprouting of seeds people
were using earthen containers (locally called Lopun) and within 40 days after seeding 2-3 hand
weedings were being followed, besides, thinning and gap filling. In Kashmir during weeding
farmers used to paint their legs and arms with resins of pine to avoid the injuries caused by
water borne insects. Husking was done manually in large pestle made up of sculptured stone
(locally called Kanzz) and a wooden mortar (Muhul). This was adding lot of drudgery and
discomfort in the rice farming community however, with the passage of time water driven
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motors became popular for milling. It would not be an exaggeration to say that upto the
beginning of the 2nd half of the 20th century, agriculture in Kashmir continued to be practiced
on traditional lines and the state had been deficient in food grains even in politically and
climatically normal years (Hangloo, 2008).
Before the dawn of green revolution rice cultivation in the state was highly labour intensive,
harsh and with meagre returns. More than 100 local rice landraces of japonica types have been
documented from the valley. Kashmir’s traditional crop varieties have had evolved over several
centuries under the tremendous pressure of droughts, floods and severe cold stresses. These
varieties continued to be used by the peasants, almost unmodified, till the very end of the Dogra
rule. These were early maturing, highly adaptable, cold tolerant but with hard threshability
besides, low yielding and susceptible to one or other kind of stresses. During favourable years
for paddy blast farmers were usually setting standing crop on fire as it was neither fit to harvest
the grain nor for its straw value to feed to cattle. A local basmati was also grown in some
pockets which was relatively a better yielder and was fetching good price in the local market and
unfortunately has completely disappeared.
The importance of distribution of the quality seeds for agricultural production was recognised in
India for the first time in the year 1926, through the establishment of the Royal Agriculture
Commission but, sincere efforts on systematic basis towards the development of improved
seeds in the J&K state were taken only after the end of the Dogra rule with the establishment of
‘National Seed Corporation’ (Massodi, 2003). In 1949, under the guidance of the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) the state government launched the ‘Rice Research Scheme’
primarily with the objectives
1. To evolve suitable high yielding types of improved quality of paddy
2. Introduction of foreign varieties both Indian and exotic;
3. Hybridization to evolve suitable strains of paddy which would do well both in the plains
and on hills (Anonymous, 1950).
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Rice has always been grown as irrigated crop in Kashmir valley. No inorganic fertilizer and
herbicide was used to raise the crop till 1960’s. The soil care was always taken into consideration
and the fertility was restored through FYM and silt rich in humus obtained from de-silting of
drains and streams. There were always the apprehensions of food scarcity. The reason behind
was low production and productivity of local rice varieties, besides, high restriction on imports
together with low connectivity and inaccessibility because of the geographical location of
Kashmir valley. Since the direct seeding was in vogue, it was not leaving any scope for second
crop and thus had restricted the farmer to monocropping. Only a few landraces such as Ahmad
Zagri, Lul Anzul, Bhegum etc. were accommodating double cropping because of their extra early
maturing character. The rice production in Kashmir, on the eve of 1947 was entirely traditional
in nature, subsistence farming was still in vogue and farmers were quite ignorant about the
scientific methods of cultivation. The use of chemical fertilizers was almost non-existent and
inferior quality seeds continued to be used on a very large scale. The technological
backwardness of the crop had a lot to do with the ‘status of production’ existing in the valley.
The use of inorganic fertilizers was introduced in the state during the First Five Year Plan (1951-
56), but upto the end of the first three Five Year Plans the use of chemical fertilizers was low,
because the cultivators were slow to use them. This was because of the fact that the use of
chemical fertilizers by the cultivator besides other things, was subject to the availability of easy
credit which, however, was not available to him (Gupta and Singh, 1979) and the myth that
inorganic fertilizers will ruin up his soil. The use of chemical fertilizers had a promising start after
mid-sixties with the introduction of new agricultural strategy also referred to as Seed-Water-
Fertilizer technology as most of the new varieties required supplementary inputs in the form of
synthetic fertilizers and assured irrigation in order to attain potential yields (Frankis,1988).
With the advent of new technologies in late 1960s and 1970s particularly the introduction and
acclimatization of indica varieties from China such as China 1039, China 1007, China 988, China
972 etc. became highly popular throughout the valley due to their faster adaptation under
temperate Kashmir conditions and adoption due to better performance. These lines possessed
the better yielding, early maturing, easy threshing and good cooking quality characteristics
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which were long awaited and highly preferable traits from rice growers of Kashmir. Besides,
these varieties possessed other qualitative and quantitative aspect of the straw to meet out
other household needs such as stall feeding of live stock during harsh winter and covering the
roofs of their houses and above all, suitable for making straw mat still used as furnishing of
house and as off-farm income to farmers. In Kashmir the ‘new agricultural strategy’ remained
almost confined to the use of high yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers as the topography of
the state in general and that of Kashmir in particular was not conducive for large scale
mechanisation of agriculture. Also vitally important to mention is that the task of developing
appropriate technology for hilly regions like Kashmir was extremely difficult in comparison to
plains because, owing to variations of topography, temperature, rainfall, and length of frost
periods, there is a substantial diversity in the micro-environment over relatively short
distances(Dhar,1984).Therefore, in order to understand the technological changes, if any, in
Kashmir’s agriculture and their impact on the production and productivity of the principal crops,
it was important to focus on the different aspects of the new strategy especially its bio-chemical
aspect.
VI. Role of SKUAST in rice research and development in Kashmir
Given the great economic importance of the crop, rice improvement work was started in the
State during early 1942 with the establishment of Regional Rice & Research Station (RR&RS), at
Khudwani, Anantnag (1560 m amsl) with a well defined mandate of evolving high yielding, early
maturing rice varieties having in-built tolerance to the biotic and abiotic stresses prevalent in the
target environment. Further to cater to the needs of high irrigated terrains, High Altitude Rice
Research Sub-Station, Larnoo, Anantnag (2286 m amsl), was set up in 1978. With the
establishment of Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in 1982,
both the stations were transferred to the University for carrying out rice research to develop rice
varieties and associated technologies suitable for different agroecological situations of Kashmir
and Chenab valley of Jammu division. The University proved its commitment and gave the first
breakthrough by developing high yielding, farmer preferred and cold tolerant varieties K-39
(Indica type) and K-78 (Barkat) a Japonica type. This successful accomplishment incited the
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breeding era to develop modern rice varieties. The former variety was recommended from low
to mid altitudes of the valley (1300-1850 m amsl), whileas, the latter became popular in the
ecology were rice was not grown before or had been abandoned due to failure of local
landraces owing to some biotic stresses. Both the varieties had a very high adoption rate
because of the so many traits liked by the farmers. The University has a pride of developing
these varieties and K-39 is still being grown by majority of farmers on large areas in Kashmir
valley, besides, its use as international check and donor for cold tolerance. Furthermore these
varieties were also adopted in some countries like Nepal and Bhutan. The research programme
achieved a big success in 1996 by developing varieties like Jehlum and Chenab which surpassed
all the China lines and other newly developed varieties not only in terms of yield but with
respect to other qualitative traits which were lacking in the previously developed varieties and
introduced China varieties. In additional after comprehensive fertility experimentation
standardization of fertility dose was chalked out for different varieties and same was
recommended to realize the actual potential of these cultivars. In addition weed a big desolation
before the farming community, use of effective and crop specific herbicides after thorough
experimentation at the station was fast adopted by the farming community and reckoned it as a
real revolution because they could triumph over their miseries and discomforts because of many
manual weedings. Similarly research programme at High Altitude Rice Research Station, Larnoo
made a landmark achievement by developing a high yielding, cold and blast resilient variety K-
332 which replaced most of the low yielding landraces namely, Siga, Marva and Kuchh
traditionally grown by the farmers under high altitude ecologies of Kashmir (2000 to 2300 m
amsl). In the last decade university has bred a number of varieties with striking characteristics
and recommended for different ecologies under the name of Shalimar series possessing
significant yield advantage and blast resilience. The list of released varieties, pre-released and
pipeline varieties along with salient features are described in Table 1-4. These varieties with
associated production technologies such as nursery raising and standardization of inorganic
fertilizers application raised the production and productivity of the crop and farmers were in a
position to sell surplus produce in the local market to meet out other family needs. It will not be
an overstatement in saying that these varieties brought green revolution in Kashmir and farmers
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were able to harvest 5-6 tons of paddy per ha which is almost more than 2-3 times what farmers
were getting by cultivating landraces, besides, an ample quantity of straw for stall feeding during
prolonged winter. As a result the majority of the landraces and farmer’s varieties were replaced
due to mass adoption of these modern high yielding varieties.
VII. Quality seed production
To sustain the quality seed production chain for enhancing rice
production and productivity, 60-70q breeder’s seed of
different released varieties and approximately 1500q
foundation seed of such varieties is being produced annually
as per the indents from different agencies.
Table 1. List of varieties along with salient features released/identified in the past for different
agro ecologies of Kashmir
S.
No.
Name of the
variety
Year of
release
Average
yield
(q/ha)
Salient features
1. China-1039 1955 50-55 Cold tolerant, lodging tolerant and easy
threshing, Maturity range: 135-140 DAS.
Recommended up to an altitude of
1650 m amsl.
2. China 1007 1956 50-60 Lodging and shattering resistant, cold
tolerant at early stages of growth,
maturity: 147-152 DAS
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3. China-988 1956 50-60 -do-
4. China -972 1956 50-55 -do-
7. K-39 1978 58-62 High yielding, recommended upto 1650
m amsl, tolerant to blast and lodging,
highly cold tolerant,
maturity: 140-145 DAS
8. Chenab 1996 60-65 High yielding, coarse grained and
resistant to blast and cold tolerant
9. Jhelum 1996 60-63 High yielding, better cooking quality,
greater tolerance to cold, moderately
resistant to blast
early maturing (135-140DAS).
Table 2. Newly developed Rice varieties released for general cultivation and recommended for
plain basins of the valley by State Varietal Release Committee (SVRC)
S.
No.
Name of
variety
Year of
release
Yield
potential
(t/ha)
Remarks
1. Shalimar
Rice-1
2005 8.0 Cold tolerant, blast resistant variety having delayed
leaf senescence, erect plant type and compact
panicle,
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high HRR and non-shattering.
Recommended for cultivation under plains of the
valley (1450-1600 m amsl)
2. Shalimar
Rice-2
2015 9.0-9.5 High yielding, blast resistant indica rice variety
having long panicle and high number of
grains/panicle with high biomass
Strong culm resistant to lodging.
Maturity range: 140-145 DAS.
Recommended for plains and water logged areas of
the valley.
3. Shalimar
Rice-3
2015 8.0-8.5 High yielding, early maturing, cold tolerant indica
variety having moderately resistance to blast
erect plant type and easy threshability
recommended for cultivation for plains of the
valley (upto 1650 m amsl)
Table 3. Varieties released/identified in the past for higher altitudes/mountain ecologies of
Kashmir valley
S.
No
Name
of the
Parentage Year of
release
Average
yield
Salient features
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variety (t/ha)
1. Shenei 1967 2.0-2.5 japonica type and highly cold
tolerant, moderately resistant to
blast.
Maturity: 135-145 DAS
2. China-971 1967 3.0-3.5 -do-
3. Barkat
(K-78)
Shenei x
China-971
1974 3.8-4.0 High yielding, cold tolerant, high
HRR, moderately resistant to
blast.
Maturity:130-140 DAS
4. K-332 Shenei/
Norin-11
1982 4.5-5.0 High yielding, cold and blast
tolerant.
Maturity:130-140 DAS
5. Kohsar
(K-429)
Shenei x
Gimnasari
2001 4.2-4.7 Cold tolerant, high yielding
Maturity : 135-140 DAS
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Table 4. Recently identified rice genotypes for minikit testing by Research &Extension Advisory
Committee
S.
No.Designation
Cross
combination
Year Yield
potential
(t/ha)
Remarks
1 SKUA-408 Jhelum/84017 -
IR745-12-1
2015 8.5 High yielding, blast resistant indica
rice variety having long panicles,
more number of grains/panicles
strong stem, resistant to lodging,
easy threshing, high phenotypic
acceptability
Maturity range: 132-136 DAS.
Recommended for plains of the
valley (upto 1650m).
2 SKUA-402 Kohsar X
PS 86014-TR 891-
7-2-1
2015 5.5 High yielding, cold and blast
tolerant japonica variety ,
stay green habit .
Maturity:140-150DAS within its
recommended ecology(2000-2250
m amsl)
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VIII. Rice germplasm exploration, collection, conservation, characterization and utilization
In addition to varietal development programme, conservation of the local rice biodiversity
because of the apprehensions of loss of some useful allelic resources is one of the important
programmes of the University. More than 100 local rice germplasm lines (Table 5), besides many
collections from hill centres of India and temperate world are being maintained and routinely
utilized in plant breeding programmes (Fig.2). They have been characterized for morphological
and cooking quality traits (Parray and Shikari, 2008; Shikari and Parray, 2009; Shikari et al, 2010).
At present 680 germplasm accessions both from indigenous and exotic sources are being
maintained and a systematic and comprehensive characterization of these lines has revealed
huge genetic diversity. Very low, low, intermediate and high amylose lines have been identified,
besides soft to hard gel consistency lines have also been detected from the available rice
resources maintained at Khudwani Centre (Arpit et al.,2015).
SKUA-408 Newly developedvariety
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\
Fig.2: Depicting the rice collections from different sources
Table 5. Some important rice landraces of Kashmir conserved at MRCFC, Khudwani.
Vernacular names of the landraces
Vernacular name of the landrace
Aziz Beoul Mir ZagBegum Mehvan (Green)
Bala Koun Mehvan (Purple)Buta baber Kaw kareer
Baber Noor merriBaber safed Nikaloul AnzulBlack Rice Niver Zug
Budgi Nika katwarGurah Prenchwal
Chene bour Pren niverGura Koun Pren Zaged
Gurah Poot brerGull Baber Quadir beigh
Hapat china Ram hallKat wara Rehman BattiKaw krer Resham
Chuch never Siga safedKaw qudder Shal kew
Kew Prunch walaKhuch Shal kew
Kala brear Siga
Photograph: Paniclediversity of differentrice genotypes w.r.t.
colour
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Lar Beoul Safad khuch
Loul Anzul Tila Zag
Mushk-Budgi Kamad
Mush Kandi Gulbara
IX. Characterization and evaluation of red rice (Zag) germplasm.
The University is involved in conservation,
maintenance, characterization and
utilization of the rice germplasm having red
pericarp/or endosperm. More than 20 such
collections from different corners of the
valley have been collected and are being
conserved. Their physico-chemical and
organoleptic trait evaluation besides, Zn and
Fe estimation is under progress
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
X. Special farmer oriented research programmes undertaken during last five Years
1. Participatory Plant Breeding (Participatory Varietal Selection) programme in rice
Although a number of rice varieties have been bred for Kashmir valley, but seed replacement
rate is quite miserable and 1-2 varieties are still the major players in the farmer’s fields. The key
factors identified to be responsible are
the farmers have not been exposed to acceptable alternatives to their existing
varieties/landraces,
lack of appropriate genetic resources and long history of cultivation under marginal
conditions,
the varieties are being bred at research stations- the favourable environment and
does not represent the target environment which are poor and marginal
environment,
less number of varieties for farmer’s choices,
farmers interests not taken into consideration while developing and selecting the
varieties,
elite varieties developed by considering broad geographical area neglecting the
marginal environment etc.,
The resource poor farmers practicing under high altitude marginal conditions are
often bereft of knowledge on the availability of HYVs for their use,
Improved varieties may not meet farmer’s end use and cooking quality requirements
and
Farmers may not have access to or information about seeds of new varieties.
To address all these issues participatory plant breeding programme was initiated since
2011 under which the PVS trials were conducted in the farmer’s field under the supervision of
the scientists. The trials constituted of released and advanced breeding lines developed at
Khudwani Centre. Few varieties such as SKUA-408, SKUA-403 and Shalimar Rice 3 were the
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
varieties highly preferred by the farmers in the plain basins of the valley whereas; SKUA-402
became the variety of choice in the high altitude areas.
2. Participatory seed production of popular varieties
To bridge the gap between the paddy seed produced and demand from the farmers side the
programme was initiated during 2012 to upscale the seed production of most popular and
farmer preferred varieties (Jhelum, Shalimar Rice 3, SKUA 408) in the farmer’s fields. The goal of
the programme was to cover entire rice grown ecologies under such varieties for hastening the
seed replacement rate to increase production and productivity. Few hundred quintals of seed
were produced, procured and returned back to farmers for further upscaling.
Revival of elite aromatic landraces like MushkBudgi , Kamad and Zag rices(red rice)in the
niche areas of Kashmir valley
Revival programme of elite indigenous rice
landraces of Kashmir valley was initiated in
2008 with key objectives to develop purified
aromatic lines of Mushkbudgi and Kamad
and to devise and popularize an integrated
nutrient and disease management modules
for blast disease. The year 2013 proved as a
success story wherein an area of 110 ha in 5
adjoining villages in Sagam area of District
Anantnag was brought under cultivation of
these landraces and about 2000q seed of
both purified aromatic lines was produced
(Najeeb et al.,2016). These aromatic rices
have a very good local market particularly
for matrimonial ceremonies and festivals
and are being sold at Rs 150-200/Kg. The
basmati rice exporter Sarveshwar Organic
Food Ltd. has now entered into the
procurement, polishing and sale of branded
Mushkibudgi and Kamad and this initiative
has benefitted all stockholders associated
with the cultivation of these landraces and
farmers are getting three times the returns
what they were getting from cultivating
other rice varieties. Similarly revival
programme of red rices is under progress in
Thesil Tangdar(the remotest town) of
District Kupwara.
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
XI. New emerging disease in Kashmir and way to overcome
Bakanae disease is emerging as a potent threat to rice production particularly in japonica
rices cultivated under high altitude of Kashmir valley (2100-2300 m amsl). To initiate
breeding programme for developing resistant variety for target region, the identification
of resistant source among the available germplasm was initiated under natural and
artificiality inoculated controlled conditions and in this regard a few lines have been
identified which have shown resistance under both test conditions. Pathogenic variability
study of 20 isolates collected from diverse locations using diverse germplasm set of 50
lines has also been conducted (Lone et al.,2016). Management of seed borne inoculum
through seed treatment has been devised by evaluating various fungicides and their
combinations. Seed treatment with Carbendazim 50 WP (1g) + Mancozeb 75 WP (2g)/Kg
of seed was found most effective(Ahangar et al.,2012). The same technology was
demonstrated to formers and has shown encouraging results in farmer’s field.
XII. Popularization of integrated disease management module (IDM) of blast disease
in aromatic landraces and red rices
Aromatic landraces and red rices are highly susceptible to blast disease, which has
remained a key factor to discourage its widespread adoption among farming community,
inspite of being highly remunerative. Integrated Disease Management is thus an
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
alternative for effective management of blast disease. IDM module was developed and
tested at target locations through farmer’s participatory mode and was found highly
effective in combating the blast disease as against the farmer’s management practice
(Najeeb et al.,2016). The IDM module was popularized among the farmer’s of Mushk
budji and Kamad growing areas and is being widely adopted.
XIII. Control measures developed/devised against major diseases
Under AICRIP and station programmes, work on various aspects regarding major diseases
have yielded successful management technologies in addition to blast resistant varieties
bred for diverse agro-climatic zones of the valley. Under AICRIP programme different
fungicides (New and commercially available), botanicals and biopesticides have been
evaluated against the major diseases. New fungicidal formulations viz., RIL-FA
(Kresoxinmethyl), Nativo 75 WG (Trifloxystrobin 25%+Tebuconazole 50%) and Fillia
(Tricyclazole and Propiconazole) were found effective against blast, whileas,
Febuconazole 24 SC and RIL-FA have been found effective against glume disclouration
and brown spot respectively. Among commercially available fungicides Sivic 75 WP
(Tricyclazole) was effective against blast whereas, Contaf, Rhizocin and Sheathmar were
found promising against sheath blight and Tilt 25 EC (Propiconazole) and Bavistin 50 WP
(Carbendazim) against glume discoloration. Botanical/Biopesticide formulations viz.,
Tricure and defender were effective against all the diseases, whereas Biotos was effective
against blast and sheath blight and Florezen-P against blast (Bhat et al, 2014). Further,
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
IDM and Disease Observation Nursery trials conducted under AICRIP Programme have
been helpful in identifying the proper fertilizer dose, date of sowing, spacing etc. for the
management of major diseases. Based on the results of these coordinated and station
pathological trials, the IDM technology has been devised which is being successfully
followed by most of the farmers.
XIV. Collaboration/partnerships
The Contribution of Directorate of Rice research (Indian institute of rice Research) (ICAR),
Hyderabad and international Rice research Institutes (IRRI, Philippines) in R & D of rice
programme of the state is quite commendable. SKUAST-Kashmir has very close
collaboration with reputed national and international institutes and adequate germplasm
lines are being received in the form of different trials besides, special germplasm
resources w.r.t. different traits are frequently being procured from temperate world
through IRRI,Phillipines. Germplasm resources (both from IRRI and IIRR,Hyderabad) have
served the parental material in development of modern varieties like Shalimar series.
Further screening of INGER nurseries particularly IRCTN and IRTON have resulted in
identification of some cold tolerant and comparatively early maturing material which
were subsequently put to hybridization with local material for development of SKUA-
402(Shalimar Rice 5), a new variety for higher altitudes(Rafiq et al.,2016).
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Introduction and popularization of Basmati rice varieties- a success story
Kashmir valley has a tradition of growing
short to medium bold seeded rice rather
coarse grained varieties with low to
intermediate amylose content. In the year
2004, a set of Basmati/fine grained rice
types were received through All India
Coordinated Rice Improvement Programme
and after evaluation of some promising
varieties one entry namely, Pusa Sugandh-3
matured timely and subsequently the
variety was brought under multilocation
testing. During the year 2012, the variety
was planted on large scale in district
Budgam and during Kharif 2013, 20 ha area
in the district was brought under the said
variety. During 2012 Pusa Basmati-1509 was
also introduced from IARI, New Delhi and
has shown the promising performance in
comparison to PS-3 in terms of maturity and
yield. After two years of continuous
evaluation the
variety was tested directly in the farmer’s
field in districts of Anantnag and Budgam
and demonstration has made the faster
adoption of the variety. Further a secondary
selection from Pusa Sughand 3 has resulted
in identification of 10-15 days earlier
genotype SKUA-420 and hopeful to replace
all fine grained types because of early
maturity.
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
XV. Road map towards temperate hybrid rice development
Hybrid breeding has been contemplated as the potent technology to boost rice production in
the face of limited scope for horizontal growth. Most of the rice hybrids released for commercial
cultivation in India and their parental lines received through AICRIP programme have badly
failed to perform under temperate Kashmir conditions due to lack of cold tolerance and poor
phenotypic acceptability (Sanghera et al., 2003). In this regard hybrid breeding program was
initiated at Khudwani Centre in 2001 and two well adapted, temperate, cold tolerant and stable
cytosterile lines designated as SKUA-7A & SKUA-11A were developed (Shikari et
al.2010;Sanghera et al.2010) using two lines from IRRI (IR68888A and IR68897A) as CMS sources
and K348; a local, well adapted, medium-duration and cold-tolerant variety genotype as
recurrent parent following backcross breeding programme. Recently Jhelum and Shalimar Rice 3
have been converted into two more CMS lines, SKUA 19A and SKUA-21A respectively, using
SKUA-7A as CMS source and both are showing stable sterility in F1 when crossed with normal (B)
lines. The lower frequency of restorers than partial maintainers and partial restorers has been
observed in the earlier studies because the temperate japonica background lacks fertility
restoration system to WA cytoplasm (Dar et al.2014). Many test crosses of these CMS lines have
been made with the available genetic base to identify restorer lines and out of 27 test crosses
evaluated, 10 restorers, 8 partial restorers, 3 maintainers and 6 partial maintainers were
categorized on the basis of degree of pollen fertility and spikelet fertility. Three genotypes K-08-
61, K-08-60 and PS-5 were found as most effective restorers (Dar et al.,2015). Molecular
characterization of advanced breeding lines for different restorer genes revealed that SKAU-K-R-
3-6-11 and SKAU-KR-3-6-16 could be employed as effective R-lines against temperate CMS line
SKAU-7A and SKAU-11A with an average grain yield advantage of 20% or more (Khan et
al.,2016).
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XVI. Frontline demonstration/transfer of technologies
In addition to above activities, transfer of technologies(complete package) through Frontline
Demonstration are being carried out and around 1220 ha FLDs were conducted since 2007-2014
and registered a yield advantage of more than 25% over the farmers own varieties.
Status of recent rice production/technologies
System of Rice Intensification
System of rice intensification (SRI) has evolved as an approach to increase rice productivity with
less external inputs. Yield advantages and resource savings under SRI method have widely been
reported. Several approaches like alternate wetting and drying, aerobic rice systems and SRI are
advocated to save water. In this backdrop a field experiment was conducted in farmer’s fields at
four locations in Khudwani area of District Anantnag during the kharif 2013 to demonstrate the
superiority of SRI method over farmer’s practice of crop establishment. Among the
establishment techniques, SRI outperformed the farmers practice in respect of all the growth
and yield attributes. With regard to the grain yield averaged over the locations, SRI method
demonstrated a yield advantage of more than 20% apart from additional advantages of water
and seed savings.
Marker-assisted improvement of landraces for resistance to biotic stress:
The reasons attributed to loss of heritage rices of Kashmir include their low yielding potential
and susceptibility to various biotic stresses particularly to paddy blast. Still after two to three
decades before the wide scale cultivation of these landraces was slowly abandoned, some
prominent ones such as Mushk Budji and Kamad still occupy considerable area and there is high
demand for these rices in domestic markets. Mushk Budji is short bold aromatic rice grown in
higher reaches of Kashmir valley. The cooked rice is unique and possesses harmonious blend of
taste, aroma and rich organoleptic properties. It is mainly grown in areas of Sagam and Soaf
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RICE IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Shali region of district Anantnag and Beerwah Thesil of district Budgam. The consumption of
aromatic rices in Kashmir has now been limited to special occasions, marriages and festivals
because of high prices and less supply. Consumers’ preference is to get rice of good cooking
(appearance, amylose content, kernel elongation on cooking, softness etc.) and eating quality
(taste and aroma). Mushk budji is characterized with pleasant aroma, low amylose content,
intermediate gelatinization temperature (70-74oC) and short bold kernels (Gazala et al., 2014).
The susceptible nature of such varieties insists the application of fungicides 3-4 times which is
practically not possible and ecologically and economically not viable. To address this concern, an
initiative was taken to incorporate genetic resistance against blast in Mushkbudji and three
effective genes viz., Pi54, Pi1 and Pita were incorporated through marker-assisted backcross
breeding approach (Gazala et al., 2013, 2014). Thus far, nine 3-gene pyramids homozygous for
the genes Pi54, Pi1 and Pita and six 2-gene pyramided lines have been developed based on gene
based/ linked markers. The MAS selected lines possess cooking quality and aroma similar to
recurrent parent Mushk Budji and shows resistance against prevalent isolates. This is the first
time effort of employing marker assisted selection to improve the rice cultivar in Kashmir. The
lines developed are likely to be released as varieties in farmer’s fields that are expected to yield
huge economic returns and also may revive the area under cultivation under this valuable
cultivar.
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITKs) specific to the rice in Kashmir:
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24 hour water soaked seed kept in cowshed or covered by green brassica straw/green
weeds to hasten seed germination because of low outside temperature.
Seed for next crop stored in earthen bin vernacularly called lopun or in a bag made of
paddy straw called Thachi.
Surplus stock stored in specially devised wooden warehouse vernacularly named Kuchh.
To suppress weeds in watur system (direct seeded rice), a manual but hardy operation
farmers used to call it Latnawun was being done (3-4 times) at an interval of 20 days with
the aim to level the land and suppress the weeds followed by gudrow meaning thinning
and gap filling operation that was being done after third latnawun.
Photograph of Kuchh
By products/extended use of rice specific to Kashmir
Paddy straw is a profitable commodity in Kashmir because of its mounting demand by
orchardists for packing of apple in wooden/cardboard boxes to prevent fruit injury while
transportation. The paddy straw also serves as livestock fodder for which it is being safely stored
for winter.
Paddy straw is used to make straw mats locally called patteg still used by low income
group families in villages for furnishing, besides sun drying of rice. Before 1990s patteg has
served as a very important off-farm income to farmers.
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Dried paddy straw has been used for thatching of residential houses and cowsheds
especially in rural Kashmir.
Rice bran a byproduct of milled rice is soaked in viscous rice water obtained from boiled
rice and is fed to the cattle as such and often fortified with oilcakes.
Wooden base tied with rope made out of Paddy straw (Khraw) was put on to protect
feet when shoes etc were not available or
farmers were not having the purchasing power
to get even the rubber shoes from the market.
Photograph of Pulhod
Pulhod: Specially designed footwear made of paddy straw and was most often used
particularly in winter to prevent sliding on the icy tracks.
Sri: wooden rod, hole at the bottom and ropes of straw were fixed inside the holes for
lifting and manual carriage of harvested paddy from place of harvesting to place of threshing.
Customs and traditions associated with rice cultivation
Common proverb in Kashmir associated with rice cultivation is that “Yus kari Gongul su kare
Krau” meaning one who sows timely will harvest definitely.
Gungul: Celebration of new cropping season of rice with walnut distribution among the
neighbouring farmers
Ba-il tahr: Fried rice offered to children and hungry and needy at the time of sowing of paddy
seed.
Ba-il tamul: Unused extra soaked seed put for drying followed by hulling and milling using local
methods and eaten as such or blended with sugar
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Sont cum: FYM and silt deposit taken out from drains was added to paddy field at the time of
land preparation and was transported manually in a specially designed carrier made of straw
rope fitted on backside locally named as Ett.
Thajkad: A special lunch was prepared and offered to the neighbouring women who were
assisting in transplanting operation.
Hel put: Reared chick was slaughtered at the time of first appearance of panicle.
Craw: At the time of storage of new paddy crop, lunch or dinner was prepared and all the
neighbours were invited and walnuts were distributed.
Thag baeth: Folk songs are being sung by womenfolk while transplanting.
Nende baeth: Folk songs sung by men at the time of weeding operation.
Rice and commerce (exports and revenue generation)
Rice produced in Kashmir valley is not exported because total paddy produced in Kashmir is just
50% of the actual requirement and hence there is no question of export. The usually grown rice
varieties are short to medium bold coarse grained types having high social acceptability and
ecological adaptability under temperate conditions, further limit their export potential because
of the non- preferences of such rice in other states of India.
Rice production constraints
The rice production constraints in Kashmir are essentially those encountered elsewhere in
temperate region of the world. Apart from low temperature, water shortages as a result of
aberrant weather condition, susceptibility to biotic stresses particularly blast and other socio-
economic, technical, management, institutional, technology transfer and adoption/linkage
problems limit the rice production.
Low temperature
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The low temperature is the greatest concern of rice growers in the region. Rice crop is exposed
to cold injury from early seedling stage to the ripening stage however; the problem is more
severe in higher belts of the valley. The reproductive stage stress is more severer which result in
delayed heading, poor panicle exertion, prolonged flowering period due to irregular heading,
spikelet degeneration, impaired seed fertility and abnormal grain formation. Although, cold
tolerant varieties possessing tolerance to low temperature have been bred and recommended,
rice crop still suffers from high grain sterility due to variable climate. To breed a variety for
Kashmir ecology cold tolerance has remained the top priority for a breeder, besides other
morpho-agronomic traits. Hence to meet the household food requirement it makes imperative
to develop varieties having high yield potential with tolerance to low temperature at different
growth stages.
Rice Blast
Among biotic stresses, diseases and weeds are of greater economic significance, whereas, insect
pests have a negligible influence on rice production in Kashmir. Blast (Magnaporthe grisea),
brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzae), Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) are important rice
diseases in the valley. However, blast is the most devastating and of wide spread occurrence
when favourable conditions prevail for the pathogen and if left unchecked, could inflict heavy
yield losses. Continuous cultivation of just one variety (monoculture) with high seed rate,
nitrogen application coupled with high RH (90%) and moderate temperature (22-260C) promote
disease development. Nevertheless, because of the high variability of the pathogen genetic
resistance generally breaks down shortly after new varieties are released. This envisages the
germplasm enhancement through a systematic and well planned resistance breeding
programme to deal with the problem. Identification of resistant/tolerant donors against blast
and their utilization in varietal improvement continues to be the integral part of rice breeding
programme.
Management practices aiming at controlling collateral hosts (Echinocholea crusgalli, Cyprus spp.)
and a combination of low population density and low nitrogen fertilization are advocated to
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check the disease. Seed treatment and fungicide spray schedule are not without economic,
health and environmental implications. Therefore, use of resistant varieties offers an easy,
economic and ecofriendly approach for managing the blast. Among the varieties released so for,
recently released Shalimar Rice series exhibit resilience to blast under natural field conditions.
Institutional constraints
Although two agricultural universities have been established in the state but R & D of
agriculture sector face the acute shortage of funds from both Central and State
governments.
Lack of collaboration between research professionals and extension agencies.
Land, human resource and other infrastructural constraints is being faced by the
university; consequently quality seed production is too inadequate to meet the total
seed demand.
Due to variation in land topography and elevation features, the technology developed at
one place cannot work far and wide in the state.
Socio-economic constraints
Rice in Kashmir is cultivated not in terms of economic security but is being considered as food
grain security. Farmers are generally poor and possess marginal land holdings and less
proportion of them are able to produces surplus rice and put the same for sale to meet other
family needs. Although, rice being a highly labour intensive crop and soaring labour wages has
increased the cost of cultivation, however good demand of paddy straw with high price has
somewhat improved B: C ratio.
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Economics of rice production in Kashmir
Benefit:cost ratio has been worked out for recently developed HYVs as well as for high valued
aromatic landraces. The high B: C ratio for cultivating aromatic rice in niche areas has a key role
to play to improve livelihood of the farmers.
S.No. Expenditure/income for cultivating rice crop/ha HYV
(Rs.)
Aromatic
landraces(Rs.)
1 Cost of cultivation/ha including all the expenditures
from nursery preparation to storage of grains
74000.00 76000.00
2 Returns/ha in the form of grains(Rs. 1300/q) 97500.00 200000.00
3 Returns/ha in the form of straw(Rs. 20/bundle) 60000.00 40000.00
B:C ratio 2.12 3.15
Modern agricultural implements used in rice production
Although land preparation and even puddling is being done by employing tractors, however due
to small and uneven land holdings, paddy transplanters have not picked up in the valley so far.
Further paddy straw being the important commercial commodity, leaves no scope for paddy
combines/ harvesters.
Future thrust in rice production technologies
System of rice intensification(SRI)
Balanced fertilization through INM
Climate resilient management practices in rice and rice based cropping system
Yield maximization of rice through site specific nutrient management (SSNM).
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Conclusion and way forward
Low temperature is an important rice production constraint in hill and boro rice growing
areas, so there is an urgent need to establish a national centre for germplasm screening
against cold. High Altitude Rice Research Sub-Station, SKUAST-K Larnoo, Anantnag,
Kashmir situated at an altitude of 2290 m amsl would be an ideal location to be selected
for the establishment of this national centre for screening against cold at different
growth stages.
Following globalization and economic liberalization, the export potential of japonica rice
should be harnessed. Therefore there is a dire need of sound and efficient japonica rice
improvement programme to be undertaken by the university to develop rice varieties,
meeting stringent international cooking and eating characteristic standards.
There is an urgent need to broaden the rice germplasm base by arranging rice genetic
resources from temperate rice growing regions of the world like China, Japan, North
Korea, USA, Russia etc. IIRR is going to play a crucial role in this regard.
Hill rice germplasm resources of the country need to be evaluated through multi location
testing. The proper characterization and documentation would help utilize these
germplasm more efficiently and effectively.
Japonica X indica hybridization using wide compatibility varieties(WCVs) has been viewed
an as an effective strategy to develop indicalinous and japonicalinous rice genotypes
suited to different agro-ecologies of temperate regions. The technology will be pursued
with vigour and zeal at regional and national levels.
Hybrid rice is one of the potent technologies to circumvent the widely reported yield
plateau effects. A separate project on temperate hybrid rice needs to be initiated and
funded at national