Riccardo Pozzo - library.oapen.org

Riccardo PozzoHistory of Philosophy and the Reflective Society

Riccardo Pozzo

History of Philosophy and the Reflective Society

The Open Access of this book was financially supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and the Department of History Humanities and Society of Tor Vergata University of Rome as an output of the H2020 funded project Cross-Migration (GA 770121)

ISBN 978-3-11-070905-6e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-070929-2e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-070933-9DOI httpsdoiorg1015159783110709292

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 40 International License For details go to httpscreativecommonsorglicensesby-nc-nd40

Library of Congress Control Number 2021942121

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at httpdnbdnbde

copy 2021 Riccardo Pozzo published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH BerlinBostonThe book is published with open access at wwwdegruytercom

Printing and binding CPI books GmbH Leck

wwwdegruytercom

Preface

This book originates from the commitment I took in China to chair the 24thWorld Congress of Philosophy Beijing 2018 program committee It gave me thechance of a tight connection with my colleagues first and foremost with my re-nowned friend Tu Weiming the founding director of the Institute for AdvancedHumanistic Studies at Peking University I needed an authentic exchange nosecond-hand relations which I could experience only on-site

Although this book is very much about innovation readers will neverthelessrecognize in the pages that follow the influence of my mentors With deep grat-itude I remember Mario Dal Pra (1914ndash 1992) who directed my studies at theState University of MilanWilhelm Risse (1931ndash 1998) my Doktorvater at the Uni-versity of Saarland Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900ndash2002) the supervisor of my firstpost-doc at the Italian Institute of Philosophical Studies in Naples Jude PDougherty (1930ndash2021) who hired me at the School of Philosophy of the Cath-olic University of America Marta Fattori (1941ndash2021) and Tullio Gregory (1929ndash2019) whose guidance made it possible for me to take up the charge of directingthe Institute for the European Intellectual Lexicon and History of Ideas (ILIESI)at the National Research Council of Italy in Rome one of the leading pioneer en-deavors in digital humanities A strenuous advocate of the close reading of textsand a champion of the centrality of text Gregory was among the first to seize theopportunity of profiting from the distant reading of corpora He did so as early as1964 when he founded the Lessico Intellettuale Europeo one of the first digitallibraries The issues he brought up first and foremost concerning the historyof ideas the history of scientific terminology the translation of philosophicaltexts and the translation of studies are all themes that I have tried to rethinkin this volume acknowledging my debt to Gregory while taking responsibilityfor my elaboration especially as regards Kant in Chinese I still have in myears Gregoryrsquos amused question of how we were going to tackle the challengeof setting up a lemmarium based on 214 Chinese radicals a problem alreadyposed by Athanasius Kircher in 1667 to which chapters 7 and 8 give at least apartial answer

I wish to express my thanks to Daniele Archibugi Fiorella Battaglia Giu-seppe Bianco Andrea Bonaccorsi Giovanni Bonacina Corrado Claverini Mo-hammad Javad Esmaeili Yves Gingras Laura Macor Carlo Pozzo BorisRaumlhme Andrea Scharnhorst Marco Sgarbi Angela Taraborrelli Marco Venturaand Wu Tianyue for their comments on early drafts of this book and to EkrameBoubtane Hippolyte drsquoAlbis Andrea Filippetti Timon Gatta Raffaella Greco To-negutti Hansmichael Hohenegger Jonas Kuhn Mario Paolucci Claudio Parava-

OpenAccess copy 2021 Riccardo Pozzo published by De Gruyter This work is licensed underthe Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 40 International Licensehttpsdoiorg1015159783110709292-001

ti Axel Pichler Marco Turchi Josef Van Genabith and Vania Virgili for their per-mission to rephrase parts of the creative commons papers we have co-authored Ialso thank Christoph Schirmer for suggesting I submit the manuscript to DeGruyter and Anne Hiller and Konrad Vorderobermeier for their careful editingAt the same time I remain in great outstanding debt to three anonymous review-ers of De Gruyter for their insightful remarks on issues related to history of phi-losophy digital humanities and China studies respectively

Finally I wish to acknowledge the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation forhelping kick-start this research through two one-month visits at the Max PlanckInstitute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity (MMG) in Goumlttingen in2012 and 2016 My special thanks go to the director of the institute Steven Ver-tovec Again I thank the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for awarding agenerous grant that has made it possible for the book to appear open accessMy last word of thanks goes to Peter Scholtenmdashthe coordinator at Erasmus Uni-versity Rotterdam of the Horizon 2020 funded Cross-Migration projectmdashfor en-trusting me with the leadership of the work package dedicated to the StrategicResearch and Innovation Agenda on Migration

VI Preface

Contents

Abbreviations XI

Introduction 1 History of Philosophy and the Reflective Society 3 World Congress of Philosophy 5 Innovation 10 Narratives 13 Cultural Diversity 17 Cosmopolitanism 19 Transferring Competencies 20 Thick Identities 20 Transnational Spaces 21 Argument Outline 21

Part OneHistory of Philosophy

Perspectives 25 Apologue 25 Historical and Philosophical History of Philosophy 29 History of Philosophy from a Global Perspective 37 Philosophical and Historical Anthropology 42 Future Developments 43

Migration 46 Holistic Approach 46 Kant on Migration 48 History of Philosophy and Migration Narratives 51 Phenomenology of Displacement 55 Diasporas 56 Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda on Migration 59 Migration Compact 63

Part TwoReflective Society

Internal Conversation 69 Reflectivity 70 Parliamentary Genesis of the Reflective Society 73 Self-reflective Society 76 Inclusive Innovative Reflective Societies 78 What Role for the Reflective Society 80

Societal Readiness 83 Experiential Knowledge 84 Conceptualizing Co-creation 86 Preparedness and Readiness 89 Society-sensitive Design 95

Cultural Innovation 97 What Does Cultural Innovation Stand for 97 Sources of Innovation 98 Research Infrastructures 101 Research Infrastructures for Cultural Innovation 103 Features and Processes that Define the Outcomes of Cultural

Innovation 104 Contrasting Cultural Innovation 105 Social Innovation 106 Scientific Culture 107 Heritage-led Innovation 108 Indicators 109 First Group of Indicators Institutional Change 111 Second Group of Indicators Access 111 Third Group of Indicators Participation 112 Fourth Group of Indicators User Data 113 Impact 114 Defining Cultural Innovation for Policy Purposes 116

VIII Contents

Part ThreeCorpora

Corpora that Talk to Each Other 121 Multilingual Corpora 121 Digital Libraries 125 Institute for the European Intellectual Lexicon and History of

Ideas 125 World Digital Library 127 Twenty-four European Languages 127 Greek and Latin 128 Arabic 128 Chinese 129 Global Perspective 129 CLARIN DARIAH OPERAS 129 Common Language Resources and Technology

Infrastructure 130 Digital Research Infrastructures for the Arts and

Humanities 131 European Research Infrastructure for the Development of Open

Scholarly Communication in the Social Sciences andHumanities 132

Forward Look 133

Translation of Languages 136 Bilingualism and Multilingualism 136 Babel 140 Rendering Polishing Transferring 142 Translation Group 144 Clockwise Translating 144 Centrality of Text 147 Aligning Kantrsquos Writings and Translations 147 Looking for the Third Code 150 Corpora in Translation Studies 153 The Future of Reading 156

Translation of Studies 158 Across Boundaries 159 Spaces for Exchange 161 Humanities European Research Area 162

Contents IX

Equals in Dignity 164 Intercultural Dialogue 166 Dialogical Culture 168

Conclusion 171 Ocean 171 Biocultural Diversity 173 Spiritual Humanism 175

References 179

Index of Subjects 212

Index of Names 220

X Contents

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations for work titlescollected volumes have been used

AA Kant Immanuel Gesammelte SchriftenCE Kant Immanuel Cambridge EditionDK Diels HermannKranz Walther Die Fragmente der VorsokratikerGS Dilthey Wilhelm Gesammelte SchriftenNAA Kant Immanuel Gesammelte Schriften Abteilung 1mdashNeueditionSW Dilthey Wilhelm Selected Works

Other abbreviations that have been used are

BBAW Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and HumanitiesCLARIN Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure ERICCNR National Research Council of ItalyDARIAH Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities ERICDAT Data Computing and Digital Research Infrastructures-ESFRI SWGDP3T Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity TracingDTA-CAB Deutsches Text-Archiv Cascade Analysis BrokerDWDS Digitales Woumlrterbuch der deutschen SpracheECHO European Cultural Heritage OnlineEHRI European Holocaust Research InfrastructureENE Energy-ESFRI SWGENV Environment-ESFRI SWGERC-AdG European Research Council Advanced GrantERIC European Research Infrastructure ConsortiumE-RIHS European Research Infrastructure for Heritage ScienceESFRI European Strategy Forum Research InfrastructuresFAIR findable accessible interoperable and reusableFISP Feacutedeacuteration Internationale des Socieacuteteacutes de PhilosophieG2A Greek to ArabicHampF Health and Food-ESFRI SWGHERA Humanities in the European Research AreaICT Information and Communication TechnologyILC Institute of Computational Linguistics-CNRILIESI Institute for the European Intellectual Lexicon and History of Ideas-CNRIPR Intellectual Property RightsISTI Institute of Information Science and Technologies-CNRITRE Committee on Industry Research and Energy-European ParliamentITTIG Institute of Theory and Technique of Legal Information-CNRLLOD Linguistic Linked Open DataMMG Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity-MPGMPG Max-Planck-Gesellschaft

OED Oxford English DictionaryOPERAS European Research Infrastructure for the Development of Open Scholarly Commu-

nication in the Social Sciences and HumanitiesOPERAS-D Design for Open Access Publications in European Research Area for Social Scien-

ces and HumanitiesPEPP-PT Pan-European Privacy-Preserving Proximity TracingPSE Physics and Engineering-ESFRI SWGRampD Research and DevelopmentREDI Reducing Risks of Natural Disasters-University of CamerinoRampI Research and InnovationRESILIENCE Religious Studies InfrastructureSCI Social and Cultural Innovation-ESFRI SWGSRL Societal Readiness LevelsSSH Social Sciences and HumanitiesSTEM Science Technology Engineering and MathematicsSWG Strategy Working GroupTEI Text Encoding InitiativeTRL Technology Readiness LevelsTUSTEP Tuebingen System of Text ProcessingUNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUSSR Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsWCP World Congress of PhilosophyWDL World Digital Library

XII Abbreviations

1 Introduction

In this book I talk about innovation reflection and inclusion More precisely Italk about cultural innovation Cultural innovation no doubt might sound likean oxymoron Think of the famous statement of Confucius (Kongzi 孔子) in theAnalects ldquoThe Master said I have lsquotransmitted what was taught to me withoutmaking up anything of my ownrsquo I have been faithful to and loved the Ancientsrdquo(Confucius 2017 7 1ndash2)sup1 However cultural innovation is something whose exis-tence we cannot deny today something that tops up social and technological in-novation Cultural innovation is about spaces of exchange in which citizens sharetheir experiences while appropriating common goods I am talking of publicspaces such as libraries museums science centers and any place in whichco-creation activities may occur for example research infrastructures such asthe Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and the Humanitiessup2 At thislevel social innovation becomes reflective and generates cultural innovation

The main objective is to show the effectiveness of history of philosophy insocieties that are innovative reflective and inclusive The argument carriedout in the pages that follow rotates around the need for new narratives in historyof philosophy which can be established through co-creation the motor of cultur-al innovation The result is rethinking history of philosophy in terms of a dialog-ical civilization by enabling participatory translations individual processes of re-flection and collective processes of inclusion

For the sake of speaking up and unlocking change let me start with athought experiment Imagine we are in 2028 attending the 26th World Congressof Philosophymdashthe next in the schedule after the 25th World Congress of Philos-ophy of which we already know it will be held in Rome in 2024mdashand the ques-tions are How will philosophers delve into historical texts How will they lookbeyond texts into symbols and icons On paper for paper remains an indispen-sable support as an external body that is part of the life of our mind This seemsobvious Beyond paper however philosophers will read on the devices that willbe available to themsup3 For all we know by 2028 philosophers might have takenup the habit to read texts in the blink of their left eyemdashwhen their left eye will

Unless stated otherwise as it is the case for all English translations of Kantrsquos and Diltheyrsquosquotes that are taken from CE and SW respectively most translations into English from the Ger-man French and Italian are my own httpswwwdariaheu visited on 6 May 2021 httpsereadcosteuwp-contentuploads201901StavangerDeclarationpdf visited on 6 May2021


possibly be synchronized with a device they might be wearing on the left arch oftheir glasses

At issue is figuring out how philosophers will do their job of doing philoso-phy in the years to come Certainly we ought to leave open many options but ofone thing we can be sure namely that for each philosophical proposition utteredby any philosopher it will be true that it will not stay on its own It will instead beshared at once by many other philosophers or non-philosophers In sum philos-ophy in the decade that has just begun will be participatory It is true that thethought experiment in 2028 refers to an imagined state of advancement in arti-ficial intelligence and might sound dystopic However it is also true that a greatdeal of real and existing artificial intelligence is already in use today which any-one can realize eg through a visit to Oodi the new central library of the city ofHelsinki Inaugurated in Summer 2019 Oodi is different from a traditional li-brary It has been built as a meeting place a house of reading and a diverseurban experience On top of providing users and visitors with knowledge newskills and stories Oodi is a comfortable place to access for learning relaxationand work On the first floor of the building we see a cinema the books check-outand return service the wardrobe and a restaurant On the third floor books Notmany a few thousand on open shelves mostly in Finnish some in other lan-guages Circling the shelves we see ample reading spaces declining floorscouches and cushions a sunlit terrace Most readers read from their laptopssomemdashbut indeed not manymdashread on paper Now let us step onto the secondfloorWhat do we expect to find The answer is sewing machines three-dimen-sion printers and six glass-walled group rooms seating up to twelve peopleeach outfitted with two monitors one for reading texts and one for hosting dis-tant participants⁴

Glass-walled rooms that can be reserved free of charge by laypeople bymembers of communities of practice by working groups by anybody who hassomething to share These rooms are exactly what this book is about sharingphilosophical textsmdashfor the profit of a reflective society

Historians of philosophy are part of the community of the social sciencesand humanities (SSH) They are the primary target of this book whose complexsubject matter requires an intensely multidisciplinary methodology but whichalso implies that its readership might well extend beyond the communities ofhistorians of philosophy and philosophers Then let us say that this book is di-rected at policy-aware readers who might want to spend some thoughts about

httpswwwoodihelsinkifien visited on 6 May 2021

2 1 Introduction

the convergence of philosophy with their discipline to tackle the challenges ofsustainability in a globalized world

This book is a long position paper an extended essay dedicated to twenty-first-century policies of philosophical research from a global perspective It results fromcareful observation of European research policy although its primary attentionis for the global perspective for philosophy serves human beings I have chosenthe format of a Denkschrift a German word for memorandum in the sense of adocument an expert lays out for hisher government to ponder As such itgoes hand in hand with other Denkschriften that have appeared open accesswith De Gruyter in the aftermath of the Berlin Declaration on Open Access toKnowledge in the Social Sciences and Humanities⁵mdashfirst and foremost with DieGoogle-Gesellschaft (Lehmann and Schetsche 2015) Wikipedia und Geschichts-wissenschaft (Wozniak et al 2015) and Geschichte lernen im digitalen Wandel(Demantowski and Pallaske 2015)

11 History of Philosophy and the Reflective Society

Philosophy has much to offer to the twenty-first century Especiallymdashthe mainargument of this bookmdashhistory of philosophy has much to contribute to the re-flective society In the twenty-first century history of philosophy can be usefullyreinvented on the basis of its development towards new narratives and thesenarratives ought to be encompassing for one cannot deny that today also historyof philosophy is taking a global perspective

This book aims to provide new impulses to research in history of philosophyby looking into the conditions of possibility of new approaches that aim at en-gaging diverse philosophical traditions It aims to break ground for rethinkingthe discipline within a global framework It offers new definitions and stocktak-ing of best practices focused on China-and-the-West cultural interaction whichcan be taken as the start for extending the model to other culturesmdashChinabeing the most populous country in the world and the fourth country of originof non-nationals in Europe⁶

Although it will be amply discussedmdashboth philosophically and historicallymdashin the pages that follow the rationale of the choice of setting history of philoso-phy together with the reflective society on the title page is of neither philosoph-ical nor historical nature Rather I am talking of a parliamentary matter for at-

httpsopenaccessmpgdeBerlin-Declaration visited on 6 May 2021 httpsglobaldialogueisa-sociologyorgchinese-students-in-europe visited on 6 May 2021

11 History of Philosophy and the Reflective Society 3

tention to the reflective society has substantially increased among researcherssince 2013 due to the title chosen by the European Union for posting SSH-relatedcalls within the sixth Societal Challenge of Horizon 2020 Europe in a ChangingWorld Inclusive Innovative and Reflective Societies (EUR 2014) Funny enoughwe are talking of a notion that is undoubtedly endowed with scientific statusHowever it was born out of a political compromise negotiated by European Par-liament members Maria da Graccedila Carvalho Patrizia Toia Christian Ehler andSilvia Costa with the aim of increasing public funding for research and innova-tion in the humanities (see below chapter 4)

Last but not least the book looks at transformative effects on the way ofdoing philosophy Information technology is revolutionizing how to approachtexts and how to practice philosophical inquiry I argue that time is ripe for aparadigm shift from thinking of texts to thinking of corpora which is an issuethat connects with hard theoretical questions such as how to conceive of phil-osophical works within the infosphere (Blair et al 2011 Floridi 2019 Romele2019) ldquoDistant readingrdquo says Franco Moretti ldquois a condition of knowledgerdquofor it allows one ldquoto focus on units that are much smaller or much larger thanthe text devices themes tropesmdashor genres and systemsrdquo (Moretti 201348ndash49) Texts that are findable accessible interoperable and reusable (FAIR)will enrich readers in the next years That currently very few open access recentEnglish translations of philosophical works are available on the internet ought tobelong to the past (Schaumlfer and Serres 2016)We will see what might happen withImmanuel Kant in German English and Chinese (see below chapter 8) We areonly beginning to become aware that digital rights management is a key enablingtechnology

Considering current trends towards a data-driven history of philosophy as abranch of both philosophy and digital humanities (Betti and Van den Berg 2019)my point is that the future of history of philosophy depends on urgently findingways to bring about radical enhancements of the way we edit store annotateaccess and translate corpora Advances in technology enable history of philos-ophy to exercise an influence beyond its narrowly understood disciplinary bor-ders to scholars of different disciplines worldwide and far into the future How-ever philosophical expertise seems to lag and remain somehow ill-equipped todeal with the challenges of the digital transition we are about to face As TimothyWilliamson (1998) puts it philosophy is a science but not a natural science(mathematics is another example of a non-natural science) At its best philoso-phy strives to be as systematic rigorous precise accurate critical and evidence-based as its questions permit and use the best methods to answer them Its fu-ture is likely to be increasingly international with increasing interaction betweendifferent traditions (Bourdieu 2002) However philosophy also faces serious dan-

4 1 Introduction

gers Its lack of interest in profit-making and its willingness to be explicitly eth-ical expose it to external threats Philosophers who are impatient with the de-mands of methodological rigor pose internal threats In the long runmdashconcludesWilliamsonmdashthe best strategy in the face of these threats is not to compromisehigh standards

In this book I address the three questions raised by Bernard Williams (2009)that define philosophy as a humanistic discipline What canmdashand what cannotphilosophy do What are its ethical risksmdashand possible rewards How does it differfrom science To reduce their scope I reframe these three questions alongsidethe vertical perspective that considers history of philosophy as the main ground-ing of philosophy that without which no philosophy could exist and alongsidethe horizontal perspective of philosophy as part of the humanities where philos-ophy meets with history geography anthropology and linguistics

Finally some readers might see the book as a manifesto supporting historyof philosophy and be fine with it However another group of readers might wantto object to talking of history of philosophy on behalf of philosophy which is arigorous discipline universal in its scope and free from all conditioning firstand foremost free from any attempt at historical determinateness GregorioPiaia has highlighted the difficulties involved in the distinction between doingphilosophy and making history of philosophy maintaining that the co-existenceof both processes guarantees mutual enrichment while underlining that ldquomakinghistory of philosophy promotes an attitude that is more open to understandingthe distinct ways in which the human being has tried to access to the truthand that avoids the self-sufficiency in which doing philosophy risks fallingrdquo(Piaia 2020 3)

12 World Congress of Philosophy

ldquoWe now have a dialogical civilizationrdquomdashstated Tu Weiming杜維明 introducingthe magnificent Wang Yangming 王阳明 Lecture he gave on 18 August 2018 atthe 24th World Congress of Philosophy Beijing 2018 (Tu Weiming 2018 1) A dia-logical civilization is much more than a dialogue of culture It is a culture that isborn dialogical (Zhao Dunhua 2007) Learning to be human is an ongoing taskand we fulfill it through exposure to the arts and the humanities

As Karl Jaspers pointed out during the axial age (from 800 to 200 BC) sim-ilar ways of thinking appeared at the same time but independently in the FarEast in the Middle East and in the Western world In China Confucius andLaozi 老子 lived and taught in India the Upanishads were produced and Bud-dha lived in Persia Zarathustra in Palestine the prophets in Ancient Greece

12 World Congress of Philosophy 5

Homer Parmenides Heraclitus and Plato ldquoEverything implied by these namesdeveloped during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China Indiaand the West without any of these regions knowing of the otherrdquo (Jaspers1949 2 2014 2)⁷ True not all epochs were axial In other epochs the translat-ability of concepts and values did not hold Think of nineteenth-century imperi-alism and its effects on colonialism

Today we can see history of philosophy giving rebirth to the cultural meltingpot depicted by Plato (1998) in the Timaeus (Τίμαιοςmdash23c) about the translationof the art of writing from Atlantis to Egypt and from Egypt to Greece thus pre-figuring the translation of Greek words culture and thoughts into the Latinwords of Cicero and Boethius or the dynamics of the great Mediterranean cultur-al circle made of translation and tradition of philosophical religious and med-ical texts from Greek and Hebrew into Arabic Latin and all vernacular languag-es (Gregory 2006 38ndash39) In the Far East ldquothe Buddhist conquest of Chinaduring the Tang dynasty and the Confucian transformation of Buddhism are aprocess that brought about the introduction via Daoist categories domesticationgrowth and appropriation of an Indian form of spirituality which lasted for atleast six centuriesrdquo (Tu Weiming 2010 219)

In the West the reflective society is a notion that refers to a ldquoself-reflectivepolitical culturerdquo in which the consensus of citizens comes about from voluntaryand continuing ldquocritical examination through unmanipulated debaterdquo (Fishkin1992 124) In the East Tu Weiming has proposed the following argument

human beings are never static structures but always dynamic and creative processes of be-comingWhy the insistence on self-awareness as a point of departure then We can certain-ly come up with a coherent view that other-regard takes precedence over self-regard It isbecause we are aware of others that we become aware of ourselvesWithout acknowledgingthe existence of others I may not be aware that I exist at all It is conceivable that my re-lationship to the other is prior to my self-awareness (Tu Weiming 2018 4)

We are indeed looking at crises of trust in traditions and cultures (Bourdieu2002) but it is also true that civilization means openness and a new alignmentof disciplines to govern cultural diversity worldwide We need new narrativesthat require efforts for logic society and personality The issue is communica-tion towards a harmonic blending of cultures

ldquoAlles was diese Namen implizieren entwickelte sich in diesen wenigen Jahrhunderten fastgleichzeitig in China Indien und im Westen ohne daszlig eine dieser Regionen von der anderenwussterdquo

6 1 Introduction

Learning to be human was the theme of the 24th World Congress of Philos-ophy (WCP) which took place in Beijing from 13 to 20 August 2018 in the splen-did setting of the Olympic Green Three items make it relevant First with 8000registered participants the 24th WCP Beijing 2018 legitimately claims to be themost participated gathering of philosophers in world history Second it washeld in the context of contemporary Chinarsquos booming research and innovationThird as already anticipated it kick-started the paradigm change from a dia-logue of cultures to a dialogically born culture (Pozzo 2018)

The 24th WCP Beijing 2018 was a joint endeavor of Peking University and theFeacutedeacuteration Internationale des Socieacuteteacutes de Philosophie (FISP) The Department ofPhilosophy at Peking University played a significant role in fostering philosophyin China and worldwide The merits of Tu WeimingWang Bo王博 and the groupof young scholars at Peking University composed by Liu Zhe刘哲 Yang Haifeng仰海峰 Wang Yangjing 王彦晶 and Wu Tianyue 吴天岳 cannot be praisedenough They worked in cooperation with representatives of distinguished Chi-nese institutions such as Jiang Yi 江怡 of Beijing Normal University Sun Xiang-chen 孙向晨 of Fudan University and Xie Dikun 谢地坤 then of the ChineseAcademy of Social Sciences now of Renmin University The past and currentpresidents of FISP Dermot Moran and Luca Scarantino were the soul of thewhole endeavor and were flanked by an international program committee elect-ed within the Steering Committee of FISP On the international program commit-tee of the 24th WCP served Jiang Yi Hei-Sook Kim Ernest Lepore RiccardoPozzo Mogobe Ramose Marietta Stepaniants Sun Xiangchen Stelios Virvida-kis Tu Weiming Wang Bo and Xie Dikun

Scholars know today that the claim raised by Heidegger (1985) about philos-ophy belonging to Greece is untenable and that the same holds for the claimabout philosophy being a creation of the West that cannot flourish in other tra-ditions (Scarantino 2013 Diagne and Amselle 2020) The 24th WCP Beijing 2018was first and foremost an exercise of opening to the philosophical religiousand cultural complexity of the world Although Chinese philosophers participat-ed in great numbers they were a minority in comparison with the thousands andhundreds from Europe the Americas Russia India and the dozens from thePhilippines South Africa Korea Thailand Nigeria Kazakhstan which made itpossible to give the word to representatives of philosophical communities thatare usually not considered as players within the global campus of the contempo-rary philosophical world such as for example the variety of traditions withinAfrican philosophy⁸ In a myriad of symposia round-tables sessions of every

Among others Paulin Hountondji Tanella Boni and Souleymane Bachir Diagne


kind many innovations due to artificial intelligence knowledge fragmentationdata accessmdashto name only a few examplesmdashbrought up exciting considerationsfor issues such as consciousness marginality solidarity responsibility creativi-ty well-being and expressivitymdashthe first steps of the dialogical born cultureevoked by Tu Weiming⁹

The twenty-four world congresses of philosophy that have been held since1900 have all been momentous cultural events (Agazzi 2003 Elberfeld 2009)as can be verified by perusing their published proceedings (currently availableby the care of the Philosophy Documentation Center which is also in chargeof the FISP website)sup1⁰ At the 1st WCP Paris 1900 Bertrand Russell met GiuseppePeano who advised him to read Gottlob Frege and at the 4th WCP Bologna 1911Federigo Enriques contextualized positivism before neopositivism The partici-pants of the 3rd WCP Heidelberg 1908 were faced with the issue of valueswith Benedetto Croce a valiant help to Wilhelm Windelband and the 9th WCP

Great resonance found the plenary lectures given by Peter Singer Anne Cheng Mogobe Ra-mose Julian Nida-Ruumlmelin Maurizio Ferraris Judith Butler Sally Haslanger Andrey Smirnovand Supakwadee Amatayakul httpswwwpdcnetorgwcp visited on 6 May 2021‒ 1st 1900 1ndash5 August Paris France‒ 2nd 1904 4ndash8 September Geneva Switzerland‒ 3rd 1908 31 Augustndash5 September Heidelberg Germany‒ 4th 1911 5ndash11 April Bologna Italy‒ 5th 1924 5ndash9 May Naples Italy‒ 6th 1926 13ndash17 September Boston United States‒ 7th 1930 1ndash6 September Oxford United Kingdom‒ 8th 1934 2ndash7 September Prague Czech Republic‒ 9th 1937 31 Julyndash6 August Paris France‒ 10th 1948 11ndash18 August Amsterdam Netherlands‒ 11th 1953 20ndash26 August Brussels Belgium‒ 12th 1958 12ndash 18 September Venice Italy‒ 13th 1963 7ndash 14 September Mexico City Mexico‒ 14th 1968 2ndash9 September Vienna Austria‒ 15th 1973 17ndash22 September Varna Bulgaria‒ 16th 1978 26 Augustndash2 September Duumlsseldorf Germany‒ 17th 1983 21 Augustndash27 August Montreal Canada‒ 18th 1988 21ndash27 August Brighton United Kingdom‒ 19th 1993 22ndash28 August Moscow Russia‒ 20th 1998 10ndash15 August Boston United States‒ 21st 2003 10ndash 17 August Istanbul Turkey‒ 22nd 2008 30 Julyndash5 August Seoul South Korea‒ 23rd 2013 4ndash 10 August Athens Greece‒ 24th 2018 13ndash20 August Beijing China

8 1 Introduction

Paris 1937 was the celebrated Congregraves Descartes that left a deep mark in twenti-eth-century philosophy (Bianco 2014) WCPs met in Italy two other times at the5th WCP Naples 1924 and the 12th WCP Venice 1958 organized respectively byGiovanni Gentile and Carlo Giacon

Looking at the last decades the 19th WCP Moscow 1993 was organized byEvandro Agazzi in a city in which tanks were rolling in the streets duringBoris Eltsinrsquos coup drsquoeacutetat while the 20th WCP Boston 1998 organized by JaakkoHintikka was the first that surpassed the threshold of 3000 participants

How about East-West Until 1998 all WCPs were being held in Western coun-tries The first time in Asia was the 21st WCP Istanbul 2003 the first time in theFar East was the 22nd WCP Seoul 2008

It is significant that after the long-due homage to philosophy in Greecewhich was the 23rd WCP Athens 2013 the 24th WCP Beijing 2018 was onceagain held in the Far East this time marking the irreversible trend of establishingphilosophy as the foundation of a dialogical civilization Following this the in-ternational program committee was instrumental in convincing FISP to abandonAristotelian-Scholastic disciplinary classifications for titling the five plenary ses-sions while introducing instead items rooted in the tradition of spiritual human-ism (jingshen renwenzhuyi 精神人文主义 Cheng 1997 Cua 2003 Wen Haiming2012) Instead of the first plenary on logic and metaphysics the 24th WCP startedwith a plenary on self (ziwo自我) instead of the second plenary on ethics andpolitics it had a plenary on community (shequn 社群) instead of the third ple-nary on science a plenary on nature (ziran自然) instead of the fourth plenary onreligion a plenary on spirituality (jingshen精神) The scheme was completed bythe fifth historical-philosophical plenary on tradition (chuantong 传统) and wascontinued for choosing the titles of the ten plenary symposia Self (1) Ren Ubun-tu Love and the Heart (2) Mind Brain Body Consciousness Emotions Com-munity (3) Philosophy at the Margins Domination Freedom and Solidarity(4) Rights Responsibility and Justice Nature (5) Human Non-Human Post-Human (6) Science Technology and the Environment Spirituality (7) CreativitySymbol and Aesthetic Sense (8) ReasonWisdom and the Good Life Tradition(9) Expressibility Dialogue Translatability (10) Differences Diversity Common-alitysup1sup1

httpswcp2018schedcom visited on 6 May 2021


13 Innovation

While research implies government or private funding that brings about newknowledge innovation is about knowledge that generates value either in theform of new lines of products that ameliorate the well-being of citizens or inthe way of services whose cost-effectiveness is maximized (OECD 1986 1) Tech-nological innovation impacts society insofar as it fosters social innovationwhich generates cultural innovation when it becomes reflective The first philos-opher who considered innovation was Francis Bacon As early as 1625 he wrote

As the births of living creatures at first are ill-shapen so are all innovations which are thebirths of timeYet notwithstanding as those that first bring honor into their family are com-monly more worthy than most that succeed so the first precedent (if it is good) is seldomattained by imitation For ill to manrsquos nature as it stands perverted hath a natural motionstrongest in continuance but good as a forced motion strongest at first (Bacon 1908 109)

As a matter of fact philosophy keeps encountering innovation The fourth indus-trial revolution has provoked new waves of science and technology studies inwhich philosophers have a say (Godin 2009 Bontemps 2014 Gingras 2017) Be-sides all societies have been anchoring innovation insofar as people can connectwhatever is presented as new as something familiar to themsup1sup2 Today also phi-losophy is talking of transformative research that produces transformative inno-vation (Sen 2014) How does the encounter of philosophy with science and tech-nology take place

In the twentieth century philosophers have provided a substantial contribu-tion to the reflection on science and innovation A climax was the anneacutee Des-cartes 1937 a year-long celebration of the tercentenary of the publication ofReneacute Descartesrsquos Discours sur la meacutethode In 1937 the 9th WCP took place inParis at the Sorbonne Opened by Paul Valery it offered lectures by MauriceBlondel Leacuteon Brunschwicg Francesco Orestano WD Ross James Franck Jac-ques Maritain Louis Lavelle Francesco Olgiati Jean Wahl Gabriel Marcel Fer-dinand Gonseth Louis de Broglie Rudolf Carnap Hans Reichenbach HenriGouhier and Henry Corbin (with Walter Benjamin attending within the public)They considered issues such as causality determinism and the unity of sciencejust a few years before World War II

In this century philosophers are providing an even more considerable con-tribution to science and innovation There is reason to hope that the celebrationsof the tercentenary of Kantrsquos birth in 2024 will culminate in a series of significant

httpswwwrunloikosanchoring-innovation visited on 6 May 2021

10 1 Introduction

events which might end up marking the philosophical course of this century inthe same way as the anneacutee Descartes 1937 did for the previous one For the Kant-jahr 2024 we expect the new edition of the first section of Kantrsquos gesammelteSchriften (NAA Kant 2021 ff) the 14th international Kant-Congress in Kalinin-grad and the 25th WCP Rome 2024which will also celebrate Kantrsquos tercentenaryThe biggest challenges of this century ie globalization climate change biodi-versity collapse and disaster risk reduction (eg COVID-19) ask for a philosoph-ical narrative and what Kant has written on reflection and inclusion is the key toshaping the effort In other words it is conceivable that Kantrsquos work will be thekey to enable the paradigmatic shift I am suggesting philosophy might take tosupport sustainability in a globalized world However one ought to considerKantrsquos political philosophy as a whole and should not sidestep Kantrsquos ethnocen-tric-racist statements about the Indians the Chinese and the Blacks eg in hisBeobachtungen uumlber das Gefuumlhl des Schoumlnen und Erhabenen (AA2 252ndash255 CE[Beobachtungen] 58ndash61 see Shell 2002) Because of Kantrsquos controversial standon race it is up to debate whether Kant might be the best model to discuss glob-alization and cultural diversity Many other models are worth discussing Assum-ing the community insists on referring to Kant Kantrsquos view on race should beaddressed not ignored

The long and arduous process of defining a Chinese philosophical lexiconundertaken during the last decades of the nineteenth and the first half of thetwentieth century for a language in which it is not possible to make free useof any Greek or Latin etymology (as it is in the case in Western languages) isnot only a mere linguistic issue It also involves issues of political and social ac-ceptance of the influence of the West over China its culture and its way of think-ing This process did not only consist in introducing philosophy as a new branchof knowledge into China and making it acceptable to and consistent with the in-tellectual sensibility of the ruling class while creating new terms for new ideasThe main issue was to adequately conform the new discipline of philosophy toEast Asiarsquos millennial religions moral habits political and social behaviors(Gatta 2020)

Since Chinese scholars have begun to actively study and research Westernculture at the beginning of the twentieth century Kant was perceived as a chal-lenge in both systematic and lexical fields These two fields were interconnectedso that different lexical renditions have helped Chinese scholars adapt and do-mesticate Kantrsquos theories using words rooted in Chinarsquos philosophical traditionThe introduction translation and adaptation of Kantrsquos philosophy in China havegreatly influenced modern Chinese philosophy and have had a key role in theformation and standardization of a modern Chinese philosophical vocabulary

13 Innovation 11

On Kant in Asia much work has been done (Palmquist 2010 Seidel 2014)Let it be noted that the Chinese Kant Society was established in June 2019 at Pe-king University which is the last stage of a confrontation with Kantrsquos work thathas accompanied the whole twentieth century starting from the teacher of TuWeiming Mou Zongsan 牟宗三 (1909ndash 1995) a leading figure of contemporaryNeo-Confucianism who not only provided an epoch-making translation of thethree Critiques but also appropriated Kantrsquos theory of moral subjectivity (Heubel2016 118ndash 119) Chen Lai陈来 also a contemporary Neo-Confucian has pointedout that the ldquoform of flourishing in Confucianism is similar to Kantrsquos moral flour-ishing which additionally includes external goodness and the flourishing of thebody neither of which are emphasized in Chinese philosophy especially Confu-cianismrdquo (Chen Lai 2016 338)

Concerning contemporary Chinese philosophy let me point out Yang Guor-ongrsquos 杨国荣 (2013) ldquoconcrete metaphysicsrdquo Yang Guorong offers penetratingdiscussions of some of the most critical issues in modern philosophy especiallythose related to comparative philosophy Drawing freely and adroitly on Confu-cian Daoist and Buddhist texts while staging a dialogue with Western thinkerssuch as Kant Hegel Marx Heidegger and Wittgenstein Yang Guorong showshow contemporary Chinese philosophy has adopted localized and critically de-veloped Western ideas alongside traditional Chinese concepts (Yang Guorong2019)

Yang Guorongrsquos approach goes hand in hand with perspectives on metaphy-sics that were opened in the West during the Enlightenment Although mostscholars understand under metaphysics primarily the metaphysics of Hellenismand the Middle Ages which originated out of Platonic and Aristotelian elementsmdashand they do it quite correctlymdashone can however point out there have beenother forms of metaphysics in which the systematic construction of the absolutelost primacy for the profit of the phenomenological experience of consciousnessLet us think for instance of Georg Friedrich Meierrsquos Einleitung in die Metataphy-sik (Meier 1755a) whose objective is to question the distinction between metaphy-sica generalis and specialis that had been canonized in Christian Wolff rsquos Ver-nuumlnfftige Gedancken von Gott der Welt und der Seele der Menschen auch allenDingen uumlberhaupt (Wolff 1720) In Meierrsquos Betrachtungen uumlber die Schranckender menschlichen Erkenntnis the issue of limits becomes an incentive for reachingout to anybody who is not a philosopher by profession (Meier 1755b 56) Finallyin the treatise Von dem Ursprunge der menschlichen Erkenntniszlig Meier reacts tothe Dutens edition of Leibniz which brought out the to that date unpublishedNouveaux Essais sur lrsquoentendement humain and ignited a new discussion on in-natism in metaphysics and theory of cognition (Tonelli 1974) Meier says Leibnizis right when he takes for granted that the first commencements of human cog-

12 1 Introduction

nition lie in obscure perceptions which God has created for the human soul(Meier 1770 17) while Kant who reacted to Leibniz in his Dissertatio de mundisensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis appeared in 1770 only a fewweeks after Meierrsquos little treatise pleaded for the interaction between sensationsand understanding

Summing up on the one side Meier considers human cognition capable ofcomplete certainty (Meier 1755a 2) There are principles and fundamental truthsthat provide the commencements of human cognition On the other side even askeptic who maintains that humans cannot attain complete certainty would con-cede that there are several concepts and judgments that humankind has accept-ed as foundations on which a complete conviction is founded (Meier 1755a 3)Meier elaborates an apology of what he calls the true ie genuine metaphysicsin opposition to its degenerated forms While Meier appropriates the core ofWolff rsquos metaphysical construction he indicates however the conditions of pos-sibility for a future genuine metaphysics that ought to be a science (a distinctcognition based on certain and unshakable foundations) that merits this titleand that explains and demonstrates as long the limits of human cognition per-mit (Meier 1755a 6) All other known forms of metaphysics are the result of fal-lacies (Meier 1765 7) Today we know better In his Introduction to New RealismMaurizio Ferraris (2014 21) has made it clear that metaphysics is in many formsat hand and we have to accept that notwithstanding one does it or does notldquowith more passionrdquo

14 Narratives

As Heraclitus says everything flows (paacutenta rhei πάντα ῥεῖ) (DK [Herakleitos]B91) Mobility is the genus of which migration is a species In January 2015six months before the migrant crisis of the summer of 2015 the Committee of Re-gions of the European Union issued the Communication Plan 2015ndash2019 Recon-necting Europe with its Citizens which pledged funding for research and innova-tion activities on ldquoa European narrative that would allow a public debate inEurope about the historical cultural philosophical and sociological foundationsof European integration including the costs of Non-Europe without this beingimposed from the top down or becoming an exercise in legitimizing EU policiesa posteriorirdquosup1sup3 In September 2019 the European Commission posted a call about

The Reconnecting Europe with its Citizens communication plan lists the issues to be tackled

14 Narratives 13

narratives of migration within the calls of Societal Challenge 6 Europe in aChanging World Inclusive Innovative and Reflective Societiessup1⁴ Today thestudy of the impact of media and public narratives on perceptions opinions at-titudes and behaviors of different categories of people makes use of innovativeresearch methods including experimental ones and most importantly method-ologies offered by the research infrastructures for social and cultural innovation(see below chapters 6 and 7)

The literary genre of the narrative is defined as a ldquorepresentation of a partic-ular situation or process in such a way as to reflect or conform to an overarchingset of aims or valuesrdquo (OED 1989 sv 13) It is a primary mode of understandingand sharing experience and one of the most constitutive human linguistic com-munication genres Concerning migration it has been observed that knowledgeabout ldquoprocesses of displacement and relocation as lived by narrators and theprotagonists of their storiesrdquo offers ldquoa counterbalance to the often-negativeviews about marginalized social groups circulated through political discourse

as follows See (2015C 01909 58) Official Journal of the European Union 58(21 January 2015)40ndash45‒ Media representations of contemporary migrants‒ Migrants in literature and film both as objects and subjects of representation (as literaryfilm

characters and as authorsdirectors)‒ (Economic) migrants versus (political) exiles Is this distinction still valid and useful today

Or is the dividing line between these categories becoming blurred given the close interde-pendency of politics and economics In other words should the economic exclusion drivingmigrants be seen as a form of political violence and repression

‒ Survival andor re-packaging of old migration myths and clicheacutes for contemporary consump-tion are these recycled narratives useful in any way or do they obscure the reality and di-versity of contemporary migrantsrsquo experiences

‒ The relationship between formation of migrant identities and the emergence of nationalistdiscoursesconsecration of the nation-state in our political imaginarium

‒ (Re‐)emergence of xenophobic and racist discourses particularly during periods of economicuncertainty

‒ Emergence of new transnational andor diasporic identities‒ The role of the internet (ex-pat fora journalsblogs access to home media such as newspa-

pers and TV programs) in the maintenance of migrantsrsquo national identities abroad or alter-natively its role in the construction of more porous transnational identities

EUR 2020 21ndash22 ldquoThe way we collectively discuss about migration has an impact on theproduction of policies and responses to address this phenomenon Narratives on migrationndashbe it in the media public or political discoursesndashaffect political processes across Europe influ-ence our perceptions on migration dynamics and ultimately have an effect on the integration ofmigrants in our societies The challenge is to understand and explain the causes and consequen-ces of such narratives examining their construction and assessing their effects on attitudes tomigration and on society at largerdquo

14 1 Introduction

and the mainstream mediardquo Thus ldquoresearch using stories both as objects and astools is fundamentally qualitative and often ethnographically orientedrdquo (De Finaand Tseng 2017 381ndash382)

Migration is perceived as an anomaly an anomy a challenge to sovereignty(Di Cesare 2017 20) It opens up the possibility of a different world a world thatrequires ldquodeterritorializationrdquo (Appadurai 1996) the fluidity of flows autonomyof crossing hybridization of identities (Di Cesare 2017 20) However we do notyet have a philosophy of migrationWe are still missing a reflection about migrat-ing and a conceptualization of what a migrant is (Di Cesare 2017 28) Migrationrequires working with the idea of fostering research on systemic change in thenew generations and contributing to cross-border and multidisciplinary open in-novation environments for research data knowledge and services with engagedstakeholders and organizations

Concerning the conditions of possibility of migration narratives we see un-told recent and not so recent pasts impinging upon the present through modernmedia of reproduction like photography film recorded music and the inter-net as well as through the explosion of historical scholarship and an evermore voracious museal culture ldquothe past has become part of the present inways merely unimaginable in earlier centuriesrdquo (Terdiman 1993) The internetplays a role for it offers the stage for ex-pat fora journals and blogs Howeverhome media such as newspapers and television programs continue to be cru-cial (Amato and DellrsquoAgnese 2016)

A general human right to freedom of interstate migration is justifiedthrough individual autonomy equality of opportunity substantive economicand social and political equality at the global level (Carens 2014 226ndash 228) En-visaging a more complex elaboration of immigration laws according to whichsome people have rights against legitimate states to cross borders and bywhich legitimate states have rights to exclude others (Cole 2000 Wellmanand Cole 2011) the issue boils down to assessing citizenship Have citizensearned a quasi-property right in the national institutions How about alienat-ing them As bequest or give or trade (Pevnik 2011) However Carensrsquos threekey concepts of individual autonomy equality of opportunity and global polit-ical equality are not carved in stone yet A debate has started about the free-dom of migrating conflicting with the freedom of accepting

History of philosophy contributes to strengthening a culture of innovationand inclusion that responds to the needs expressed by migration a culturethat holds together the various communities as a driver for developing societalreflectivity and competitiveness History of philosophy sets the stage for estab-lishing narratives that encounter the other the different the opposite the oppos-ing the contradictory Let me mention only three endeavors that were started at

14 Narratives 15

different moments and are still up and running They are the Journal of the His-tory of Ideas (founded 1941) the Lessico Intellettuale Europeo (founded 1964)and the Key Concepts of Chinese Thought and Culture (founded 2015) These en-deavors make it possible for narratives to speak of classical and vernacular cul-ture of universities academies gymnasia and schools of women and men ofpeasants and savages of reverends and witches of the three religions of thebook of the philosophical schools of the East of the nosotros of the Andes ofthe sub-Saharan chavannes The list never ends in an approach that considersa plurality of languages in texts that are also considered in their broadest spec-trum of printed writings judicial leaflets recitations debates and even here thelist does not end Narratives are expected to provoke reflection an individualprocess that causes a collective process inclusion which is then the answerthat philosophy can give to the anxieties of the present moment amid theCOVID-19 pandemic

History of philosophy is part of the social and cultural development of territo-ries and contributes to increasing the quality of life of citizens Certainly philoso-phers were born in their own countries and might have chosen a religious de-nomination We have to consider the need for fostering reflective knowledgethat avoids ldquothe false neutrality and universality of so much academic knowl-edgerdquo (Rose 2010 238) For example religious arenas and networks provide ad-equate spaces of exchange that enable interaction with others with whom faith isshared and thus become the basis for social action and involvement whetherframed as a religious charity diaspora engagement or otherwise (Ambrosiniet al 2018) In this context the task of the historian of philosophy is indeed sus-pended between the rigor of the scientific endeavor and the inventiveness of thesubjective story-telling Concerning our understanding of what narratives areHayden White has made it clear that historical writing is influenced by literarywriting in many ways sharing the firm reliance on narratives for meaning elim-inating the possibility of objective or truly scientific historical accounts (White2014) Narratives find expression in artistic activities such as exhibitions per-formances participatory practices or community arts (Silver et al 2010)

In sum policy suggestions identify empowerment as an essential and inde-pendent objective of reform Eventually what we need are ldquocommunity-basedhuman rights assessmentsrdquo (Meyers 2014) Migration is an increasingly special-ized field of research that risks becoming self-centeredmdashlooking beyond migra-tion does justice to the complexity of individuals and societies For instancethe decision to migrate cannot be understood in isolation from other possibilitiesof achieving matters that are vital Subjective experiences can be heavily affectedby migration that has not (yet) happened Some people live in fear of beingforced to leave their homes others have a strong desire to build a future else-

16 1 Introduction

where For this reason philosophy of migration has become a urgent need (Mill-er 2016 Nida-Ruumlmelin 2017 Di Cesare 2017 Reinhardt 2019) For migrants set-tling down in adopted home countries lack of inclusion and recognition dis-crimination and racism make integration processes challenging (Dewind andKasinitz 2010 Xie Yu and Gough 2011) Migration puts us in front of the alterna-tive between choosing to open borders which creates a domestic state of natureor to exercise discretionary power concerning the exclusion admission and re-moval of non-citizens thus establishing a state of exception in which non-citi-zens are subject to the unchecked power of the host country (Mendoza 20171ndash5) Above all we are missing guidance regarding a range of ethical issues in-volved in migration research informants can be in vulnerable situations thespecific vulnerabilities are not always evident to outsiders government-fundedresearch can jeopardize the integrity of scholars who might become involvedin contentious policies Among the actions to be taken are improving interna-tional cooperation and governance responding to irregular immigration foster-ing integration and acknowledging diversity and societal change (Castles etal 2013 320)

15 Cultural Diversity

History of philosophy is about cosmopolitanism concerning culture and the self(Taraborrelli 2015 87) Why is history of philosophy about cosmopolitanismDoes it have to do with who constructs history of philosophy or is it about cre-ating a narrative space that can be reshaped by diversifying the space and theauthors who construct the history of philosophy

As Roger Ames has put it Western philosophy as a professional disciplinehas to this day invoked geographical rather than philosophical criteria to per-suade itself and the world that philosophy is an Anglo-European enterpriseMoreover this situation is not merely a matter of Western arrogance If indige-nous Asian philosophies have been ignored abroad they have also been signifi-cantly marginalized within their home cultures (Ames 2015 209) although avital task of philosophers is to identify and describe the generic traits of thehuman experience to locate problems within the broadest possible context Fur-thermore defining characteristics become notably different as we move from onecultural and epochal site to another Philosophers are responsible for seekingout and understanding the uncommon assumptions that distinguish culturesboth as a resource for addressing philosophical problems and as a remedyagainst cultural reductionism and ethnocentrism Thus the absence of philoso-

15 Cultural Diversity 17

phers in the interpretation of Chinese philosophy to a Western audience hascome at a cost (Ames 2015 214ndash215)

Philosophers have hardly thematized cultural diversity It is nonetheless areality As Kerwin Lee Klein writes ldquoRather than elaborating ever more intricateprinciples for differentiating historical and non-historical cultures and texts everwe need to consider what happens to historicity when we imagine all peoplesregardless race religion or literacy as historical and to think of their narrativesas different varieties of historical discourse rather than a romantic alternative toitrdquo (Klein 2011 111) In its current global dimension philosophy is overcomingpast distinctions and is ready to encounter the world History of philosophyought to move beyond outmoded exclusive dichotomies such as traditionalmod-ernWestthe rest and localglobalWe need non-dichotomous thinking that en-ables an inclusive multicultural approach to philosophical inquiry (Tu Weiming2010 91 see Van Norden 2017)

Some philosophers aim to integrate Western and non-Western philosophicalhistories and traditions to address better the crucial questions facing global in-tellectual history (Moyn and Sartori 2013 Conrad 2016) As stated by Bina Guptaand JN Mohanty philosophy East-West then ought to become ldquoa conversationof humankind and not merely a conversation of the Westrdquo (Gupta and Mohanty1996 xv) When it comes to cultural diversity moral philosophers tend to makeeither of two big mistakes One is to ignore itmdashto act as if Western morality werethe only sort of morality in the world or at least the only kind that matters Theother mistake is to stumble into nihilistic relativism in which moral judgmentsare converted to mere behaviors and one is left in no position to advocate orcriticize anything (Flanagan 2017)

Disciplines that are unable to share linguistic protocols can nonethelessdelve with profit into the same problem What is possible among disciplines isalso possible among civilizations Western Islamic Chinese and African cul-tures have different points of view other ideas different Lebensformen butagain they share the same problems All civilizations investigate issues connect-ed with the notions of God the world and humankind Martin Heidegger arguedthat if language is the house of being and if man due to conceptual languagelives within the house of being we ought to absurdly conclude that Western citi-zens live in a home that is completely isolated from citizens of other civilizationsHeidegger (1985) made an example of the display of taste (ikiいき) from the Chi-nese word for essence (cui粹) a key notion of Japanese aesthetic that is untrans-latable into Western conceptuality The history of a problem goes well beyond thevarious nuances a concept may take up within a culture as Walter Benjamin ex-plained in ldquoDie Aufgabe des Uumlbersetzersrdquo (Benjamin 1923 see Sgarbi 2010 197)

18 1 Introduction

In her book on yinyang 阴阳 Robin Wang has chosen to let ldquothe Chinese textsdisclose what yinyang isrdquo She has indeed tried

not to impose an interpretation especially those coming from Western terminologies butrather let the texts unfold the meanings of yinyang frequently through quotations Thismethod supports the fundamental goal of giving greater specificity to conceptions of yi-nyangmdashwe must recognize how different texts developed yinyang in specific ways andfor other purposes (Wang 2012 17)

In sum the community of historians of philosophy ought to know it is time for aparadigm shift towards abandoning parochial disputes in favor of an approachthat turns on the need of factoring other cultures into onersquos own A historian ofphilosophy should not ldquotell the story of the past only from the vantage point of asingle part of the world or of powerful elites but rather widen his or her scopesocially and geographically and introduce plural voices into the accountrdquo (Davis2011 190)

151 Cosmopolitanism

An Egyptian deity Thōth Θώθ was credited with the invention of hieroglyphsduring the axial age hence with the birth of alphabets ideograms and theidea of the natural origin of language as a universal languagemdashfrom Plato toAthanasius Kircher (see below chapter 8)When Alberico Gentili set the founda-tions of the science of international law Giordano Brunomdashwho had the chance ofmeeting Gentili at Oxford and Wittenbergmdashelaborated his notion of ldquoworld citi-zenshiprdquo (Schroumlder 2017 14) Bruno reflected on cosmopolitanism during an ageof religious troubles in a continent ready to start colonial expansion Bruno is akey author for sixteenth-century philosophical perspectivism which results fromtwo revolutions the cosmological revolution of heliocentrism and the geograph-ic revolution of circumnavigation Brunorsquos perspectivism requires abandoningthe idea of an absolute center in favor of totality His use of the hermeneuticalcircle served to open up different viewpoints diverse worldviews (Weltan-schauungen) thus providing full legitimation to positions that a unique thoughtwas likely to englobe as something peripheral In this sense philosophy cannotbe but profoundly eclectic It is in constant search of a language for narratives ofthe things of the worldmdashfrom physics to ethicsmdashwhile opening to diverse stylesand literary genres without excluding autobiography


152 Transferring Competencies

Especially history of philosophy can be effective by figuring out what are thenew narratives of migration that current flows make more necessary than everWith migration among the key issues of this century a reconsideration is urgentof the transfer of organizing principles for developing competencies to act inmulticultural settings I would like to suggest that history of philosophy isabout transferring competencies from one cultural context to another When aEuropean youth goes to China she transfers to China European competencieswhile a Chinese youth transfers inversely to Europe Chinese competenciesHence chapter 3 below has a particular focus on Chinese diaspora (huaqiao华侨 see Barabantseva 2011) which amounts to more than 50 million people(Tu Weiming 2010 14) and chapter 8 provides another focus on the challengeposed by interacting Chinese radicals into alphabets The challenge goes backto the seventeenth century when the Jesuits who translated and studied Chinesephilosophy (Kircher 1986) blended ideas from three different periods of Chinesemillennial history Their reports gave the West a distorted image of Confucian-ism while Buddhist texts remained mostly unknown in Europe (Westseijn2007 540 see Li Wenchao 1999 Nelson 2017) While the program of the 24thWCP partly reflected the Chinese way of dividing philosophy into self communi-ty nature and spirit Western philosophers in attendance in Beijing translatedthe four items respectively into logic-metaphysics ethics physics and psychol-ogy That was a start What we still need though are cohorts of scholars placedin between who are aware of both traditions

153 Thick Identities

Globalization is not a new experience It is a long-term historical process that en-hances regional national and local identities (Tu Weiming 2010 331) For in-stance considering Europersquos need to adapt to historical change it is necessaryto challenge the notion of a European intellectual identity Speaking of identitytoday has become anachronistic because Europe has evolved beyond itsGreco-Roman intellectual roots becoming more diverse ldquoEuropean intellectualidentity hellip is now much broader in scope hellip enriched through historical changeparticularly immigrationrdquo (EUR 2015 8) However cultural identity (Butler 1990Leacutevi-Strauss 2004) is a syntagma that is ldquopolysemic slippery and illusoryrdquo (Der-vin 2012 181) In fact ldquoculture cannot be but plural changing adaptable con-structedhellip A culture that does not change and exchange with other cultures is adead culturerdquo (Dervin 2012 183)

20 1 Introduction

154 Transnational Spaces

Cultures are part of national identities and are bound to one countryrsquos languageand history However cultures are the constituent of transnational ties (Myrdaland Karjalainen 2004 15) Political boundaries define some as members butlock others out (Dobson 2010) More and more people live in countries thatare not their own given that state sovereignty is not as strong as it was in thepast and borders are becoming porous (Gupta 2003) Cultures are in themselvesmore than their means of support Cultures are immaterial They are lightsnamely the aura of invisible light that the civilized human being attaches toan object as a token of appreciation veneration and awe (Benjamin 1936) Atthe center of all research on cultural heritage are auratic objects (artifactsbooks social findings) that were set by a person which makes today a reposi-tioning of current technological developments towards a truly human-centeredartificial intelligence more and more urgent (EUR 2015 14 20) Persons are notout there only to make sure machines work They are expected to pose the ques-tions the human being finds necessary to pose while going on the via humanita-tis on the way of light as Johann Amos Comenius (1938) said

16 Argument Outline

This book is about innovation reflection and inclusion The argument starts(Part One) with a general thesis on the need for new narratives in history of phi-losophy (chapter 2) to establish its role in tackling migration (chapter 3) Thepages on the reflective society (Part Two) continue the argument by embodyingthe reflective stance (chapter 4) in consideration of societal readiness (chapter 5)and cultural innovation (chapter 6) The argument ends with a comprehensivepresentation (Part Three) of the paradigm shift from a close reading of texts toa distant reading of corpora (chapter 7) and its implications for the translationof languages (chapter 8) and the translation (in the literal sense of transportingcrates full of books) of studies (chapter 9)

This book considers the history of philosophy as well as the theory of writingthe history of philosophy It places a particular emphasis on the migration ofideas (Scazzieri and Simili 2018) Mostly it addresses three conceptual problemsof the historiography of philosophy and proposes to look into solutions that ac-count for the new modes and media of our digital age First how should the re-silience against non-Western traditions be conceptualized in historical accountsof philosophy Second how is it possible to reconcile the intuition that philos-ophy can transcend the conditions of its production by acknowledging the con-

16 Argument Outline 21

tingent and situated nature of philosophical work Third is it possible to provide abasis for assessing the effectiveness of history of philosophy from a global per-spective in terms of adequacy and validity without relinquishing the sensitivity ofwhat is currently considered as the best historiography of philosophy

Regarding the first issue scholars are expected to abandon the idea that his-tory of philosophy today relies on a linear translation of studies that started inAthens and has gone across the centuries around the world (Diagne 2018)They should be open to the idea of a pluriversum of a history of facts and placeswhereby history of philosophy finds its grounding in spatial heterogeneity How-ever we are talking of a complex task because not everything is translatable andwhen we look for comparisons we must consider the diversity of cultural con-texts

Regarding the second issue to date we must admit that intellectual historyand philosophy have a difficult time interacting with each other Intellectual his-tory involves the reconstruction of arguments as they have been recorded in textsduring the centuries making it bear a strong affinity to the history of philosophyHowever intellectual history remains distinct from the history of philosophy be-cause philosophers have mostly disregarded cultural diversityThey count insteadalmost exclusively upon the internal coherence of the arguments themselveswhich however leaves philosophy at a quite reductive state of the art In thetwenty-first century when people migrate and transfer competencies at increas-ing velocitymdashthink of so-called connected migrantsmdashhistory of philosophy can beusefully reinvented on the basis of its consideration of intercultural dialogue

As regards the third issue finally it ought to be corpora that talk to eachother then which takes place through the discussions undertaken by individ-ual philosophers born in different parts of the world By corpora I mean muchmore than the sum of separate books I mean XML-accessible complete collec-tions of traditions of texts with corresponding dictionaries thesauri and refer-ence works which makes it possible to analyze a considerable number of orig-inal texts transliterations in other alphabets or hanzi 汉字 characters andaligned translations

In a nutshell this book argues that history of philosophy from a global per-spective is possible More than that it is necessary A multidisciplinary approachis essential for the challenges posed by a methodology that is still at the designstage and must be led to maturity I am talking of a different kind of history ofphilosophy not the established discipline that is being practiced today

22 1 Introduction


2 Perspectives

In this chapter I consider current perspectives in history of philosophy in orderto show how the discipline is becoming a critical factor in an enhanced and en-riched multicultural and multireligious society first and foremost on behalf ofthe urgent need of its encompassing and appreciating diversity as well as thesharing of experiences values and aspirations Let it be reminded that ideasmdashas Arthur O Lovejoy made clearmdashldquoare the most migratory things in the worldrdquo(Lovejoy 1990a 2 see also Lovejoy 1948) I am not merely talking of Geistesge-schichte (Spitzer 1990 42 see also Lovejoy 1990b) for although the ldquoidea of mul-ticulturalism as a social and political projectrdquo appears at first sight to be ldquoalatecomer to both public debate and the social sciencesrdquo yet this is not soldquofight-or-traderdquo (Baumann and Vertovec 2011 1)

I start the chapter with the contextualist revolution recognized by ChristiaMercer (2019 see also Bevir 2009) as the latest development within the commu-nity of historians of philosophy in English-speaking countries I proceed by sur-veying debates at the global level to explain why and how history of philosophycontributes with content and processes to the reflective society I conclude bysuggesting that the effectiveness of the history of philosophy lies in a newmodel that considers both the internal aspects of an œuvre that growsmdashwhichcan be investigated first and foremost in a lexical analysismdashand the external as-pects of the paratexts that have presided at the constitution of that œuvre

21 Apologue

Let me suggest a thought experiment Imagine a first-generation diaspora youth(huaqiao华侨) who attends a classical lyceum in Italy (Cristaldi 2012 Raffaetagrave etal 2015 Reynolds and Zontini 2016 Cadeddu and Marras 2019) At a certainpoint she might be asked to read a text by Plato possibly the Apology of Socrates(Apologiacutea Sōkraacutetous Aπολογία Σωκράτους) first in Italian thenmdashwe might bethinking of an ambitious youthmdashperhaps in the Greek original the RenaissanceLatin rendering of Marsilius Ficinus and even the newest English translation(Plato 2020) The interesting thing happens when the student eventuallybumps into a translation (Plato柏拉图 2017) in modern unified Chinese (putong-hua普通话) at which point she might start a discussion on Socrates in her Chi-nese-speaking family Inversely schoolmates might appropriate say the Ana-lects (Lunyu 论语) of Confucius (Ni Peimin 2017) through the conceptualreferences indicated by their fellow students Together they may start thinking


about movement (dong 动) stillness (jing 静) human being (renji 人际) hu-maneness (ren 仁) and come to grasp fundamental notions of Neo-Confucian-ism such as the dictum that represents the unity of heaven and the humanbeing (tianrenheyi 天人合一) which amounts to ldquorestoring the Heavenly Princi-ple and diminishing human desiresrdquo (Wang 2005 320) Apparent affinities inthe traditions notwithstanding our classroom might realize that ldquometaphysicsis bound up with ethicsrdquo so that reality determines what is ethical (Sim 2015616) Eventually they would come to grasp some key tenets of global signifi-cance on the autonomy of human nature (Tu Weiming 2010)

This is something philosophers today might want to take advantage of(Pozzo 2020) for our student reenacts and reinterprets debates dating back tothe fourth century BC The good thing is she has become aware of the global con-text of these debates She has become aware she is contributing to the discussionon the axial age (Nagl 2014)

The global context has been defined in Chinese culture The opening lines ofthe Western Inscription (Ximing 西铭) of the eleventh-century Confucian philos-opher Zhang Zai 張載 (1020ndash 1077) characterize human beings as filial childrenof the cosmos with famous words

Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother and even such a small creature as I finds anintimate place in their midst Therefore that which fills the universe I regard as my bodyand that which directs the universe I consider as my nature All people are my brothersand sisters and all things are my companions (Ximing西铭 1ndash3 Chan Wing-Tsit 1963 497)

Here Tu Weiming (2010 203ndash204) has seen the passage from secular to spiritualhumanism which is the keystone for understanding the Confucian tradition andits modern forms The faith in the creative transformation of our human condi-tion as a communal act and as a dialogical response to heaven (tian天) involvesthe integration of the four dimensions of humanity (renlei人类) self communi-ty nature and spirit which I have already mentioned above (see chapter 1)namely the self as creative transformation the community as a necessary vehiclefor human flourishing nature as the home for our form of life and spirit as thesource of the ultimate self-realization (Tu Weiming 2010 210)

The presupposition is that the term Confucian can be broadened and deep-ened to go beyond the Sinic world to embrace true cosmopolitanism (Tu Weim-ing 2015 Kim 2016) Let us think of what happened to Pierre Bayle who com-pared Confucius with Spinoza on the basis of ldquonothing more than asuperficial knowledge of Oriental philosophyrdquo (Westseijn 2007 539) That wasthe time when Confucius was eventually known in Europe (Eacutetiemble 1988 Mun-gello 1998 Macfie 2003) through pioneer endeavors such as Confucius Sinarum

26 2 Perspectives

philosophus (1686) followed by Malebranche (1708 1980) Leibniz (2002) andWolff (1985) As a matter of fact though the ldquoJesuits who translated and studiedChinese philosophy confused ideas from three different periods and their re-ports gave the West a distorted image of Confucianism while Buddhist texts re-mained largely unknownrdquo (Westseijn 2007 540 see also Masini 1996 Li Wen-chao 2000) To complicate the matter Sinas referred to the peoples inhabitinga region including modern-day China Japan and Korea (Ivanhoe 2016) whilethe three periods mixed together were (1) the ancient past of classics like theBook of Changes (Yijing 易经) (2) traditional Confucianism as reported by theearly followers of Confucius (3) and Neo-Confucianism which was started byZhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (1017ndash 1073) and found its establishment in Zhu Xi 朱熹(1030ndash1100) whose synthesis sought to refute both Daoism and Buddhism byselectively adapting certain elements from both traditions into Confucian philos-ophy (Wang 2005 323 see also Feng Youlan 1983 Ching 2000 Ivanhoe 2016Foust 2017 Yusa 2017) Finally it is useful to remind that in the anonymous(1994 2006) libertine manuscript composed around 1700 De tribus impostoribusMoses was introduced as the grandson of the Egyptian magician Hermes Trisme-gistus (‛Ερμῆς Τρισμέγιστος) who tricked the Jews into believing the humanbody had a divine mission A few years before Jacques Basnage de Beauval(1690) had established an ldquoAsian pedigree for Greek philosophy Plato and Py-thagoras had not only visited Egypt but Pythagoras had been a pupil of theChaldaeans beyond the Chaldaeans might be glimpsed not only the Magiansand Zoroastrians but also the Brahmins or Gymnosophists of Indiardquo (Westseijn2007 554)

Well the apologue is about this the future of the discipline is at stake(Schmalz 2012) and the way to go is cross-cultural (Schogimen 2016) ldquoA lastnew frontier of intellectual history at the end of the twentieth centuryrdquo hasbeen the effort ldquoto understand cultures not only past but also alienrdquo (Kelley2002 303) I am talking of the ldquopoint of view of the lsquoOtherrsquo not only blacksand women excluded from male cultural monopolies but also colonial victimsof the expansionist spirit of the Western powersrdquo which point of view ldquocanonly be inferred from the outsidemdashthe eternal dilemma of anthropologyrdquo (Kelley2002 307ndash308) There is ldquonothing new in principle about scholarship in the his-tory of philosophy concerning itself with a philosophy around the globehellip Thequestion then is what if anything might be new about working on the historyof philosophy in the era of globalizationrdquo (Schneewind 2005 170) SouleymaneBachir Diagne has expressed a powerful warning against the resistance to plural-ize history of philosophy

21 Apologue 27

In order to decolonize the history of philosophy against the fabrication of translatio studio-rum as the unilinear path connecting Greek thought and sciences to medieval EuropeanChristianity we need to pluralize that history And to manifest in our textbooks that trans-latio studiorum is not just Jerusalem-Athens-Rome-Paris or London or Heidelberg hellip but aswell Athens-Nishapur-Bagdad-Cordoba-Fez-Timbuktu (Diagne 2018 13)

Coming back to our classical lyceum we can think of high-school students delv-ing into multilayered multilingual hypertextsmdashlike the ones envisaged on thebasis of the reciprocal guidance made possible by social reading tools (Roncaglia2018) A well-organized structure of social reading ensures an ongoing exchangeof information debate and knowledge among students and their instructorsthus helping to increase knowledge and appreciation among citizensmdashespeciallyyoung peoplemdashof their shared yet diverse cultural heritage Especially first-gen-eration migrants are likely to share experiences that help them shape theirldquotransnational and diasporic identityrdquo (Forbush and Welles 2016 Reynoldsand Zontini 2016)What is needed are ground-stones for a new paradigm for con-tent organization that draws upon the book culture but opens it by incorporatingmultilayered content community-based social reading tools and multimedia(Leacutevy 2002) Current readers take up the task of building strong complex self-consistent narratives and arguments favoring the freedom of movement withina rich but granular landscape of content

The Chinese student is a practical example of both theory and practice ofintercultural philosophy (Mall 2000 xi) What she is doing is nothing moreand nothing less than reenacting the discipline of the history of philosophy with-in an intercultural framework This shows that in the twenty-first century histo-ry of philosophy is not an issue for philosophers alone nor are migratory phe-nomena issues only for statisticians demographers and economists History ofphilosophy can provide compelling case studies for migrants that are bound tokeep their own culture while mingling with the cultural backgrounds of othersEspecially today at a time in which online media set the stage for ldquodiasporicidentitiesrdquo (Diminescu and Loveluck 2014 27) In fact e-diasporas can be ap-proached as ldquoforms of network publicsrdquo that ldquoemerge and to some extent self-or-ganize through digital activity and its aggregation in the form of networksrdquo (Di-minescu and Loveluck 2014 35) These are the questions that scholars arebeginning to raise

What do the digital humanities mean for a critical understanding of digital diasporas inpostcolonial Europe Is it just migrantsrsquo use of technology that qualifies digital humanitiesas an emerging field for the redefinition of Europe Or is it more the use and application ofdigital methods hellip to visualize understand dig into the role of social media online activ-ities and web techniques for understanding cultural change and political constellations in

28 2 Perspectives

Europe Is it about digital tools as enabling or as also generating borders and diasporas asnew social ordering (Ponzanesi and Koen 2014 16ndash 17)

Dana Diminescu has introduced the notion of ldquorelational settlementrdquo defining itas ldquothe social device by which the migrant organizes his life of mobilityrdquo Todaymigrants can successfully integrate due to either spontaneous solidarity or closelyreckoned profit and establish bonds to make friends They create a ldquosocial contin-uumrdquo that ensures ldquothe success of the project of mobilityrdquo (Diminescu 2008 571)In this century migrants live in the form of a connected presencemdashat times trau-matic (Runia 2006)mdashthat is very sensitive to ldquomodes of remote presencerdquo whosecognitive and emotional nature depend ldquoon the richness of the interactionrdquo (Dimi-nescu 2008 572) Hence it has become vital to look into the yet ldquolargely uninves-tigated corpus on the Webrdquo grown out of the e-practices of migrants that have tran-sitioned from paper to electronic supports (first and foremost ID documents)whose modes of access are more or less subject to electronic monitoring (Dimines-cu 2008 574) It is time to start constructing ldquoan electronic sociology of migrationrdquo(Diminescu 2008 575)

22 Historical and Philosophical History of Philosophy

Currently a number of projects are working on elaborating new narratives in thehistory of philosophy They ask for a thorough bringing up to date of some keyconcepts of the humanities and the social sciences such as identity diversity na-tional spaces migration multiculturalism dialogue and cultural transferssup1⁵Theoretical and normative approaches regarding the question of diversity and in-tegration ldquosuch as multiculturalism and interculturalism compete in an attemptto redefine citizenship and nationhoodrdquo (Kastoriano 2018) First and foremostthe history of women philosophers asks for a narration that is new in formand content (Hagengruber and Hutton 2019)sup1⁶

It was Mario Dal Pramdashthe editor of the Rivista critica di storia della filosofiamdashwho asked as early as 1946 for an innovative and richer notion of philosophizingto enable a renewal in Italian culture through continuous interventions in therealm of the history of philosophical historiography and its methodology which

Currently two projects on new narratives are up and running httpwwwnewnarrativesinphilosophynetabouthtml httpshistoryofwomenphilosophersorg visited on 6May 2021 httpshistoryofwomenphilosophersorg visited on 6 May 2021

22 Historical and Philosophical History of Philosophy 29

ldquoinevitably impacted on specific problems of systematic researchrdquo (Borghero 2017464) In 1951 Dal Pra made it clear that

History is a ldquofree processrdquo if rhythms can be determined in it but not such as to never pre-clude in any situation the opening to multiple possibilities if the logical systems them-selves are multiple even if the past is plural interwoven with voices that have remainedsuspended towards a future that can understand them and insert them into the fabric ofhuman events (Dal Pra 1951 32)sup1⁷

To date however intellectual history and philosophy hardly interact with eachother Most scholars insist on keeping them apart As Sarah Hutton has ob-served

this separation reflects an anxiety on the part of philosophers lest the special character ofphilosophy will be dissolved into something else in the hands of historians And it is borneof a fundamental tension between those who think of philosophyrsquos past as a source of ideasand arguments of interest to the present and those who hold that the philosophy of thepast should be studied on its own terms in relation to its immediate context without ref-erence to the present The challenge then is to re-historicise the history of philosophy andto keep the philosophers onside (Hutton 2014 925)

The methodological approaches are different they have little literature in com-mon and even the footnotes differ (Mandelbaum 1965) The subject is nonethe-less the same one thought and its history The idea is that the relation betweenthem has always been under investigation and it is worth being questioned dec-ade after decade (Croce 1915 Collingwood 1946) Looking for new narratives inthe history of philosophy begins with a critical consideration of this missing in-teraction

Intellectual history involves a close reconstruction of philosophical argu-ments as they have been recorded in texts during the centuries Intellectual his-tory has strong bonds with the history of philosophy history of wisdom historyof thought and Geistesgeschichte (Kelley 2002 3) They are different howeverinsofar as philosophers tend to neglect nuances within external contexts andlook first and foremost for the internal consistency of the argument they are con-sidering (Kelley 2005 158)

The debate took a decisive turn in the fifties when Eugenio Garin had put allthe weight of historicism in favor of the history of philosophy (Borghero 2017

ldquoLa storia egrave lsquoprocesso liberorsquo se in essa sono sigrave determinabili dei ritmi ma non tali da pre-cludere mai in nessuna situazione lrsquoapertura a molteplici possibilitagrave se i sistemi logici stessisono molteplici se anche il passato egrave plurale intessuto di voci rimaste sospese verso un futuroche possa intenderle e inserirle nel tessuto della vicenda umanardquo

30 2 Perspectives

450) while pointing out that the unit-ideas of Lovejoy (1936 3) are limited to par-ticular aspects of common experience as implicit or explicit presuppositions thatare persistent through the centuries and vary only through the terms used forthem For Garin history of philosophy requires a comprehension of the pastas past in alterity to the present as something diverse (Garin 1959 25ndash26 Bor-ghero 2017 444)

As Anthony Grafton has put it everybody gains by accepting the death of thehistory of ideas old style and by going back to work on intellectual history (Graf-ton 2006) which is ldquoclosely related to cultural history being analogous to thepolar modes of inquiry commonly known as internalist and externalistmdashor thelsquointellectualistrsquo (or even lsquospiritualistrsquo) and lsquocontextualistrsquomdashapproachrdquo (Kelley2002 4) The acknowledgment of diversity implies what Christia Mercer (2019530) has called the getting-things-right-constraint of contextualism which isshared by those historians of philosophy who are aware they ldquoshould not attrib-ute claims or ideas to historical figures without concern for whether or not theyare the ones the figures would recognize as their ownrdquo while the appropriation-ists ie the rational reconstructionistsmdashstarting from Hegel and continuingthrough Wilhelm Windelband and Francesco Olgiati to contemporary analyticphilosophersmdashassume philosophy to be perennial nonhistorical ready athand for any elaboration at any time (Knuuttila and Niilinuoto 1996 Laeligrke etal 2013 Borghero 2017 Hohenegger and Pozzo 2017 Mercer 2019)

The calembour I have chosen for the title of this section goes back to a de-bate that set Ferdinand Alquieacute (and his assistants Gilles Deleuze and Jean-LucMarion) against Martial Gueroult (also the teacher of many) Topical books by Al-quieacute are his Nostalgie de lrsquoecirctre (1966) and Signification de la philosophie (1971)while Gueroult started with a paper published in the first issue of the Archiviodi filosofia (1954) and ended with his celebrated Philosophie de lrsquohistoire de laphilosophie (1979) For Alquieacute philosophy is historical and that would be it

The work of a man for the philosopher is not endowed with lights virtues or particularinsights he does not know more than the others and often less than much he experiencespassions and the most disagreeable ones and if he loves wisdom he is not therefore asage also when he wants to appear so he only succeeds in provoking a laugh (Alquieacute1966 147)sup1⁸

Seven years earlier Garin had been even more explicit

ldquoLrsquoœuvre drsquoun homme et le philosophe nrsquoest pas doueacute de lumiegraveres de vertus ou drsquointu-itions particuliegraveres il nrsquoen sait pas plus que les autres et souvent moins que beaucoup ileacuteprouve des passions et des plus deacutesagreacuteables et srsquoil aime la sagesse il nrsquoest pas pour celaun sage aussi quand il veut le paraicirctre ne reacuteussit-il qursquoagrave precircter agrave rirerdquo


Philosophy does not exist before whose tribunal one can call philosophies and philoso-phers to redde rationem there are men who have tried to become critically aware oftheir experience and their time in a unified way These men had intercourse with eachother They did readings They devised tools They used other peoplersquos thoughts theirwork had a certain echo certain tools they invented have spread in a certain area The his-torian finds these connections differences and similarities groups of men united in workagreeing in a certain way of understanding problems of concrete relationships of period-izations and continuities not presupposed but ascertained in the actual conversation ofmen winning ldquoideasrdquo and conquered ldquoideasrdquo ldquoideasrdquo that are reborn and set in the chang-ing course of time in the rhythm of the life of groups that ldquophilosophizingrdquo try to realizethe course of their work and its function in the complex of a civilization Hence philoso-phizing varies continuously and realizes this varying and the ldquohowrdquo of this varyingunity and otherness (Garin 1959 20)sup1⁹

Against Garin and Alquieacute Gueroult pointed out instead the preeminent philo-sophical interest of the history of philosophy

The nature of historical interest is simply scientific positive It is completely satisfied by thetruthful knowledge of facts and the search for the causal nexus that chains the events Theinterest in the history of philosophy is more complex and fundamentally different It is aphilosophical interest this means that it is no longer just a question of knowing exactlyan object but of grasping its meaning for the object which here is the doctrine is signifi-cant and representative it only became the object of exact science because it was to be-come the object of intelligibility The concern for historical accuracy is therefore no longerthe end in itself but a simple means of approach indispensable moreover to ensure effec-tive contact with the philosophical reality of doctrineshellip The internal reconstruction of doc-trines according to their proper law of organization is the big deal (Gueroult 1979 52)sup2⁰

ldquoNon esiste la Filosofia davanti al cui tribunale chiamare al redde rationem le filosofie e ifilosofi esistono uomini che hanno cercato di rendersi criticamente conto in modo unitariodella loro esperienza e del loro tempo Questi uomini hanno avuto rapporti fra loro hannofatto letture hanno escogitato strumenti hanno usato altrui pensieri il loro lavoro ha avutouna certa eco certi strumenti da loro ritrovati si sono diffusi in un certo ambito Questi nessilo storico trova differenze e somiglianze gruppi di uomini uniti in un lavoro concordi in uncerto modo di intendere problemi di rapporti concreti di periodizzazioni e continuitagrave non pre-supposte ma accertate nellrsquoeffettivo colloquio degli uomini lsquoideersquo vincitrici e lsquoideersquo vinte lsquoideersquoche rinascono e tramontano nel mobile corso del tempo nel ritmo della vita di gruppi che lsquofi-losofandorsquo cercano di rendersi conto del corso del proprio lavoro e della sua funzione nel com-plesso di una civiltagrave Onde il filosofare varia di continuo e si rende conto di questo variare e dellsquocomersquo di questo variare unitagrave e alteritagraverdquo ldquoLa nature de lrsquointeacuterecirct historique est simplement scientifique positif Il est entiegraverement sat-isfait par la connaissance veacuteridique de faits et la recherche du nexus causal qui enchaicircne leseacuteveacutenements Lrsquointeacuterecirct de lrsquohistoire de la philosophie est plus complexe et au fond radicalementdiffeacuterent Crsquoest un inteacuterecirct philosophique ceci veut dire qursquoil ne srsquoagit plus seulement de connaicirc-tre exactement un objet mais drsquoen saisir la signification car lrsquoobjet qui est ici la doctrine est

32 2 Perspectives

For Gueroultmdashas noted by Fernand Brunnermdashthe correct opposition was betweenthe history of thought secundum historiam and the history of thought secundumveritatem which again brings up the difference between historical and philo-sophical history of philosophy Brunner explains

If one chooses the first member of the alternative there is a history of philosophy and ahundred philosophies if one chooses the second there are as many histories of philosophyas there are philosophies Brucker [1742 1747 1791] is Leibnizian Tennemann [1798ndash18191812 1832] Kantian Erdmann [1893] Hegelian and today we are thinking of the Marburgersto rewrite the history of philosophy in the light of Kantianism finally understood (Brunner1964191ndash 193)sup2sup1

The solution proposed by Gueroult was that of establishing a dianoeacutematique aldquoscience of the conditions of possibility of philosophical works insofar as theyown an undestroyable philosophical valuerdquo (Gueroult 1954 63 Gueroult 197943ndash71 see Kenny 1996)sup2sup2 A compromise solution has been set forward by Aloy-sius Martinich when he suggested the accomplished historian of philosophy useldquomethods of both the Analyst and the Historianrdquo (Martinich 2003) An analogousstatement was issued by Enrico Berti concerning the relation between veritagrave filo-sofica and storia allrsquointerno della metafisica classica when he did not hesitate toadmit the difficulty of Gueroultrsquos history of philosophy secundum veritatem ldquoI donot agree with the skeptics and not even with those who claim that there is al-ready a true totally true philosophywhich has exhausted all the truth that couldbe hoped forhellip I am a supporter of the historicity of philosophyrdquo (Berti 201096ndash97)sup2sup3 Last but not least I should mention Tullio Gregoryrsquos thesis that the

significatif et repreacutesentatif il nrsquoest devenu objet de la science exacte que parce qursquoil devait de-venir objet drsquointellection Le souci de lrsquoexactitude historique nrsquoest donc plus la fin en soi maisun simple moyen drsquoapproche indispensable drsquoailleurs pour assurer un contact effectif avec lareacutealiteacute philosophique des doctrineshellip La reconstitution interne des doctrines selon leur loipropre drsquoorganisation est la grande affairerdquo ldquoSi lrsquoon choisit le premier membre de lrsquoalternative il y a une histoire de la philosophie etcent philosophies si lrsquoon choisit le second il y autant drsquohistoires de la philosophie que de phi-losophies Brucker [1742 1747 1791] est leibnizien Tennemann [1798ndash1819 1812 1832] kantienErdmann [1893] heacutegeacutelien et lrsquoon songe aujourdrsquohui agrave Marbourg agrave reacutecrire lrsquohistoire de la philos-ophie agrave la lumiegravere du kantisme enfin comprisrdquo ldquoscience des conditions de possibiliteacute des œuvres philosophiques en tant qursquoelles possegravedentune valeur philosophique indestructiblesrdquo ldquoNon sono drsquoaccordo con gli scettici e nemmeno con quanti affermano che vrsquoegrave giagrave una filo-sofia vera totalmente vera la quale ha esaurito tutta la veritagrave alla quale si poteva ambirehellipSono un sostenitore della storicitagrave della filosofiardquo


history of philosophymdashbetter the history of philosophiesmdashreduces itself to amore general history of ideas and cultures

History which is seen on the other handwith sufficiency and contempt by those who thinkof a history of philosophy to which the ldquotruerdquo or the greatrdquo philosophers belong while theldquonot greatrdquo or ldquoalmostrdquo philosophers ( ldquominor figuresrdquo ldquonon-great philosophers or quasiphilosophersrdquo) are placed in ldquointellectual historyrdquo it is in this second category as weknow that Richard Rorty [1992] with the infallible aim of a Far West shooter placesamong others John Duns Scotus Giordano Bruno Pierre de La Rameacutee Mersenne WolffSchopenhauer Bergson followed by ldquopeople who are not generally called philosophersrdquosuch as Paracelsus Montaigne Grotius Bayle Lessing and so on until Thomas Kuhn[1962] With these authors adds Rorty [1992] we descend from the heights of Geistesge-schichte to the down-to-earth level of intellectual history (Gregory 2017 41)sup2⁴

According to Kelley the history of ideas may seem ldquoto bridge the gap between theideal and the real but this is an illusion to the extent that these ideas are already(lsquoalways alreadyrsquo) incarnate in conventional languagerdquo (Kelley 2002 4) We findwithin a horizon-structure of experience the same relation from the perspectiveof intellectual history as the one outlined by Gueroult from the perspective of thehistory of philosophy

The center of the intellectual space locates the historical subject (conscious intentional oreven unconscious) or perhaps a single act of discovery creation or conceptualizationmdashapurely spiritual or phenomenological moment that becomes a target of philosophical inqui-ry The surrounding space encompasses the contexts of the central subjectmdashthe precondi-tions influences possibilities resonances connections and effects involving other fieldsof cultural activity states of disciplinary questions and ldquoclimates of opinionrdquomdashtheldquopastrdquo being represented by residues in the present signifying otherwise inaccessible by-gone experience Beyond the circle of experience beyond perhaps even the resources oflanguage we may imagine a transition from intellectual and cultural history to philosoph-ical speculation and metahistorical criticism In any case this is the only way of imaginingthe problem from the standpoint of a human agent intellectual history is the inside of cul-

ldquoHistoire qui est vue en revanche avec suffisance et meacutepris par ceux qui pensent agrave une his-toire de la philosophie dont font partie les lsquovraisrsquo ou les lsquograndsrsquo philosophes alors que les phil-osophes lsquonon grandsrsquo ou les lsquopresque philosophesrsquo (lsquominor figuresrsquo lsquonon great philosophers orquasi philosophersrsquo) sont placeacutes dans lrsquo lsquohistoire intellectuellersquo crsquoest dans cette deuxiegraveme cateacute-gorie on le sait que Richard Rorty [1992] avec la mire infaillible drsquoun tireur du Far West placeentre autres Jean Scot Giordano Bruno Pierre de La Rameacutee Mersenne Wolff SchopenhauerBergson suivis de lsquopersonnes qursquoon ne nomme pas geacuteneacuteralement philosophesrsquo comme Para-celse Montaigne Grotius Bayle Lessing et ainsi de suite jusqursquoagrave Th Kuhn [1962] Avec ces au-teurs ajoute Rorty [1992] on descend des sommets de la Geistesgeschichte au niveau terre-agrave-terrede lrsquohistoire intellectuellerdquo

34 2 Perspectives

tural history cultural history the outside of intellectual history but in both cases ldquoideasrdquomust be brought down to a human level (Kelley 2002 5)

Adhering to the centrality of text requires the highest philological-humanisticstandards (Pasquali 1988) Restoring the original document as much as possibleis the duty of an editor who tells us as much about the composition and execu-tion of the text and about the likely changes imposed by the author the first pub-lisher and the subsequent publishers including an exhaustive account of thelayout of the book its sheet count font size current title typographical errorscorrections and the like (Levine 2005 195 197) which is no trifle It means find-ing a common denominator among nebulous exchanges of thoughts speechesand debates on texts that have been transmitted through centuries Texts medi-ate between context and ideas which explains why scholars that work with re-flected text and corpus analytics (Kuhn 2020) are the best mediators between thehistory of ideas and the history of philosophy

Neapolitan twentieth-century philosophers had a point which goes back toGiambattista Vico (2003) They stress the pluriversum of a history of facts andideas whereby ideas are phenomenologically represented in the work of individ-ual persons for whom the history of philosophy advocates historical relativityand hence respect (Tessitore 1990 Piovani 2000 Cacciatore 2001 Claverini2019 2021) Todayrsquos humanities however need to ldquochange in order not tochangerdquo As seen in the 仁 renji Chinese characters for humanities whichmean ldquothe culture of mankindrdquo (Kim 2014 397) humanities take up the taskldquoas a control tower that realizes convergencerdquo (Kim 2014 403) We are currentlytalking of the Anthropocene as a new concept of time that represents the char-acteristics of the present a present in which the fate of the Earth 地球 diqiu de-pends upon humans (Crutzen 2002 Gregory and Castree 2012)

Today we think in terms of a long history (Christian 2009) Rejecting the re-duction of space to geometric concepts of surface and point humanistic geogra-phers point out that spatial representations are shaped by human meaning andvalue (Entrikin 1976 623) Neo-humanism has found flourishing impulses inChina where it was kick-started in the thirties of the last century in the schoolof Wu Mi 吴宓 (1894ndash 1978 see Megill 2005 181) The issue found new fuelwhen Tuan Yifu 段義孚 (1976) introduced the notion of humanistic geographyas a perspective concerning the complexity and diversity of relationships be-tween people and places (Daniels 2012 165) and when Augustin Berque(2000) elaborated on the conditions of possibility of an ontology of geography

The history of ideas is by its nature interdisciplinary It integrates severaldisciplines history and philosophy for sure but not only those for ldquoit involveslinguistics literary history anthropology economics the history of prices the


history of books and then politics institutional history law the publicity of sen-tences theology the relationship between texts and worlds of experiencerdquo (Tor-tarolo 1996 18) Today research in intellectual history is of common interest toscholars and students in a wide range of fields It is committed to encouragingdiversity in regional coverage chronological range and methodological ap-proaches Intellectual history is expansive and ecumenical Eventually it is ldquoaliterary activity and an intellectual historian is somebody producing an under-standing by writing booksrdquo (Schneider 2005 144)We have experienced the sem-iological revolution of the late nineties of the last century which emphasizedlaboratory inscriptions and related material semantics The issue is always theepistemological cleavage between representation and represented object Thestances are between Wittgensteinrsquos picture of the world and Heideggerrsquos beingin the picture science in the making is science being coded (Rheinberger etal 1997 8ndash 10) The same cleavage holds between word and image (Bredekamp1997)

Nomenclatures of ideas and concepts give structure to some monumentalworks that are the fruit of great efforts of scholars during the second part ofthe last century eg the Vocabulaire des institutions indo-europeacuteennes (Benve-niste and Lallot 1969) the Historisches Woumlrterbuch der Philosophie (Ritter andGrunder 1971ndash2006) the Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe (Koselleck et al 1972ndash2004) the Dictionary of the History of Ideas (Wiener 1973ndash 1980) the Vocabulaireeuropeacuteen des philosophies (Cassin 2004) and the New Dictionary of the History ofIdeas (Horowitz 2004ndash2005) Together with them I would like to mention threejournals The Archiv fuumlr Geschichte der Philosophie has enjoyed a distinguishedhistory since its inception in 1888 Founded by Ludwig Stein it was created toprovide an international forum for discussion of the history of Western philoso-phy Insisting on meticulous scholarship and precise argumentation the journalhas emphasized the need to understand historical texts in their philosophicaland social contexts The Journal of the History of Philosophy found its missionin a motion passed by the Eastern Division of the American Philosophical Asso-ciation in December 1957 approving ldquothe establishment of a journal devoted tothe history of philosophyrdquo Founded in 1946 the Rivista di storia della filosofiadistinguished itself for the novelty of interpretative hypotheses and for its ex-treme philological rigor In fact it was its editor Mario Dal Pra who made itclear that history of philosophy could not anymore reduce itself to the resultof attempts at systematizing onersquos epoch apprehension of philosophical thoughtin relation to preceding epochs the way Hegel had put it It should look insteadat the relationship between theory and praxis and put forward in an antidogmat-ic way the free deployment of human practical-rational endeavors (Dal Pra1996)

36 2 Perspectives

Concerning the history of Chinese philosophy a three-stage approach hasbeen recommended divided into (i) a step of ldquotextual analysisrdquo that hews close-ly to the ideas and aims of a past thinker and strives ldquoto minimize the influenceof our present perspective and conceptionsrdquo (ii) a process of ldquoarticulationrdquo thatldquoseeks to draw out the relevance of the thinkerrsquos ideas to us in the presentrdquo and(iii) a process of ldquophilosophical constructionrdquo that seeks ldquoto build a reflectiveand systematic account that we from our present perspective regard as appeal-ingrdquo (Shun 2016 67ndash69)

Summing up history of philosophy is based on the historicity that lies in thenature of philosophy which continuously renovates the questions it works onThe same applies to the methods Jacques Le Goff (1987) Donald R Kelley(1990a 1990b) and Ulrich Johannes Schneider have made it clear that the his-tory of philosophy and intellectual history are not co-extensive given that theunits of the ldquointelligible fields of studyrdquo are societies (Toynbee 1934ndash 1961) orcultures (Curtius 1948 12ndash 13 2013 62) whereby history of philosophy is by nomeans the queen of all intelligible forms of communication it is instead amere province within the realm of intellectual history (Schneider 1996 11)Texts their explanations and opposing arguments can indeed be seen as be-longing to the province of the history of philosophy (Levine 2005 191) Intellec-tual history is history no doubt and it goes to work on the history of thoughtwith the objective of precisely reconstructing the way philosophical argumentshave been put forward across the centuries (Stekeler-Weithofer 2006 2) An ex-ample of this dichotomy can perhaps be found in the difference between the for-midable book on Ramism written by Howard Hotson Commonplace Learning(2007) which might represent well the historical history of philosophy and myown Adversus Ramistas (2012) for the philosophical history of philosophy Allthings considered then Commonplace Learning stays well under the headingof a practical problem for intellectual history insofar as it delves into paratextsprint-runs re-editions censorship correspondences debates etc namely intothe grand spectrum of intellectual history while my Adversus Ramistas remainsa practical problem for the history of philosophy

23 History of Philosophy from a Global Perspective

In the Renaissance Sperone Speroni in his Dialogo delle lingue pointed to the ur-gency of going beyond the narrowness of Latin expressions and of embracing anew model of philosophizing in vernacular languages intended at establishing amodern terminology that was free of the ldquofables of wordsrdquo so that ldquoof each thingall over the world one can speak in any languagerdquo (Speroni 2001 34 Gregory

23 History of Philosophy from a Global Perspective 37

2006 35ndash37)sup2⁵ To be more precise in Speroni the trivialization of knowledgedoes not result from its being rendered into volgare for ldquothe content of philoso-phy is more accessible because it is written in the vernacular language but notbecause expressing it into volgare entails a simplification as if an orator couldexplain the truthrdquo (Sgarbi 2014 56) On the contrarymdashas Tullio Gregory has put itmdashthe new language constructed by early modern philosophers was the result of aldquocontinuous effort to renew the philosophical lexicon not only with a progressiveneological invention but above all with a translation of meanings using lex-emes imposed by a long and authoritative scholastic tradition but emptyingthem of ancient meanings to give them new onesrdquo (Gregory 2016 49)sup2⁶ Historyof philosophy cannot neglect considering the changes in philosophical languageand the manners of writing philosophy which has often contributed to definingthe frontiers of cultures and historical epochs

What does history of philosophy from a global perspective stand for It standsfor facing ldquothe challenge to include philosophical traditions and their represen-tatives from all over the world and at the same time to develop new methodsclassification criteria and periodizationrdquo (Elberfeld 2017)sup2⁷ The state of the artis to be seen in the many textbooks for introductory courses all over the worldmdashone ought to think of the rich history of philosophy textbooks produced inItaly which are heavily indebted to GWF Hegelrsquos Vorlesungen uumlber die Ge-schichte der Philosophie (Hegel 1993 1995 2016) The traditional approach ofcomparing philosophers from different traditions and cultures has been put for-ward by Ōhashi Ryōsuke大橋良介 (2015) who has reconstructed the same argu-ments in Plato Heidegger and Nishida Kitarō西田幾多郎 (1870ndash 1945) This ap-proach is not without consequences in any case For instance Hegelrsquosphilosophy of history keeps having today a considerable readership in Russia(Siljak 2001 337) with the implication of creating ldquothe problem of East andWestrdquo with progressive Europe and backward Asia (Siljak 2001 340) As a mat-ter of fact since the thirties of the nineteenth century Russia has become a bat-tleground of intercultural philosophy because it contained ldquowithin its wide ter-

ldquofavole delle parolerdquomdash ldquodrsquoogni cosa per tutto il mondo possa parlare ogni linguardquo ldquoSi puograve dire che la filosofia moderna viene costruendo il proprio linguaggiomdashlatino e volgaremdashnel continuo impegno di rinnovare il lessico filosofico non solo con una progressiva inven-zione neologica ma anzitutto con una traslatio di significati utilizzando lessemi ormai impostida una lunga e autorevole tradizione scolastica ma svuotandoli di antichi significati per darnead essi di nuovirdquo A project on Histories of Philosophy in a Global Perspective is currently being coordinated byRolf Elberfeld at the University of Hildesheim httpswwwuni-hildesheimdeenhistories-of-philosophyhistories-of-philosophy visited on 6 May 2021

38 2 Perspectives

ritory an invisible and shifting border between two continents and thus Russiansociety was forever torn between two culturesrdquo (Siljak 2001 335) Looking at theIslamic world Giovanni Bonacinarsquos monograph on The Wahhabis Seen throughEuropean Eyes is aimed at deciphering the difficult and controversial signs ofthe gradual acquisition of information and the first formulation and rectificationof concepts and prejudices surrounding the Islamic deists with attention to ldquotherole played by the manifold clues in modern history and the various nationali-ties religious confessions and political of the individual observersrdquo (Bonacina2015 11) Finally the East-West dichotomy has raged in the twentieth century es-pecially in the wake of discussions concerning postmodernist relativism withHeidegger Jean-Franccedilois Lyotard and Richard Rorty (Moore 1944 Zhang Wei2006)

Philosophy has been intercultural since its beginnings in a non-relativisticsense insofar as it has thought of itself with others Owing to its nature philos-ophymdashlike all languagesmdashis a dynamic reality in continuous evolution Historyof philosophy has been investigated as a literary genre which has eventuallyled to the codification of a philosophy of the history of philosophy (Braun 1973Gueroult 1979 Santinello and Piaia 1981ndash2004 1993 2011 Longo 2003 Piaia2020) The datum of tradition is preserved and reformulated in processes of con-stant reinterpretation In his inaugural lecture upon the conferral of a degreehonoris causa at the University of Padua on 14 December 2006 the secretary-gen-eral of the Organization of the Islamic Conference Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu made itclear that different cultures may or may not share the same values They sharehowever several problems and strategies for their solutions For example theissue of defining humankind was first investigated in religion (eg in Psalm8) then in philosophy (eg by Socrates) and in the last five centuries in the nat-ural sciences (eg by James Watson and Francis Crick [Taylor 1985])

According to the ancient notion of philosophia perennnis ldquothe one philo-sophical truth is available to various philosophical traditionsrdquo (Mall 2000xiii) Hence ldquothe total purity of culture is a fictionrdquo and there ought not to beany such things as African philosophy (Tempel 1949 Kagame 1956 Hountondji1983 Alagoa and Harms 1994) or any other national or regional expressions in-cluding compounds such as Sino-African philosophy (Dottin 2019) Randall Col-lins (2002 xix) has proposed ldquoa global theory of intellectual changerdquo He hasconfigured ldquothe long-term movement of social communitiesrdquo by relying on thenotion of a social-historical time and space The ldquosociology of mindrdquomdashsays Col-linsmdashassumes that ldquothinking would not be possible at all if we were not socialwe would have no words no abstract ideas and no energy for thinking anythingoutside immediate sensualityrdquo Hence the reference to ldquocoalitions of the mindrdquo


that are ldquointernalized from social networksrdquo and are ldquomotivated by the emotion-al energies of social interactionsrdquo (Collins 2002 7)

Intercultural philosophy is not a new discipline It is simply as Ram AdharMall puts it ldquothe name of a philosophical attitude a philosophical convictionthat no one philosophy is the philosophy for the whole of humankindrdquo (Mall2000 xii) The fact is in all societies we have both one ldquohome culturerdquo and di-verse cultures of ldquominoritiesrdquo Despite the differences among cultures howeverour point of departure undoubtedly ldquomust be their equal rankingrdquo (Mall 20008) The must be stated by Mall might as well be read as an ought to in thesense that either we cannot help to consider all cultures equal or we should in-stead rather start to consider them equal I agree with Mall that the term inter-cultural works better than the term multicultural for defining twenty-first-centuryhistory of philosophy because ldquoan intercultural society led by the regulative ideaof an overlapping unity without uniformity is to be preferred over a merely multi-cultural onerdquo due to the illusion of the ldquopurity of the different culturesrdquo an il-lusion that is based ldquoon a static identity that does not existrdquo (Mall 2000 9) In-tercultural philosophy is a consequence of the culture of interculturality insofaras it aims to answer the question of whether and how the cultural manifoldcan be brought into line with a general and universal concept of truth

The deadly logic of either-or is of course of no help here for it accords a privileged treat-ment to one side or the other A satisfactory solution may be found beyond the two fictionsof total identity and radical difference in overlapping structures among cultures philoso-phies and religions (Mall 2000 9)

Cultural encounters in todayrsquos global context reject the idea of a concrete univer-sal ldquoif this concreteness is equated with a local gestalt of one particular philo-sophical conventionrdquo (Mall 2000 36) On this point Franz Wimmer has argued

Philosophy is whatever else can be addressed by the term an academic field establishedworldwide But this is in fact true for only one of many philosophical traditions which hu-mankind has produced in different regions of the world namely the occidentalhellip The sameholds true of other fields of philosophy and surprisingly enough even of the History of Phi-losophy It seems to somehow sound normal to treat occidental philosophy under the head-ing of Philosophy while other traditions even if treated in detail need to be subsumedunderWorld Philosophies Although a regional-cultural marker seems unnecessary actuallyredundant for some people in the first case it seems definitely necessary at least to beexpected in the other caseshellip Even if assumed to be normal such linguistic behaviouris certainly not natural It does not reflect the differentiated pastmdashand presentmdashof philo-sophical thinking of mankindhellip Philosophy is to be understood in a culturally genericway (Wimmer 2015 125)

40 2 Perspectives

Intercultural philosophy was kick-started at the 18th WCP Duumlsseldorf 1978 whenAlwin Diemer organized a symposium on Philosophy in the Present Situation ofAfrica (Diemer 1981) which found its continuation in 1982 by a further confer-ence on this theme (Diemer and Hountondji 1985) In the meantime interculturalphilosophy has become a worldwide undertaking Already in 1990 Franz Wimm-er published his Interkulturelle Philosophie Geschichte und Theorie (Wimmer1990) In 1991 Heinz Kimmerle issued his Philosophie in Afrikamdashafrikanische Phi-losophie Annaumlherungen an einen interkulturellen Philosophiebegriff (Kimmerle1991) followed shortly after by Mallrsquos own books Philosophie im Vergleich derKulturen Interkulturelle PhilosophiemdashEine neue Orientierung (Mall 1995) and In-tercultural Philosophy (Mall 2000) In the aftermath of Clark Butlerrsquos (1997) His-tory as the Story of Freedom the 20th WCP Boston 1998 held a session dedicatedto Intercultural Philosophy that scored an unexpected large attendance (Dawsonand Iwasawa 2000) Further contributions to be mentioned are Transformacioacutenintercultural de la filosofiacutea (Fornet-Betancourt 2001) and Muumlndliche und schriftli-che Formen philosophischen Denkens in Afrika Grundzuumlge einer Konvergenzphilo-sophie (Mabe 2005) Since the 19th WCP Moscow 1993 Heinz Kimmerle and RamAdhar Mall (1993ndash2012) have been editing the series Studies in Intercultural Phi-losophyStudien zur interkulturellen Philosophie Fundamental has been the roleplayed by journals such as Diogegravene (founded in 1952) Traces A Multilingual Jour-nal of Culture Theory and Translation (founded in 2001) the online journal poly-log (founded 1988) and the series Interkulturelle Bibliothek (Yousefi et al 2005ndash2017)

Today we can say with precision that the impact of a book in history of phi-losophy is measured by its effectiveness in establishing continuities and interac-tions of cultural traditions This is what Hans-Georg Gadamer has called a ldquofu-sion of horizonsrdquo which includes the ldquoexperience of traditionrdquo (Gadamer 1975304 321 see also Buck 1978) together with the language spoken at the centerof the horizon for human subjects speak inquire judge and interpret in aworld of alien objects (Kelley 2005 157)mdashputting it in German IdeengeschichteBegriffsgeschichte Problemgeschichte Traditionsgeschichte are all part of Philos-ophiegeschichte (Gadamer 1970 Kelley 2002 229ndash233 263ndash287) For instance inArabic philosophers use a direct through-argumentative format In translatinginto English from a language such as Arabic on the other hand ldquoconfusingcounter-arguments for through-arguments (or vice-versa) can most certainlylead to very serious deviationsrdquo starting from the fact that the Arabic phrasemin almuakid دكؤملانم which typically initiates a through-argument is oftentranslated as ldquocertainlyrdquo which would normally usher in a counter-argumentwhen used text-initially in English (Hatim 2010 141) Hence we are witnessinga renewal of interest in the relation between history of philosophy history of


concepts history of problems and history of ideas (Hinske 1970 Boumldeker 2002Pozzo and Sgarbi 2011 Hartung and Pluder 2015 Kerber 2016)

24 Philosophical and Historical Anthropology

Turning now to philosophy and anthropology (Geertz 2000 Giri and Clammer2013 Liisberg et al 2015) we must start with Ernst Cassirerrsquos Essay on Man(1944) the book that tackled the challenge of their intersection by introducinga ldquophilosophy of human culturerdquo (Luft 2005) Cassirer was the first who provideda definition of the human being in terms of culture For long before the humanbeing had discovered forms of social organization she had made ldquoattempts toorganize hellip feelings desires and thoughts Such organizations and systematiza-tions are contained in language myth religion and art We must accept thisbroader basis if we wish to develop a theory of manrdquo (Cassirer 1944 63) Thetask of philosophical anthropology is thus to measure the human being ldquoto getto the bottom of the questionability of the concept of manrdquo (Hartung 200314)sup2⁸ In the aftermath of Cassirer Clifford Geertz sketched ldquoa pragmatist theoryof culturerdquo for looking into objects of interpretive anthropology in terms of sym-bolic acts ldquoIt is not the persons that are saying or doing something that Geertz isinterested in nor the event of the saying (and its social context) but the said themeaning contextualized in the particular culture as a wholerdquo (Saalmann 2013221ndash222) Geertz made it clear that

The uses of cultural diversity of its study its description its analysis its comprehensionlie less along the line of sorting ourselves out from others and others from ourselves so as todefend group integrity and sustain group loyalty than along the lines of defining the terrainreason must cross if its modest rewards are to be reached and realized This terrain is un-even full of sudden faults and dangerous passages where accidents can and do happenand crossing it or trying to does little or nothing to smooth it out to a level safe unbrokenplain but simply makes visible its clefts and contours (Geertz 2000 83)

The many conspiring features of philosophy and anthropology are the basis forconstructing historical perspectivism (Laeligrke 2013) While philosophical anthro-pology has established itself as the discipline dealing with the phenomenologyand the metaphysics of the human being and interpersonal relationships histor-ical anthropology is understood as synonymous with the history of mentalitiescultural history ethnohistory microhistory history from below and Alltagsge-

ldquoder Fraglichkeit des Begriffs vom Menschen auf den Grund zu gehenrdquo

42 2 Perspectives

schichte Historical anthropology focuses on qualitative rather than quantitativedata small communities and the symbolic aspects of culture (Ten Dyke 199937ndash38) It is based on the need to locate culture (Gupta 2003) for the anthropol-ogy of space and place maintains that knowledge is always situated as ldquoallknowledge is produced in specific circumstancesrdquo which ldquoshape it in somewaysrdquo for everybody situates oneself and onersquos interpretation by reflectively ex-amining onersquos positionality (Rose 2010 237) Locating culture defines new issuesin geography with thematic categories such as embodied spaces genderedspaces inscribed and contested spaces transnational spaces and eventuallyspatial tactics (Low and Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga 2003 13) In this comprehensive set-ting it is useful to establish ldquothe field of proxemics the study of peoplersquos useof space as an aspect of culturerdquo (Hall 1966 Low and Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga 200316) Mainly ldquoinscribed spacesrdquo imply that humans ldquowriterdquo in an enduringway ldquotheir presence on their surroundingsrdquo (Low and Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga 200325) Hence the interest in the anthropology of space and place for colonial stud-ies (Gordon 2011)

While himself a proponent of twentieth-century philosophical anthropology(Habermas 1958) when considering the ambitions of contemporary genetic engi-neering Juumlrgen Habermas has suggested initiating a public discourse on theright understanding of cultural forms of life (Habermas 2001 12 2003 15)Fred Dallmayr has considered this intervention something that gives a boost toldquothe resurgence of philosophical anthropology at this new stage of develop-mentrdquo In Habermasrsquos view notes Dallmayr ldquowhat philosophy can contributein this context is its capacity for reflective judgment its ability to illuminatethe ethical self-understanding of the speciesrdquo (Dallmayr 2013 364) In the eraof digital convergence public history no longer seems to be solely destined forthe classic places of dissemination (museums libraries archives festivals the-aters exhibitions) or traditional mass media (the radio print cinema TV) How-ever public history uses an increasingly broad spectrum of new media (the websocial networks video games virtual reality) that provide the general public andhistorians with a digital archive of potentially infinite images and historical sour-ces John W Meyerrsquos world polity theory stresses the dependence of local socialorganizations on institutional models and definitions initiated by professionalsand associations to promote collective goods (Meyer 2005 177 see Meyer 1998)

25 Future Developments

Innovative research in history of philosophy seems possible today on the basis ofa thorough complementarity between the historic-genetic reconstruction of one

25 Future Developments 43

philosopherrsquos approach (internal) and the reconstruction of the context of re-gional and institutional public opinion (external) One renowned model availa-ble for this remains the Ueberwegs Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie(Holzhey 1983ndash2020) Today it is not enough for a good book on the historyof philosophy to be a good book on the history of philosophy It ought also tobe based on robust lexical and historical considerations Historians of philoso-phy face the challenge of dealing with multilingualism and validated transla-tions ldquoA new sociolinguistics of multilingualism is now being forged one thattakes account of the new communicative order and the particular conditionsof our times while retaining a central concern with the processed involved inthe construction of social differences and social inequalitiesrdquo (Gardner and Mar-tin-Jones 2012 1)

Historians of philosophy ought to be trained from the beginning of their ca-reer into reading texts and literature in Greek Latin Italian English FrenchGerman in Spanish and Portuguese eventually also in Russian Arabic and Chi-nese Let me conclude with two apologues of Tullio Gregory When Boethius setout to translate Aristotle into Latin he was motivated to do so in order first tokeep alive the tradition of writing in classical Latin and second to modernize itthrough transcriptions into the new contexts opened up by the paradigmatic ac-ceptance of Aristotelianism And when Kant chose to repropose Greek termssuch as phenomenon and noumenon he did so because he wished first tokeep up the tradition of writing on philosophy in Germanmdashthis tradition hadits classical references in Meister Eckhart and Martin Luthermdashand second to re-vitalize it by transcribing it into the new context of his own Copernican Revolu-tion (Gregory 2006 39ndash40 57ndash58) For these reasons let me take up again thesuggestion laid out in the last century by Ernst Robert Curtius and Tullio Gregorythat the future of research in history of philosophy might eventually lie in thedevelopment of disciplinary lexica that have grown out of translations thus re-enacting the translation of Greek words culture and thoughts into the Latin ren-derings of Cicero and Boethius and the dynamics of the grand Mediterraneancultural transmission of philosophical religious and medical texts from Greekand Hebrew into Arabic Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe (Curtius1948 2013 Gregory 2017) whereas with Sanskrit and Chinese with India andChina translations went both ways (see below chapter 8)

Having insisted on the current quest for interdisciplinary approaches keyconcepts semantic nets and extended digital support let me come back tothe discussion on contextualism versus appropriationism (Mercer 2019) It istime to rejuvenate the methodology of the history of philosophy more specifical-ly that of the history of concepts in its global extension (Pozzo and Sgarbi 20102011 Betti and Van den Berg 2016 Pichler et al 2020) by taking advantage of

44 2 Perspectives

achievements that have proven to be fruitful for the advancement of the disci-pline such as the Lessico Intellettuale Europeo (Gregory et al 1967ndash2021) theHistorisches Woumlrterbuch der Philosophie (Ritter and Grunder 1971ndash2006) the Vo-cabulaire europeacuteen des philosophies (Cassin 2004) and the Key Concepts in Chi-nese Thought and Culture (Wang Lin and Han Zhen 2015ndash2020) alongside withother excellent projects (eg Rosales and Loacutepez 2019 Wang Yueqing etal 2020) The methodology relies on tools such as vocabularies ontologies con-cordances frequenciesmdashmore generally on the analysis of texts and corporawhich integrates quantitative and formal methods into the portfolio of methodsof history of philosophy and intellectual history The approach I am looking intoaims at boosting computational history of ideas (Betti and Van den Berg 2016)and computational concept modeling (Kuhn 2020) to break ground for knowledgeorganization systems that produce synergies while optimizing crosswalks for fu-ture translation projects involving Chinese eventually to be applied to other lan-guages The future is a history of philosophy that enables cultural innovation(see below chapter 6) which it does when it accounts for the fact that cultureshave grown through hybridization with the cultures of their neighbors


3 Migration

In a globalized world we need to make mutual enrichment possible while coun-tering xenophobic attitudes Measures for the democratic governance of culturaldiversity at the national regional and local levels ought to be swiftly adaptedldquodemocratic citizenship and participation should be strengthened interculturalskills should be taught and learned spaces for intercultural dialogue should becreatedrdquo (EAC 2014 9) History of philosophy ought to become attentive to migra-tion because migration accompanies the whole history of civilizations involvingcontinuous relations and exchanges among cultures hence translations throughdifferent linguistic economic political and cultural contexts In recent yearsthere has been a surge of humanities-led migration studies Think of attemptsat providing an overall philosophy of migration (Di Cesare 2017) of studies onKant on migration (Reinhardt 2019) and specific contributions on the ethicsand politics of migration (Wellman and Cole 2012 Carens 2014 Sager 2016 Men-doza 2017) on space place borders and territory (Appadurai 1996 Low andLawrence-Zuacutentildeiga 2003 Moore 2015 Nail 2016) on displacement and legal con-straints (Penz et al 2011 Pevnik 2011) as well as on narratives of migration(Gomez-Estern 2013 De Fina and Tseng 2017)

I start the chapter by showing that the methodological approach I am look-ing into is different from the one pursued in the studies quoted above which aredefined by disciplinary methodologies The method I am considering is cross-dis-ciplinary and has been experimented with during the lifetime of the MigrationProject of the National Research Council of Italy which dates back to 2008 andhas been constructed by Maria Eugenia Cadeddu upon an idea proposed by Tul-lio Gregory (Pozzo 2019) The idea is that research on migration ought not to bereduced to emigration or immigration processes of populations or ethnic groupsIt ought to also consider translations (in their broadest sense) of texts and com-petencies from one to another context be it linguistic economic political orcultural I then look into the contiguity of history of philosophy and migrationnarratives beginning with Kant and ending in recent experiences of displace-ment in translocalities and I conclude with remarks for kick-starting a strategicresearch and innovation agenda on migration

31 Holistic Approach

The phenomenon of migration in the sense of human mobility in its complexand articulated shape embraces a series of socio-economic and cultural aspects


that have a substantial bearing on security healthcare environmental and nu-tritional issues Research on migration finds its place at the frontiers of scienceinsofar as it integrates technological innovation with social innovation and even-tually with cultural innovation thus providing substantial added value to citi-zens of a global community Migration is not a stand-alone topic It connectsto broader themes such as climate change economy international relationsgender social policies and many moreWe are looking at a growing communityof researchers who work on migrationWhat used to number around 10ndash 15 ofSSH researchers is now increasing due to the cross-disciplinary aspects of thethematic area which require interaction with the whole SSH domain as wellas with life sciences and medicine environmental sciences logistics agro-food and information and communication technology (ICT)

Migration has become a benchmark of political decision-making and a deci-sive segment of societyrsquos economic environmental ethical sanitary and cultur-al development The recurring migrants and refugees crises of the first two de-cades of the twenty-first century pose a challenge whose dimensions arecomparable to those of the ecological crisis of the last quarter of the previouscentury whose icons were the acid rains it was overcome through an epochaleffort in research that brought about not only an industrial reconversion butalso a change in the mindset of the citizens namely green thinking Migrationasks for a paradigm shift that involves all disciplines in the direction of a newhybrid consideration Top-down modeling of phenomena finds a unique synthe-sis with the discovery of new cognitions bottom-up which emerge from the im-mense masses of available data The main goal is to deal with every aspect ofscience and technology related to migrants migration and integration

Migration is expected to become a substantial growth factor starting withthe effective management of the reception and integration supply chains Ithas been acknowledged that migrants are generators of innovation and net-works as documented in several case studies analyzed in Italy (Chiesi and DeLuca 2012) Migrants are less and less contained within the borders of statesThey leave and go keeping in touch with their countries of origin and with res-ident communities in the countries of destination Missing integration has highcosts due to its physical and economic impact on migrant subjects and the re-ceiving society Migration has a connection with welfare and its efficient usein an ever-growing world population welfare plays a fundamental role becausemigrants affect its implementation Migration asks for a societal reflection that ishistorical philosophical legal and religious and that promotes and revitalizesexperiences of co-existence and systems of peacemaking in the relations of cul-tures

31 Holistic Approach 47

The control of migration flows the protection of migrant lives and the pre-vention of terrorism are primary necessities related to security These require-ments entail controlling the borders in their various forms (sea land and uncon-ventional routes) by accounting explicitly for the need not to delay firsthumanitarian aid operations The predisposition to develop diseases is partly de-pendent on ethnicity and country of origin Still it can be profoundly modifiedby environmental cultural socio-economic lifestyle changes and the associatedstresses occurring in the country of settlement There is a urgent need to under-stand these interactions and plan effective screening and integration strategiesto preserve incoming and resident peoplersquos health and reduce impact on nation-al and regional healthcare systems It is also essential to face the perception ofcitizens on the risk of contagious diseases adequately

Finally migration is in most cases either due to current changes in the ter-restrial ecosystem or caused by political demographic and economic condi-tions on top of which the environment is an amplifying factor for the deteriora-tion of living conditions The diverse stress factors on the human being and theenvironment are connected although water management remains the primarycause Biodiversity is to be studied concerning the mobility of migrants whichhas an impact on the agro-food system It is necessary to combine global climatechange models with local scenarios of social and economic growth

32 Kant on Migration

Migration has become in recent years a highly controversial issue in politics inthe media and with the public Karoline Reinhardt (2019) has dedicated a well-documented and well-argued monograph to what we can learn from Kantrsquosstance on migration Her main argument revolves around the assumption thatKantrsquos views about cosmopolitanism lie in productive disharmony with the phil-osophical and political camps currently represented in migration debates

In the first part ldquoGeschlossene GrenzenmdashOffene Grenzenrdquo Reinhardt dealswith the debate about closed versus open borders in contemporary political phi-losophy (Pevnik 2011) She distinguishes three leading positions in the currentdiscussion communitarianism egalitarian cosmopolitanism and liberal nation-alismwhich she discusses with reference respectively to Michael Walzer (1994)Joseph H Carens (2013) and David Miller (2016)

In the second part ldquoKants Weltbuumlrgerrechtrdquo Reinhardt addresses the ques-tion of the extent to which Kant provides arguments in his writings that deal withmigration issues and are useful for current debatesmdashin particular in Zum ewigenFrieden and the Rechtslehre of the Metaphysik der Sitten Reinhardt shows that

48 3 Migration

Kantrsquos arguments on the right of visit (das Recht eines Fremdlings) on hospitality(hospes) and sovereignty (hostis) can be effectively used as the basis for shapingnew forms of philosophy of migration first and foremost because in the com-mentary to the third definitive article of Zum ewigen Frieden Kant states thatldquo[o]riginally no one has more right [Recht] than another to live on a particularplace [Ort] on the earthrdquo While looking at late-eighteenth-century colonialismKant envisaged a form of ius cosmopoliticum (Weltbuumlrgerrecht) whose conse-quence is universal hospitality (allgemeine Hospitalitaumlt) which is to be acknowl-edged as the right of the foreigner (das Recht eines Fremdlings) to freedom ofmovement although hospitality does not entail the right of the foreigner torob exploit and enslave (Zum ewigen Frieden AA8 358[1ndash 13] CE [Frieden]329 Metaphysik der Sitten AA6 352[6]ndash355[30] CE [MdS] 489ndash492 Rechtslehresect 62 Di Cesare 2017 98ndash 101 Reinhardt 2019 224)sup2⁹ At the center of Reinhardtrsquosconsideration is Kantrsquos notion of cosmopolitan right which she refers to as thesystematic basis for justification Reinhardt provides insightful clarifications ofthe two terms cosmopolitan and cosmopolitanism and the syntagma cosmopoli-tan right (Reinhardt 2019 87ndash88) Significantly she reminds that Kantrsquos notionof cosmopolitan right emerges in the context of two central concepts hospitalityand colonialism Hospitality implies the right of everyone arriving in a state notto be treated with hostility Concerning colonialism Reinhardt gives evidence ofa shift in Kantrsquos position while in the early writings he admits colonialism laterhe takes up a critical stance against violent European expansionism and the en-slavement of overseas people (Reinhardt 2019 146ndash 154)

Reinhardt argues that Kant can contribute substantially to contemporary de-bates on migration providedmdashshe makes it very clearmdashone does not confineKant behind the simplistic screen of moral universalism Kant does not pledgehimself to the notion that moral equality of all men and women ought to trans-late itself into the political equality of migrant men and women Reinhardt main-tains that translating moral equality into political equality implies a misunder-standing of the justification basis of cosmopolitan right which might be seeninstead as an innate right of men and women Thus she proposes an alternativestrategy of justification that includes the conditions of human existence (Rein-hardt 2019 210) Reinhardt emphasizes Kantrsquos resistance to some of the currentdemands of moral universalism She shows that Kant was in no way in favor ofopen borders and universal freedom of movement (Reinhardt 2019 66) General-ly Reinhardt provides a survey of many critical objections to Kantrsquos views on mi-gration hospitality and colonialism to which she replies by reconstructing the

ldquourspruumlnglich aber niemand an einem Orte der Erde zu sein mehr Recht hat als der Andererdquo

32 Kant on Migration 49

reasons based on which Kant might have countered them It is essential to pointout that while doing this she is neither concerned with any apology or evenapotheosis nor with an unconditioned updating of Kantrsquos positions

In the third part of her book ldquoWeltbuumlrgerrecht und Migrationrdquo Reinhardt ex-amines Kantrsquos cosmopolitanism with respect to issues such as refugee status le-gitimate and illegitimate grounds for refusal statelessness naturalization theright to emigrate individual duties of assistance and cosmopolitan attitudeHer focus is on three thematic issues First does global citizenship meet themoral requirements of refugees for first admission Second how can one differ-entiate legitimate and illegitimate grounds of exclusion for migration move-ments other than flight Third how to handle statelessness and naturalization(Reinhardt 2019 210) Referring to Pauline Kleingeldrsquos (2011) interpretation Rein-hardt shows how Kantrsquos cosmopolitanism might be seen as an anticipation of to-dayrsquos non-refoulement rule which forbids a country receiving asylum seekersfrom returning them to a country where they are at risk of serious human rightsviolations and would be in likely danger of persecution based on race religionnationality membership of a particular social group or political opinion (Rein-hardt 2019 212) Reinhardt concludes that one of the great strengths of Kantrsquos no-tion of cosmopolitanism lies in its negative wording It does not constitute a totalobligation to admit but it does constitute a complete legal obligation not to re-fuse (Reinhardt 2019 224)

On top of legal considerations Reinhardt also highlights the moral dimen-sion of the duties of aid and philanthropy (Reinhardt 2019 289ndash294) ForKant gratitude and many other civil attitudes such as sympathy and charityall ldquolie at the basis of morality as subjective conditions of receptiveness to theconcept of dutyrdquo (Metaphysik der Sitten AA6 399[8ndash 10] CE [MdS] 528) Rein-hardt insists on Kantrsquos describing the obligation to ldquosympathizerdquo with othersfor he claims we have ldquoan indirect duty to cultivate the compassionate natural(aesthetic) feelings in us and to make use of them as so many means to sympa-thy based on moral principles and the feeling appropriate to themrdquo (Metaphysikder Sitten AA6 457[26ndash29] CE [MdS] 575 Reinhardt 2019 295)sup3⁰

In this ground-breaking book Reinhardt does not merely provide an over-view of the current debate on cosmopolitan right she also outlines a Kantiantheory of migration upon which scholars can draw when the time comes to pro-vide visions for the declaration of global mobility that the United Nations is ask-

ldquoweil sie als subjective Bedingungen der Empfaumlnglichkeit fuumlr den Pflichtbegriff nicht als ob-jective Bedingungen der Moralitaumlt zum Grunde liegenrdquomdashldquoindirecte Pflicht die mitleidige natuumlr-liche (aumlsthetische) Gefuumlhle in uns zu cultivieren und sie als so viele Mittel zur Theilnehmung ausmoralischen Grundsaumltzen und dem ihnen gemaumlszligen Gefuumlhl zu benutzenrdquo

50 3 Migration

ing scholars and policymakers to begin working on likely sooner rather thanlater In a nutshell Reinhardt shows that Kantrsquos philosophy on the right ofvisit hospitality and sovereignty can serve as a basis for shaping new formsof philosophical reflection on migration

33 History of Philosophy and Migration Narratives

The history of humanity is a history of mobility However political philosophyhas often operated under the assumption of a global situation of stasis inwhich migration is ignored or treated as pathological and exceptional whichis too bad for migration can indeed serve as a touchstone to prove how philos-ophy in its historical dimension might grant a shared narrative of what has hap-pened what is happening and what will happen in our globalized world In thiscontext historians of philosophy are to be trusted to achieve what HannahArendt (1963) did achieve for the Holocaust in her reporting of the Eichmanntrial Juumlrgen Habermas (1991 1994) for citizenship in the aftermath of German re-unification and Donatella Di Cesare (2017) for a philosophy of migration afterthe countless deaths at sea of August 2015

The first philosophical text that has addressed a twentieth-century personalmigration experience is Hannah Arendtrsquos short essay We Refugees (1943) Arendtdepicts migration as a global phenomenon and the refugee as an exceptional fig-ure whose irreducible atopy is bound to create a new world order (Di Cesare2017 43) Giorgio Agamben has elaborated on the notion of the ldquobare liferdquo ofthe persecuted person (Agamben 1979 79ndash83) Managing migration has beena persistent challenge since the 1990s even if numbers have shifted dramatical-ly Think of boat migration across Europersquos Southern borders and the significantlegal technological and humanitarian issues it has raised Hence the set ofldquoboundary problemsrdquo questions the relation of people to the land and callsfor deterritorialization as an alternative to identitarian integrity (Di Cesare 201753)

A philosophical consideration of migration presupposes critical analysis ofdifferent accounts of what the problem is what mechanisms are at work andwhat the effects of different interventions will be of varying policy narrativeson security in receiving countries protection for migrants cooperation withcountries of origin and transit The length of time that migrants have residedin a country affects their expectations from society and their own expectationsin life Time is experienced as both linear and rhythmic and involves dimensionssuch as postponing waiting and hoping for the future (Erdal and Ezzati 2016)

33 History of Philosophy and Migration Narratives 51

In front of the danger that contingent concerns be emphasized at the ex-pense of philosophical rigor we must acknowledge we have not yet developeda sophisticated understanding of what to say about the rights of would-be immi-grants to cross borders and the rights of states to close borders (Sager 2016) Canwe talk of a general human right to freedom of interstate migration

We can think of a worst-case scenario in which unilateralism economic cri-sis and inequality dominate the world in 2030 International cooperation is atits lowest there is a large financial gap between the European Union and Af-rica and Asia Social inequalities (Scanlon 2018) are on the rise causing socialunrest Under this scenario the European Union interstate integration projectis on the brink of falling apart Protectionist and isolationist policies are thenorm as more countries consider leaving the European Union and abandoningsome hard-won global agreements Very few applicants are granted asylumand visas are generally difficult to obtain Since Asia and Africa have notseen relevant economic growth in the past decade there is a vast economic di-vide between these sending regions and the European Union (Acostamadiedoet al 2020)

We can also think however of a best-possible scenario in which multilater-alism and inclusive economic growth dominate In 2030 global economicgrowth and strong international cooperation create more inclusive and diversesocieties in the European Union Africa and Asia Governments and civil societyrally to implement an ambitious agenda towards multilateralism openness andenvironmental protection Member states address the needs of migrant popula-tions through a rights-based approach Sustained economic growth rates in thedeveloped world and high and equitable growth in emerging and developingcountries have narrowed development gaps between the European Union andlow-income countries of origin Labor markets in the European Union and devel-oping countries offer young populations attractive job opportunities (Acostama-diedo et al 2020)

First and foremost one ought to keep in mind the multidisciplinary charac-ter of endeavors on philosophy of migration which aim to construct a multi-voice approach led by the communities of philosophers historians geographersand anthropologists Each fulfills a specific function while interacting with theothers philosophers are trusted to form focus groups with stakeholders enter-prises and policymakers historians point to processes of change geographerslook into spaces and places where migrants move and settle and anthropolo-gists are in charge of social behaviors This has led to a broader understandingof the process of knowledge generation

The continent of all migrants dispersed everywhere globally is enormousand challenges all world-order borders (Massey et al 1998 Held 1999 Hoerder

52 3 Migration

2002 Nail 2015) Against this people arise states the bulwarks of the old-worldorder of the obsolete noacutemos (νόμος) of the Earth Hence the sharp conflict be-tween state sovereignty and the right to migrate between restricted citizenshipand new deterritorialized citizenship (Di Cesare 2017 105) We are looking intoempowering the disadvantaged the poor The dichotomy between ldquoforcedrdquoand ldquovoluntaryrdquo migration remains dominant in research and policy apparentlyresistant to decades of critical analyses However the distinction between refu-gees and migrants has become slippery On the one hand it offers a pedagogical-ly convenient way of describing a complex landscape on the other its unsettlingis politically contentious since it might seem to undermine the individual rightsand vulnerabilities of refugees (Di Cesare 2017 122 see Agier and Madeira 2017Erdal and Oeppen 2018)

The notion that immigrants impose social costs on the receiving countriesreflects the underlying assumption that the imposition of social costs by demo-cratic nation-states on potential migrants is normal natural and legitimate (iteven becomes questionable whether we can meaningfully talk about socialcosts in that context) In contrast the imposition of social costs by migrantson receiving countries is an exceptional event that requires special legitimation(Sager 2017 66) The conception of immigration policy determines the debate as afield of politics that distributes the good of social membership (as introduced byMichael Walzer [1994]) a good that is ldquonecessarily determined by the membersof which these communities are comprisedrdquo (Sager 2017 15)

Today groups create meaning through multiple memories whether withinthe same or across different geographical boundaries Recent developmentsare vital in the production of locality flows urban and rural landscapes sea-scapes and the migration imaginary with its repertoire of imagined communi-ties imagined places and artworks (Appadurai 1996 Low and Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga2003 Gupta and Ferguson 2011) Decolonization processes have brought about ashift in the geography of reason

That knowledge has been colonized raises the question of whether it was ever free The for-mulation of knowledge in the singular already situates the question in a framework that isalien to precolonial times The disparate modes of producing knowledge and notions ofknowledge were so many that knowledges would be a more appropriate designation Uni-fication was a function of various stages of imperial realignment where local reflectionsshifted their attention to centers elsewhere to the point of concentric collapse On theirway those varieties of knowledge coalesced into knowledge of the center and successivecollapses of centers under the weight of other centers led over time to the global situationof the center and its concomitant organization of knowledges into knowledge (Gordon2011 95)


State borders are only one kind of border and a recent kind at that They crashagainst pedetic force kinopolitics and social kinetics eventually against criticallimology kinopticismpanopticism historical limology surveys and critiques ofthe relevant right to control borders (Nail 2016) A comprehensive and systematicaccount of territory from a philosophical perspective provides insights on issuessuch as secession immigration boundary disputes resource rights and histor-ical injustices (Moore 2015 Di Cesare 2017)We need a regime-of-mobility frame-work that addresses the relationship between mobility and immobility localiza-tion and transnational connection experiences and imaginaries of migrationrootedness and cosmopolitan openness (Glick Schiller and Salazar 2013 Kastor-iano 2018)

Hannah Arendt (1958) has provided a narrative of the ldquohuman conditionrdquoby means of a phenomenological characterization of the basic features of theexistence of human beings Arendtrsquos notion of ldquoconsciencerdquo can serve as aldquosubjective but not arbitraryrdquo foundation for a commitment to human rights(Parekh 2008 153 Birmingham 2008 Guaraldo 2018) Immigration ought tobe considered as a right that derives from a peoplersquos right to self-determinationBorder control cannot obliterate human rights (Parekh 2017 Di Cesare 2017)What about the empowerment of the globally disadvantaged to be normativelycentral in human rights advocacy (Meyers 2014) Or should we not rather ac-cept that culture is what we construct whenever we contact other human be-ingsmdasheven though they are from the same environment or not Can we attachterritorial rights to peoples defined as groups with a distinct political ratherthan cultural identity (Salvatori 2010 Moore 2015) Can we talk of the rightsof people defined as groups with different cultural identities (Di Cesare 2017)

Finally the notion of spiritual citizenship might help to examine how somereligiously active migrants appeal to religion to become less deportable Drawingfrom ethnographic observations and interviews with Central American and Mex-ican immigrants in the United States one sees that undocumented migrants usereligion to redefine their sense of self and to position themselves as spiritual citi-zens of good moral character Researchers have examined how the priorities ofreligious organizations operate to and through a neoliberal context The conclu-sion is that while religion supports migrants as they endure criminalization thedebate on spiritual citizenship shows how religious participation benefits canalso depend on the willingness of migrants to become deserving neoliberal citi-zens (Guzman Garcia 2016 Ambrosini et al 2018 23ndash24)

54 3 Migration

34 Phenomenology of Displacement

While remaining focused on twenty-first-century dynamics it is useful to inves-tigate both diachronic and synchronic narratives on encounters of civilizationsand consequent challenges Think of the links connecting early Greek Classicalthought with the culture of the ancient Near East (Zuchtriegel 2017 Zonta2018) and issues related to early-modern geographic discoveries and forcedevangelization eg to the emergence of the idea of tolerance in the sixteenthcentury or to late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century interest for Orientalcultures (Bonacina 2015)

Seventy million people in our world currently live outside the state systemdisplaced from their countries of origin yet not legally resettled into any coun-try of refuge Of this group only one percent will eventually be resettled into areceiving country The rest will continue to live in a parallel world of temporarysolutions They disappear into large urban centers or are warehoused in refugeecamps while the average duration of stay in these camps is totaling approxi-mately seventeen years (Parekh 2017 3) Political philosophers have not ade-quately come to grips with these facts Doing so requires indeed asking philos-ophers to develop a new form of ethical analysis focused particularly uponemergency solutionsmdashan ldquoethics of the temporaryrdquo as Serena Parekh terms it(2017 52)

Migration asks for an innovative narrative of inclusion (Mendoza 2017 Feld-er 2018) Geography and anthropology are the backbones insofar as they lay outa theory of borders that serves as a premise for a philosophy of territory by look-ing into the notion of border generally and its economic and sociological as-pects The text of art 14 comma 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rightsstates ldquoEveryone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylumfrom persecutionrdquosup3sup1

Pope Francis himself has pointed to the difference between ldquoimmigrationrdquoand ldquoinvasionrdquo The Holy Father does not think of the development of separatecommunities in the future He thinks instead of the fusion of cultures based onthe identity of the host country On 4 October 2020 Pope Francis signed the en-cyclical letter Fratelli Tutti in which he pleaded for citizens worldwide to ldquowel-come protect promote and integraterdquo migrants The ldquotrue worth of the differentcountries of our world is measured by their ability to think not simply as a coun-try but also as part of the larger human family This is seen especially in times of

httpswwwunorgenabout-usuniversal-declaration-of-human-rights visited on 6 May2021

34 Phenomenology of Displacement 55

crisisrdquo Immigrants are not ldquousurpersrdquo they are first and foremost human be-ings Time has come for ldquoenvisaging and engendering an open worldrdquosup3sup2

35 Diasporas

Diasporas have transferred and transcribed cultural experiences from one to theother historical and geographic context following diverse cultural and politicalsupremacies (Sheffer 2013) One promising way to go within the domain of ldquoan-thropological studies of multiculturalism and multicultural settingsrdquo is back-ward into history to appreciate better ldquoother kinds of experiences and processesof mobility and admixture within the global ecumenerdquo (Vertovec 2010 9 13 seeHannerz 1996 Berque 2000 Ravitch 2008)

Aristotle explains that habits are second nature The first nature of humanbeings ensures the continuity of the species or the group but no progress inthe sciences and the arts which results from habits One habit is cooking anoth-er is hunting while eating is no habit it is a function of our organism Does lan-guage belong to first or second nature As long as it remains oral Vico (2003)called the language of the bestioni sufficient suitable to express proximity ofprey to catch and predators to fleemdasheligendo bono et fugiendo malo Spoken lan-guage is natural It remains first nature Second nature means acculturationwhich is about the changes of social psychological legal and educative habitsbrought about by migration that require putting into written words diverse cul-tural experiences in which the linguistic element (the transfer of texts) is essen-tial (Sgarbi 2012 ixndashx)

The Chinese high-school student imagined above in chapter 2 belongs to theChinese diaspora which Tu Weiming calls the second symbolic universe of cultur-al China namely ldquoChinese communities throughout the world hellipmembers of theChinese lsquodiasporarsquo meaning those who have settled in scattered communities ofChinese far from their ancestral homelandrdquo (Tu Weiming 2010 14) CulturalChina (wenhua Zhongguo文化中国) does not mean tradition against innovation(Tu Weiming 2010 167) It depicts a dynamic reality instead The Chinese dia-spora (huaqiao 华侨) is ldquohungry for cultural expressionrdquo (Tu Weiming 201021) in spatial and temporal contiguity (Ma Mung 2012 352) The syntagma peopleof Chinese origin (huaren华人) stands for a person that is not geopolitically cen-tered In contrast the people of China (zhonghuaren 中华人) necessarily evoke

httpwwwvaticanvacontentfrancescoenencyclicalsdocumentspapa-francesco_20201003_enciclica-fratelli-tuttihtml visited on 6 May 2021

56 3 Migration

obligations and loyalties of political affiliations and the myth of the Middle King-dom

How to open up Chinese philosophy to the world (Heubel 2021) How to cre-ate a translational network to understand the meaning of being Chinese within aglobal context (Tu Weiming 2010 23) Is cosmopolitanism in its Kantian notion(Kleingeld 2011 Benhabib 2011) eurocentric or in a more specific sense a formof European particularism Instead of membership in determinate culturalgroupswhose boundaries are clear and whose stability and cohesion are securewe can talk of ldquocultural cosmopolitanismrdquo which is the view of mobile culturesthat are ldquosubject to constant change like the people that express them and theindividuals of which they are composedrdquo (Taraborrelli 2015 87)Validation is theresult of a process of comparison and exchange Due to the impact of economicglobalization on migration nation-states ought to consider embracing a multi-cultural identity centered on loyalty to liberal democratic constitutional princi-ples (Kymlicka 2011 Ley 2011)

In a post-industrial knowledge-intensive economy globalization is ldquoseen as aprocess integrating local economies into the world economyrdquo (Tapper 2010 235)The notion of nation is ldquoso deeply implicated in the texture of everyday liferdquo andso thoroughly presupposed in academic discourses on ldquoculturerdquo and ldquosocietyrdquothat it ldquobecomes difficult to remember that it is only one relatively recent his-torically continuous form of organizing space in the world National identity ap-pears to be firmly spatialized and seemingly immutablerdquo as if it were a naturalldquomarker of cultural and social differencerdquo It is interesting to problematize in-stead nationalism ldquoby juxtaposing it and other forms of spatial commitmentand identity particularly transnational onesrdquo eg the nonaligned movementand the European Union (Gupta 2003 321 325) The construction of post-sover-eign moral geographies (Appadurai 2003 337) for the ldquoproduction of locality asa dimension of social life as a structure of feeling and in its material expressionin lived copresencerdquo (Appadurai 2003 338) must come to terms with the matter offact that

the human movement characteristic of the contemporary world is as much a threat to thenation-state as are the attachments of local subjects to local life The isomorphism of peo-ple territory and legitimate sovereignty that constitutes the normative charter of the mod-ern nation-state is under threat from the forms of circulation of people characteristic of thecontemporary world (Appadurai 2003 338)

Translocalities come in many forms as an emergent category of human organiza-tion eg due to global economic processesmdashHong Kong Vancouver and Brus-sels eg due to civil warsmdashSarajevo Beirut Belfast and Mogadishu (Appadurai2003 339) There is a cultural form of liberalization alongside economic liberal-

35 Diasporas 57

ization that ldquoinvites citizens who have moved abroad to reinvest in their nationsof origin especially if they have not switched passports India for example hasthe category of Non-Resident Indianrdquo (Appadurai 2003 340) For many nationalcitizens

the practicalities of residence and the ideologies of home soil and roots are often disjunctThe territorial referents of hellip loyalty are increasingly divided for many persons among dif-ferent spatial horizons hellip work loyalties residential loyalties and religious loyalties maycreate disjunctive registers of affiliationhellip From the point of view of the nation there isa rapidly growing distance between the promiscuous spaces of free trade and tourismwhere national disciplines are often relaxed and the spaces of national security ideolog-ical reproduction which may be increasingly nativized authenticated and culturallymarked The Sir Lankan state encourages remarkable cultural promiscuity and ldquoinauthen-ticityrdquo in its beach resorts (which are now explicitly pushed into a translocal Caribbean-style aesthetic) while intensively nationalizing other spaces which are carefully markedfor enacting ldquoSinhalardquo national development and ldquoBuddhistrdquo national memory (Appadurai2003 341)

Today there is a consensus that the international migrant ought to be defined asany person who moves to a country other than that of his or her usual residenceany person who crosses at least one national border Unlike the immigrant whohas come to stay the migrant is usually thought of as someone in transit whocomes to work travels across our territories and cities and goes back home orleaves for elsewhere Geographers consider that the concept of a migrant isbased on the physical criterion of movement in space so that the migrantmust not be confused with the foreigner a concept based on a legal criterionA foreigner is anyone who does not have the nationality of the country inwhich he or she resides a quality subject to change following national policiesconcerning nationality acquisition Defined with respect and by contrast with thesedentary the concept of a migrant immediately excludes anything to do withthe figure of someone with roots (Diminescu 2008 566)

The generic divide between migrant foreigner immigrant nomad and sed-entary today tends to blur Anthropologists have stopped talking of ethnic migra-tion These concepts do not hold up well in a world given to generalized mobilityand unprecedently complicated means of communication They are talking in-stead of migrants in multiethnic contexts (Amin 2004) Thus it is increasinglyrare to see migration as a movement between two distinct communities belong-ing to widely separated spaces and characterized by independent social rela-tions systems On the contrary it is more common for migrants to maintain re-mote relations based on proximity and activate them daily The paradigmaticfigure of the uprooted migrant is yielding to another modelmdashone that is as yetill-defined but which corresponds to that of a migrant on the move who relies

58 3 Migration

on alliances outside hisher group of belonging without cutting hisher ties withthe social networks at home (Diminescu 2008 566ndash567)

The anthropology of migration has witnessed the steady growth of transna-tionalism as perhaps its main topic of interest (Vertovec 2010 3) Given that ldquocul-tural shock derives from the distress of intercultural contact experiencesrdquo thoseabilities that make an individual effective in intercultural communication andadaptation should also ldquoreduce cultural shock especially those aspects that re-duce primary aspects of culture shock stress reactions communication prob-lems and disrupted interpersonal and social relationsrdquo (Winkelman 2010 71)

The apologue of the Chinese student (see chapter 2) sheds light on first-gen-eration migrants whose ldquoprospect of adaptation cannot be gleaned from the ex-perience of their parentsrdquo (Portes 2010 191) Growing up in an immigrant familyhas always been difficult ldquoas individuals are torn by conflicting social and cul-tural demands while they face the challenge of entry into an unfamiliar and fre-quently hostile world Nevertheless the difficulties are not always the samerdquo(Portes 2010 192) At times fortunately more often than not ldquothe children ofcontemporary immigrantsrdquo become ldquoincorporated into the system of stratifica-tion in the host societyrdquo In this case we are talking of ldquosegmented assimilationrdquo(Zhou Min 2010 74)

36 Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda on Migration

Throughout history and certainly over the last hundred years or more arguesSteven Vertovec immigrants have stayed in contact with families organizationsand communities in their places of origin and elsewhere in the diaspora How-ever in recent years ldquothe extent and degree of transnational engagementhave intensified due largely to changing technologies and reduced telecommuni-cation and travel costs Enhanced transnationalism substantially transforms sev-eral social political and economic structures and practices among migrant com-munities worldwiderdquo (Vertovec 2010 84) Migration and the integration ofdiverse populations in liberal democratic and pluralist societies call for compa-rative research and joint programming Migrants are people (Nail 2015) They areindividuals and groups their rights their stories their motivations expectationsand aspirations etc Migration is a process that involves the geopolitics of thecountries of origin the main migration routes the destination countries andwhy the fight against illegal migrations human rights and international lawand questions about global inequalities and development etc Integration isthe response receiving countries can provide creating bonds between genera-tions and different communities (Pozzo et al 2022a)

36 Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda on Migration 59

Let me start with the general definition of a political agenda as the list ofsubjects or problems to which governmental officials and people outside thegovernment closely associated with those officials are paying some serious at-tention at any given time after John Kingdon It is within a political agendathat a research agendamdashthe exploration engagement and prioritization integra-tion programming implementationmdashis laid out to make explicit what are the re-quirements set out by the nation-state for researchers to relate their studies toreal-world issues to validate their research and access research funding allocatedby a government A research agenda is about assessing various research optionswhich in turn leads to recommendations for a re-orientation of political decision-making

A systematic mapping of studies on migration shows that a vast research ef-fort has been carried out over the last decades Funding programs and instru-ments from the past have played a vital role in this There have been substantialopportunities to further develop knowledge on migration by focusing on under-studied topics and promoting systematic knowledge accumulation of existing re-searchsup3sup3 Migration is an essential factor in increasing cultural ethnic and reli-gious diversity within receiving societies On top of economic issues migrationposes questions of social and cultural integration raises tensions about domi-nant values or prevailing traditions stresses the limits of the institutional make-up of receiving countries with the quest to accommodate new populations withdifferent cultures and needs

Our understanding of how migratory decisions are made in the real worldremains somewhat limited More specifically how do macro-level factors (egdevelopment conflict climate change) shape micro-level aspirations to migrateAnalyzing how structural and individual elements interact is necessary to under-stand why people move This area is particularly interesting for developmentforeign policy and humanitarian initiatives as they try to assess better howtheir interventions impact migration and forced displacement Among other dis-ciplines behavioral economics and social psychology provide insight into howactors decide migrate where to go to (or from) how to migrate when to relo-cate etc

Governments consider influencing the drivers of irregular migration andforced displacement as part of their strategic objectives Still key questions re-main on how a state can leverage its instruments and whether its goals are real-istic and coherent Besides this questioning needs to extend to other migration

httpsmigrationresearchcom visited on 6 May 2021

60 3 Migration

flowsmdasheg how European interventions influence students who wish to come toEurope

Policies often distinguish between different types of migration flows andpolicymakers need data and analyses on newcomersrsquo profiles to design adequatemigration asylum and integration policies However more research is requiredon how these categories work out in practice to what extent they reflect the dif-ferent profiles of migrants and the effects of policies on these categories orflows It is crucial to study the impact of migration policies and the general so-cial and economic systems on internal and external migration flows Analyzingmobility is beneficial for exploring policy implications more comprehensivelyMore specifically a research and innovation agenda ought to examine whatare the consequences of the recent large-scale refugee intake for the upcomingfamily mobility the new geographies of labor migration what role changes inwage differentials play in both what are the factors affecting changes in migra-tion temporalities (permanent temporary circular seasonal short-term etc)how these are affected by uncertainties and exclusion

There is a comparably strong focus on human smugglers and traffickers inmigration studies Compared to this there is less research on regular agentssuch as work recruitment agencies student mobility consultants or marriageagents which is surprising when considering how many regular migrants usetheir services Also digital migration studies are an emerging field of interestFinally there is little research on the interface of migration and tourism or migra-tion and travel logistics Notably transportation means such as carriers air-ports havens or bus and train stations are widely neglected in migration re-search

There has been significant research on migration and diversity policymakingat the European national regional and local levels However much less isknown of how governance actors make decisions in real-world settings On topof focusing on evaluating policy outcomes it is interesting to focus on policy de-cision-making This can lead to significant contributions to the quality of migra-tion governance It can cover topics as evidence-based policymaking how tocope with social complexity how to cope with contestation and politicizationhow to cope with incident-driven politics etc

How to focus research funding The definition of funding programs current-ly takes a very significant amount of time This makes it challenging to bring to-gether experts and do research on more immediate topics on the agenda In re-cent years funding schemes have favored either short technical assistanceprojects conducted by small teams of experts or long large-scale research proj-ects by large consortia of research institutions This leaves a gap for medium-scale medium-duration projects by medium-size research teams to produce


more targeted and faster results This suggests that further diversification offunding schemes would be beneficial It is expected that funding organizationscould become more responsive by providing longer and long-term oriented re-search projects and shorter and smaller short-term oriented projects This ena-bles the use of knowledge and research for more immediate issues on the policyagenda and it could be a stepping stone towards longer-term projects Fundingprograms ought to be built on what is already there which not only preventsoverlaps in research it also promotes systematic knowledge accumulation andenables a focus on areas that need more or new research

Stakeholders are entities affected by policies that contribute to public under-standing of scientific research improve trust in science and co-construct re-search endeavors by providing diverse perspectives Stakeholders of a strategicresearch and innovation agenda are ministries research funding organizationsresearch performing organizations universities companies small and mediumenterprises unions non-governmental organizations Stakeholders are involvedin different capacities in the definition of sustainable funding programs for thefuture

To gain a comprehensive and deep understanding of the multitude of as-pects relevant for migration it is essential to foster collaboration with civil soci-ety policymakers practitioners and businesses at local national and interna-tional levels These actors rely on knowledge that is internal to their practicalinvolvement with migration issues which is not immediately accessible to aca-demic researchers However given that stakeholders do not always have timeto reflect on the use of the knowledge beyond their immediate everyday workaims it is important to stress that collaboration between academic researchersand practitioners in a broader sense is mutually beneficial in order to gain amore nuanced picture on how migration is played out in broader contexts of so-cial reality

To grasp the global dimension of migration cooperation with partners fromdeveloping countries is crucial We can only understand migration better whenwe know its root causes Collaborations within the scholarly migration commu-nity can be of substantial mutual benefit to enhance the overview of and acces-sibility to available research promote knowledge accumulation opportunitiesand foster the likelihood of research being used by stakeholders Philosophersought to consult migration case studies in legal literature more often and prac-titioners of migration governance might welcome impulses from philosophyThink of the role scholars play for establishing humanitarian corridors as a gov-ernment practice mixed with private sponsorship for organizing bottom-up ac-tions to create legal channels in particular as regards highly vulnerable peopleor think of the role they play in fostering interreligious dialogue globally as an

62 3 Migration

identity element and bridge with the country of origin as well as in receiving so-cieties through dynamics of resilience and possible integration for migrantssup3⁴

What prospects Overall the future agenda on migration is growing throughdifferent steps to address research gaps and ensure a longitudinal perspective inhigh-interest areas for policymakers Although crisis-oriented the policy pushfor coherence produces a shift towards a more systemic approach to migrationstudies for more organic wide-ranging and policy-relevant research results onmigration This effort coincides with research programming strategic trendssuch as the increased focus on multidisciplinary research larger-scale projectswith a higher number of partners and countries covered between participantsand research areas and a higher combination of research methods

From 2014 to 2020 through Horizon 2020 the European Union has funded awealth of research on migration More than forty projects on migration receivedfunding with an average budget of 2 million euros (ranging from 1 to 5 millioneuros) and an average duration of 35 years mixing SSH and science technologyengineering and mathematics (STEM)

One should consider various research initiatives funded under nationalschemes and other research bodies (public and private) that add to the Euro-pean Union-funded migration research While this indeed allows for a soundbody of evidence in the different research areas and policy fields the lack ofcoordination among multilevel funding also generates incoherence and confu-sion Stronger efforts to ensure coordination at least among European Unionfinancing instruments on migration research and studies and possibly withnational funding schemes would be of advantage for the research communityand policymakers Most importantly there is now a need to ensure synergiesand coordination among projects exploring the different dimensions of migra-tion Findings and tools elaborated or developed by the various tasks must bediscussed in a coordinated and thorough fashion

37 Migration Compact

Out of Egypt Moses led the Jews (Exodus 1317ndash1429) a collective process andJoseph the Holy Family (Matthew 213ndash23) an individual process Many exam-ples of mass and individual migration are found in late antiquity and in theearly Middle Ages in Europe Think of religious refugees such as the Quakersand the Huguenots the displacement of American native tribes racism and

httpsreireseu visited on 6 May 2021

37 Migration Compact 63

its consequences Think of displaced persons the 450000 Nansen passport bear-ers after World War I refugees from Central Africa etc It is perhaps time histor-ians of philosophy start reflecting observing and interpreting phenomena ofexodus as they have been mirrored through visual arts literature music andcinema creating heroes ideals and propaganda Significantly Kant statesthat ldquoa regard to universal communicability is a thing which everyone expectsand requires from everyone else just as if it were part of an original compact dic-tated by humanity itselfrdquo (Kritik der Urteilskraft AA5 297[15ndash 17] CE [KU] 177)sup3⁵ Amigration compact is needed to ensure that competition for deterrence regardingwelfare does not end up in universal impoverishment If people vote xenopho-bic there is a reason for that and philosophers must take charge of an answerToday democracy is under attack Many see democracy as an obstacle on theway to a global economy in which all are producers and consumers Ought weto give up the truth in democracy for the sake of civil peace Migration requirescareful consideration of its ethical and political effectsmdashpersonal identity gen-der cultural and religious diversity (Nida-Ruumlmelin 2006 Lau 2016)

European governments do well in elaborating on a migration compact Fur-thermore research has precisely the task and the duty to support political deci-sion-making On 25 April 2016 commenting on the victory of the extreme right inthe first round of the Austrian presidential elections in a ldquopeaceful countrywhere political forces gave all guarantees of peaceful stabilityrdquo Claudio Magrisnoted that if the two parties that for decades had assured stability were so bla-tantly defeated ldquothis means that the danger of a barbaric Europe is real and thatthis Austrian warning bell should be heard and not simply and morally de-ploredrdquosup3⁶

In recent years democracy had to face attacks by fanatics motivated on areligious basis or claiming to be such and had to deal with economic modelsthat consider democracy an alleged obstacle on the road to a world economy do-minated by economic giants where all are producers and consumers of goodsand services traded globally This crucial issue was enucleated by Julian Nida-Ruumlmelin (2006) into a particular question In a democracy ought we not to re-nounce truth on behalf of guaranteed civil peace There are therefore politicalreasons to dedicate oneself to the role of truth in democracy Nevertheless since

ldquodie Ruumlcksicht auf allgemeine Mittheilung von jedermann gleichsam aus einem urspruumlngli-chen Vertrage der durch die Menschheit selbst dictirt istrdquo Magris 2016 26 ldquoche lo straordinario successo dellrsquoestrema destra abbia avuto luogo in unPaese tranquillo in cui le forze politiche che lo hanno governato danno tutte le garanzie di pa-cifica stabilitagrave hellip significa che il pericolo di unrsquoEuropa barbarica egrave reale e che questo campanellodrsquoallarme austriaco va ascoltato e non semplicemente e moralisticamente deploratordquo

64 3 Migration

there is no safe way to separate the true beliefs from the false beliefs which al-ways remain revisable what is left for us then Democracy is not an obstacle to-wards establishing a global economic order with its supernational structuresWeneed democracy to achieve in the year 2030 the Sustainable Development Goalslaid out by the United Nations in 2015sup3⁷ Among the challenges to tackle are therights to asylum housing health and social care employment education inte-gration economic growth social peace security

httpssdgsunorggoals visited on 6 May 2021



4 Internal Conversation

When policymakers urge scientists scientific practitioners of the governance ofscience and society on the whole to become more reflective this implies the ca-pability of reflection and hence the legitimation of the involvement of the hu-manities in hard-science research What the humanities can add to the workof hard sciencemdashwhich has taken a very explicit form in the shape of scienceand technology studiesmdashis a reflection on the effects of science on society cul-ture and the happiness of the human being For this reason reflection has be-come a common denominator for policies in education culture and research Itis useful to remind that the Council of Europersquos Faro Framework Convention onthe Value of Cultural Heritage for Society explicitly encourages reflection on therole of citizens in the process of defining creating and managing a cultural en-vironment in which communities evolvesup3⁸ In his Einleitung in die Geisteswissen-schaften Wilhelm Dilthey (1883) suggested grounding the human sciences in ahistorically situated self-reflective awareness He used the term Innewerden inso-far as reflection is immediate and not given like an external object Dilthey talksabout ldquothat which I experience in myselfrdquo insofar as ldquoit is present for me as factof consciousness because I am reflectively aware of it [weil ich desselben inne-werde] a fact of consciousness is precisely what I possess in reflexive awareness[dessen ich innwerde]rdquo (GS1 394 SW1 227ndash228 see Bambach 2019 86)sup3⁹ Reflec-tion is one pillar of the sociology of knowledge for it structures human beliefsregarding the circular relationship between cause and effect More precisely re-flection denotes the activity of self-referring the internal conversation of oneselfwho is about to consider an action or an examination Since ldquowe deliberate aboutour circumstances in relation to ourselves and in light of these deliberations wedetermine our own personal courses of action in societyrdquomdashas Margaret Archerhas put itmdashldquoour human powers of reflexivity have causal efficacymdashtowards our-selves our society and relations between themrdquo (Archer 2003 9 167)

In this chapter I introduce the second pillar of this book namely the reflec-tive society I start with an account of the state of the art around reflectivity I

httpswwwcoeintenwebculture-and-heritagefaro-convention visited on 6 May 2021 ldquoDas dessen ich innerwerde ist als Zustand meiner selbst nicht relativ wie ein aumluszligerer Ge-genstand Eine Wahrheit des aumluszligeren Gegenstandes als Uumlbereinstimmung des Bildes mit einerRealitaumlt besteht nicht denn diese Realitaumlt ist in keinem Bewuszligtsein gegeben und entzieht sichalso der VergleichungWie das Objekt aussieht wenn niemand es in sein Bewuszligtsein aufnimmtkann man nicht wissen wollen Dagegen ist das was ich in mir erlebe als Tatsache des Bewuszligt-seins darum fuumlr mich da weil ich desselben innewerde Tatsache des Bewuszligtseins ist nichts an-deres als das dessen ich innewerderdquo


continue with the self-reflective society and conclude with some information onthe role the term has been playing for European research policy since 2013

41 Reflectivity

Kant has made it clear in his Reflexion uumlber die Logik 2527 that to become a self-determined cognitive agent the human being needs reflection because prejudi-ces are based on cognitive passivity on the ldquoinclination hellip towards the mecha-nism of reason rather than towards its spontaneity under lawrdquo (AA16406[5ndash6] see Merritt 2018 1)⁴⁰ Reflection emerges as the faculty and activitythat stands at the intersection of reason in its practical and theoretical usesThe notion of reflection (Archer 2003 Grim and Rescher 2012) describes a proc-ess that relies on individuals who reflectively appropriate content and becomeproducers of new knowledge once they share it As the faculty and activitythat stands at the intersection of reason in its practical and theoretical uses re-flection is labeled ldquoone of the most important of personal emergent propertiesrdquo(Archer 2003 9) Reflection is the proof of ldquothe reality of the life of the mindrdquo(Archer 2003 35) The first philosopher of reflection was Johann Gottfried Herdera contemporary of Kant Herder considered reflection a process a general func-tion of the human being for isolating content ldquofrom the whole wavering dream ofimages rushingrdquo through hisher senses collecting ldquointo a moment of wakingrdquodwelling ldquoon one image spontaneouslyrdquo observing ldquoit dearly and more quietlyrdquoand finally abstracting characteristics showing himher ldquothat this and no other isthe objectrdquo (Herder 1772 52ndash53 1877ndash 1913 vol 5 34ndash35 2002 55 see Cassirer1944 60ndash61)⁴sup1 Instead Diltheyrsquos focus was on self-cultivation and self-forma-tion (Bildung)

ldquoHang zum Mechanism der Vernunft statt der Spontaneitaumlt derselben unter Gesetzenrdquo ldquoDer Mensch beweiset Reflexion wenn die Kraft seiner Seele so frei wuumlrket daszlig sie in demganzen Ocean von Empfindungen der sie durch alle Sinnen durchrauschet Eine Welle wennich so sagen darf absondern sie anhalten die Aufmerksamkeit auf sie richten und sich bewuszligtseyn kann daszlig sie aufmerke Er beweiset Reflexion wenn er aus dem ganzen schwebendenTraum der Bilder die seine Sinne vorbeistreichen sich in ein Moment des Wachens sammlenauf Einem Bilde freiwillig verweilen es in helle ruhigere Obacht nehmen und sich Merkmaleabsondern kann daszlig dies der Gegenstand und kein andrer sey Er beweiset also Reflexionwenn er nicht blos alle Eigenschaften lebhaft oder klar erkennen sondern Eine oder mehrereals unterscheidende Eigenschaften bei sich anerkennen kann der erste Aktus dieser Anerkennt-niszlig giebt deutlichen Begriff es ist das Erste Urtheil der Seelerdquo

70 4 Internal Conversation

I call the laying of the foundation which philosophy must carry out self-reflection and nottheory of knowledge Self-reflection provides the foundation not only for thinking andknowing but also for action This proposition must not be understood to mean that actioncould be an object of knowledge the same way a fact is especially the facts of nature Thisproposition is undoubtedly correct but it does not express what with regard to action iscontained in self-reflection as the foundation of philosophy The reason for the fact that itcontains more than so far has been taken into account is that statements concerning feelingand will which involve the consciousness of what is peculiar to feeling and will have notbeen adequately distinguished from knowledge in the sense of thought contained in expe-rience and directed to its correlate reality and the latter have not been sufficiently exam-ined with regard to their criteria (GS19 89 SW1 278)⁴sup2

It is our self-reflection (Selbstbesinnung) then that investigates the origin andthe rules in human emotional life (GS1 190 SW1 147) Dilthey argues for a Phi-losophie der Philosophie (1903) that accepts no claim in isolation and no strivingin its immediacy (GS8 229) This means that all theoretical and practical posi-tions must be justified and related to a reflective context that allows no particu-lar discipline a final say Dilthey conceives philosophy as operations and con-frontations with society His philosophy of philosophy is a means ofreorganizing knowledge for society a non-transcendental (historical) form ofthe critical division of intellectual labor Disciplinary boundaries can alwaysbe questioned for the sake of a more encompassing perspective However world-views (Weltanschauungen) are effective only if they bring the conceptualizingand generalizing tendencies of philosophy to meet the concrete needs of lifethat find expression in religious and cultural practices and in the arts and liter-ature Rudolf Makkreel has noted that a worldview would be metaphysically re-flective yes but stop short of being reified into a metaphysical system ldquoWorld-views would not claim to account for everything that is and legislate whatshould be but provide ways of understanding things in context and assessingthe meaning of life This in effect gives worldviews a hermeneutical functionrdquo

ldquoIch nenne die Grundlegung welche die Philosophie zu vollziehen hat Selbstbesinnungnicht aber Erkenntnistheorie Denn sie ist eine Grundlegung sowohl fuumlr das Denken und Erken-nen als fuumlr das Handeln Dieser Satz darf nicht so miszligverstanden werden als bedeute er daszligdas Handeln ebenfalls Gegenstand der Erkenntnis sein koumlnnte als eine Tatsache so gut wie eineTatsache der Natur Dieser Satz ist ohne Frage richtig aber er druumlckt nicht das aus was in bezugauf das Handeln in der Selbstbesinnung als der Grundlegung der Philosophie enthalten ist DerGrund aus welchem das was mehr darin ist nicht zur Geltung gelangt ist liegt darin daszlig vonder Erkenntnis als einem auf die Wirklichkeit gerichteten dh in ihrem Korrelat der Erfahrungenthaltenen Denken die Aussagen uumlber Gefuumlhl und Willewelche nur das Bewuszligtsein der Gefuumlhlund Wille bildenden Tatsachen enthalten nicht hinlaumlnglich unterschieden und die letzteren inbezug auf ihre Kriterien nicht genug untersucht worden sindrdquo

41 Reflectivity 71

(Makkreel 2020 321ndash322) A diagnostical hermeneutics ought to develop ldquothe fullresources of reflective judgment to establish critical prioritiesrdquo (Makkreel 2015)

A few words are needed to consider how the spelling might affect the mean-ing of this term because if ldquoreflectiverdquo is meant to denote ldquomental faculties hellippertaining to reflection (on what is presented to the mind)rdquo (OED 1989 sv14) ldquoreflexiverdquo points out the direction of this activity against a surface ldquocapableof reflecting lightrdquo (OED 1989 sv 1a) In this book however I take both forms tomean the same thing following the OED when it notes that the etymologicalspelling of ldquoreflectionrdquo with ldquothe x is the earliest and is still common in scien-tific use perh through its connection with reflex in the general senses the influ-ence of the verb has made the form with ct the prevailing nowrdquo I am thinking ofthe cross-cultural reflection that the twentieth-first century is asking philosophyfor (Panikkar 1996) and the reflective capability of ldquoreconstructing social andsymbolic power relations as they enforce themselves on the specific modes of in-tentional understanding and thereby undermine the potential of interpretativeperspective-takingrdquo (Koumlgler 2011 90) As regards the connection of reflectionwith the self Anthony Giddens has explained that in the post-traditionalorder self-identity is reflective

Self-identity is not a set of traits or observable characteristics It is a personrsquos own reflexiveunderstanding of their biography Self-identity has continuitymdashthat is it cannot easily becompletely changed at willmdashbut that continuity is only a product of the personrsquos reflexivebeliefs about their own biography (Giddens 1991 53)

Self-identity is not ldquoa quality of a momentrdquo it is instead ldquoan account of a per-sonrsquos life for a personrsquos identity is not to be found in behaviour normdashimportantthough this ismdashin the reactions of others but in the capacity to keep a particularnarrative goingrdquo The biography of an individual ldquocannot be wholly fictive Itmust continually integrate events which occur in the external world and sortthem into the ongoing lsquostoryrsquo about the selfrdquo (Giddens 1991 54)

Today we have access to information that allows us to reflect on the causesand consequences of our actions At the same time we are faced with dangersrelated to the unintended consequences of our actions and our reliance on theknowledge of expertsWe create maintain and revise a set of biographical nar-ratives social roles and lifestylesmdashthe story of who we are and how we came tobe where we are nowWe are increasingly free to choose what we want to do andwho we want to be (although Giddens contends that wealth gives access to moreoptions)


What to do How to act Who to be These are focal questions for everyone living in circum-stances of late modernitymdashand ones which on some level or another all of us answer ei-ther discursively or through day-to-day social behaviour (Giddens 1991 70)

While in earlier traditional societies we would be provided with a determinatenarrative and social role we are usually forced to create one ourselves in thepost-traditional society However an enhanced choice can be both liberatingand troubling Liberating in the sense of increasing the likelihood of onersquosself-fulfillment and disturbing in the form of augmented emotional stress andtime needed to analyze the available options and minimize the risk we are in-creasingly aware of what Giddens sums up as ldquomanufactured uncertaintyrdquo (Gid-dens 1991 71)

42 Parliamentary Genesis of the Reflective Society

From the Fall of 2019 to the Spring of 2021 the framework program of researchand innovation Horizon Europe for the multiannual financial period 2021ndash2027of the European Union has not been spoken much about in the newspapers Nev-ertheless the amendments of the members of the European Parliament to the in-terinstitutional dossier 20180224 (COD) Proposal for Regulation of the EuropeanParliament and of the Council establishing Horizon Europemdashthe Framework Pro-gramme for Research and Innovation laying down its rules for participation anddisseminationmdashResults of the work of the European Parliament (Strasbourg10ndash 13 December 2018) published by the European Commission on 3 December2018 were the most important item on the agenda of the plenary session ofthe European Parliament that has become known to the chronicles for the vileattack carried out at the Marcheacute de Noeumll in Strasbourg on the evening of 11 De-cember 2018⁴sup3 On 9 January 2019 and this too has been largely ignored the in-terinstitutional negotiation (formal trilogue) on regulation only was startedwhich eventually led to a shared text and the programrsquos final content in thesummer of 2020

Good news of course However the perception of being in the middle of abattle is missing Which one The battle for attributing to the humanities arole within Horizon Europe In the version of the interinstitutional dossier issuedon 3 December 2018 it became immediately apparent that the title of Cluster 2Inclusive and Secure Society of Horizon Europe dedicated to ldquosocio-economic

COM(2018)0435mdashC8ndash02522018mdash20180224(COD) httpswwweuroparleuropaeudoceodocumentTA-8-2018- 0509_ENhtml visited on 6 May 2021

42 Parliamentary Genesis of the Reflective Society 73

transformations contributing to inclusion and growthrdquo was different from thatof Societal Challenge 6 Europe in a Changing World Inclusive Innovative and Re-flective Societies which used to be its correspondent in the framework programof research and innovation Horizon 2020 for the multiannual financial period2014ndash2020 of the European Union (EUR 2016a 32) Hence the legitimate ques-tion Where have the reflective societies gone The amendments discussed andvoted upon by the European Parliament members were published on 11 January2019 and have led to interesting results Specifically within the Amendmentsadopted by the European Parliament on 12 December 2018 on the proposal for aregulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing Horizon Eu-ropemdashthe Framework Programme for Research and Innovation laying down itsrules for participation and dissemination⁴⁴ amendment 64 imposed a significantchange from the original cluster on Inclusive and Secure Society which has beenreformulated without the part relating to security and now carries the term Cul-ture Creativity and Inclusive Society thus opening up to the spectrum of the hu-manities On top of this it is fascinating that the provision in article 4 of the reg-ulation on the cluster structure includes the statement that all clusters ought torely on a cost-effectiveness analysis provided by the SSH In amendment 67 toarticle 6a dedicated to the ldquoPrinciples of EU funding and cross-cutting issuesrdquowe read the definition of Horizon Europe as a program that shall ensure an ldquoef-fective integration of social sciences and humanities (SSH) in all clusters includ-ing all missions and partnerships is a principle through the programme cycleSSH are a key constituent of research and innovationrdquo (EUR 2021 25)

Putting together the three pieces ie the formulation of the cluster namethe presence of the SSH in the co-design of the projects and the appointmentof SSH experts in all evaluation committees Horizon Europe might provide anoverall picture that has no precedent for the SSH The difference between havingthe SSH only in the principles and having them also in the article establishingthe cluster should not escape They were pinned down on 29 January 2019when the trilogue between the European Parliament European Commissionand Council of the European Union (through the Permanent RepresentativesCommittee) found its end The objective is now to provide that an adequate pres-ence of SSH experts be mandatory in all advisory councils and evaluation com-mittees The risk remains that references to the humanities eventually disappearas some European Union countries would like to The struggle goes on

(COM(2018)0435ndashC8ndash02522018ndash20180224(COD)) httpswwweuroparleuropaeudoceodocumentTA-8-2018- 0509_ENhtml visited on 6 May 2021


Before continuing it is useful to remember that the battle for Horizon Europewas the palingenesis of the battle for Horizon 2020 which took place in the win-ter of 2012ndash2013 and was wonmdashthis time more decidedly in favor of the human-itiesmdashthanks to the initiative of the group of honorable members of the EuropeanParliament led by Maria da Graccedila Carvalho former Minister of Education Re-search and Innovation of Portugal and rapporteur of the Report on the proposalfor a Council decision establishing the Specific Programme Implementing Horizon2020mdashThe Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014ndash2020)⁴⁵Three other members of the European Parliament co-signed the report PatriziaToia president of the ITRE Commission (industry research energy) ChristianEhler also a member of ITRE and Silvia Costa who in the next legislature(2014ndash2019) became the chair of the Culture Commission On 8 January 2013the title of Societal Challenge 6 Europe in a Changing World Inclusive Innovativeand Reflective Societies of Horizon 2020 was agreed upon with the aim of foster-ing a ldquogreater understanding of a culturally and socially rich and diverse Eu-roperdquo (EUR 2016a 1)

In 2013 it was a question of remedying the exclusion of the humanities fromthe previous seven framework programs for research and innovation in whichthey were only admitted as ancillary to ldquocultural heritagerdquo due to its being affect-ed by climate change and hence included among the actions for ldquoenvironmentrdquoAmendment 43 of 8 January 2013 called for the first time European funding forresearch on

the specific objective Understanding Europe in a changing world inclusive innovative andreflective societies will support social sciences and humanities research into issues of a hor-izontal nature such as the creation of smart and sustainable growth social and culturaltransformations in European societies political inclusion and democratic participationthe role of media and the formation of the public sphere social innovation innovation inthe public sector or the position of Europe as a global actor⁴⁶

Amendment 64 of 8 January 2013 reacted to the methodology of the previousseven framework programs that had pursued a reductive approach to thescope of its overall effectiveness introducing the reflective society as a conditionof possibility to put the SSH into the game

COM20110811 finalmdash20110402 (CNS) httpseur-lexeuropaeulegal-contentENTXTHTMLuri=CELEX52018PC0435ampfrom=IT httpseceuropaeuprogrammeshorizon2020enh2020-sectioneurope-changing-world-inclusive-innovative-and-reflective-societies visited on 6 May 2021


In this context the objective is to enhance social economic and political inclusion combatpoverty enhance human rights digital and educational inclusiveness equality solidaritycultural diversity and inter-cultural dialogue by supporting interdisciplinary research indi-cators development technological advances organizational solutions and new forms of col-laboration and co-creation⁴⁷

The lively exchange of views that took place during the Lithuanian Council of theEuropean Union presidential conference on Horizons for the Social Sciences andHumanities in Vilnius on 23ndash24 September 2013⁴⁸ with the then Commissionerfor Research and Innovation Maacuteire Geoghegan-Quinn has remained in the mem-ory of those who witnessed it When Commissioner Geoghegan-Quinn made itclear that the research priorities of the European Union remained three namelyclimate change the aging of the population and the scarcity of energy resour-ces the Italian delegate reacted by bringing up the position of the Italian govern-ment that it was necessary to add a European priority for culture since in Europewe have twenty-four official languages most of the UNESCO sites and constantflows of migration inside and outside its borders To which the Commissioner re-plied asking what should be done Perhaps sit down and reflect Thank youMadam Commissioner this is precisely what it would take was the answeramid the general merriment of the assembly

43 Self-reflective Society

The syntagma is based on the work done on reflection by Kant (1790) and Hab-ermas (1968 1971) by Ulrich Beck (1983) on reflective modernity Alessandro Fer-rara (1998) and Simon Clarke (2005 60ndash83) The self-reflective society refers tothe deliberative communication of citizens in a modern public sphere aiming atmutual understanding (Fishkin 1992) for example our attitudes towards re-thinking artificial intelligence human enhancement fragmentation of knowl-edge attention spans and data access A closer scrutiny reveals that Habermashas applied to society what Hegel (1812ndash 1813) had elaborated as the passagefrom the surface of being to the ground of essence a passage that takesplace literally by reflecting into the thingmdashlike reflected light that illuminatessomething previously invisible or creates a pattern not previously existing

httpseceuropaeuresearchparticipantsdatarefh2020wp2018ndash 2020mainh2020-wp1820-societies_enpdf visited on 6 May 2021 httphorizonsmrunieuvilnius-declaration-horizons-for-social-sciences-and-humanitiesvisited on 6 May 2021


ldquoHegel was able to demonstrate the phenomenological self-reflection of knowl-edge as the necessary radicalization of the critique of reasonrdquo (Habermas1968 14 1971 5) Hegel goes beyond Kant who had stopped at the pure formsof intuition He reintroduces the process from sense-certainty to reflectionldquoThis movement is the experience of reflection Its goal is that knowledgewhich the critical philosophy asserted as an immediate possessionrdquo (Habermas1968 17 1971 9) Interaction is the participation of knowledge that gives informa-tion ldquoKnowledge-constitutive interests mediate the natural history of the humanspecies with the logic of its self-formative processrdquo (Habermas 1968 242 1971196) As the basic orientation of a reflective society interest is hence ldquorootedin specific fundamental conditions of the possible reproduction and self-consti-tution of the human species namely work and interactionrdquo (Habermas 1968 2421971 196)⁴⁹

Given that todayrsquos societies typically are not based upon any shared set ofconvictions such as religious teachings their members need to provide reasonsfor communicating their opinions about problems caused by conflicting inter-ests Adopting thoughts of Max Weber (1978 1980) Habermas (1981 1984) hascoined the phrase ldquocommunicative rationalization of the lifeworldrdquo (kommunika-tive Rationalisierung der Lebenswelt) to capture the particular features of mod-ernity that necessitate the exchange of reasons Habermas elaborates on howa new political community needs to reach a just way of dealing with anygiven conflict among its members with this specific understanding in mindHe specifies one formal principle as a guideline reformulating Kantrsquos morallaw ldquoJust those action norms are valid to which all possibly affected personscould agree as participants in rational discoursesrdquo (Habermas 1992 138 1996107)⁵⁰

The challenges laid out for self-reflective and inclusive societies have beendeveloped since their inception during the Enlightenment Hegel (1812ndash 1813)elaborated the lightrsquos metaphor into a powerful tool to make out social dynam-

ldquoHegel hat gegen Kant die phaumlnomenologische Selbstreflexion der Erkenntnis als notwen-dige Radikalisierung der Erkenntniskritik nachweisen koumlnnenrdquomdashldquoDiese Bewegung ist die Erfah-rung der Reflexion und ihr Ziel die Erkenntnis die der Kritizismus unvermittelt behaupteterdquomdashldquoErkenntnisleitende Interesse vermitteln (wie ich an dieser Stelle noch nicht nachweisen son-dern erst behaupten kann) die Naturgeschichte der Menschengattung mit der Logik ihres Bil-dungsprozesses aber sie koumlnnen nicht in Anspruch genommen werden um die Logik auf irgen-deine Naturbasis zuruumlckzufuumlhrenrdquomdashldquoInteressen nenne ich die Grundorientierungen die anbestimmten fundamentalen Bedingungen der moumlglichen Reproduktion und Selbstkonstituier-ung der Menschengattung naumlmlich an Arbeit und Interaktion haftenrdquo ldquoGuumlltig sind genau die Handlungsnormen denen alle moumlglicherweise Betroffenen als Teil-nehmer an rationalen Diskursen zustimmen koumlnnenrdquo

43 Self-reflective Society 77

ics After Hegel and Habermas Niklas Luhmann pointed out with regard to theGerman environmentalist movement of the seventies and eighties of the last cen-tury that the Green Party was compensating reflectivity deficits and blind spotsof social systems

protesting reflection does something that is done nowhere else It espouses subject mattersthat none of the function systems neither politics nor the economy neither religion noreducation neither science nor law would acknowledge as its ownhellip It compensates formodern societyrsquos manifest inadequacies in reflectionmdashnot doing it better but rather bydoing it differently (Luhmann 1991 153 2002 142ndash 143)⁵sup1

Among the users of the full syntagma of self-reflective society was James S Fish-kin who introduced the notion (in this very wording) in the context of an exami-nation of procedural rationality ldquoPractices that fulfill our conditions hellip are ra-tional in the sense that they are self-reflectiverdquo (Fishkin 1992 143) Theproblem he started from is the confidence we can have ldquoin any political propo-sition when critics of it have been silencedrdquo (Fishkin 1992 157) In a nutshellFishkin maintains ldquothat liberty of political culture is necessary if we are tohave any confidence in certain particular political lsquotruthsrsquo and that having con-fidence in just those particular political lsquotruthsrsquo is part of the solution to the le-gitimacy problemrdquo (Fishkin 1992 159)

44 Inclusive Innovative Reflective Societies

The objective of Societal Challenge 6 of Horizon 2020 was to foster a greater un-derstanding of a culturally and socially rich and diverse Europe and how it mightneed to adopt new paradigms for change in a context of unprecedented transfor-mations amid growing global interdependence Hence its comprehensive titleEurope in a Changing World Inclusive Innovative and Reflective Societies Al-though the challenges were significant so too were the opportunities to turnthem into strengths through diversity and creativity across all areas of the econ-omy society culture and governance Innovative policies and actions were re-

ldquoMit diesen besonderen Merkmalen leistet die protestierende Reflexion etwas was sonst nir-gends geleistet wird Sie greift Themen auf die keines der Funktionssysteme weder die Politiknoch die Wirtschaft weder die Religion noch das Erziehungswesen weder die Wissenschaftnoch das Recht als eigene erkennen wuumlrden Sie stellt sich quer zu dem was auf Grund einesPrimates funktionaler Differenzierung innerhalb der Funktionssysteme und Selbstbeschreibun-gen anfaumlllt Sie kompensiert deutliche Reflexionsdefizite der modernen Gesellschaftmdashnicht da-durch daszlig sie es besser macht wohl aber dadurch daszlig sie es anders machtrdquo


quired to provide new solutions supporting an inclusive innovative and reflec-tive Europe Societal Challenge 6 was itself a core component of the research in-novation and technological development actions foreseen within Horizon 2020for achieving a sustainable development while addressing peoplersquos concernsabout their livelihoods safety and cohesion

examples include many of the new sharing and collaborative economy business modelswhich also blur the relationships between producer supplier and consumer Some ofthese imply some shift toward the ldquoexperience economyrdquo where experiences becomemore desirable than objects especially when imagining a shorter workday larger incomesand more leisure time Such a shift also implies peoplersquos reflective desire to find othermeanings in life than purely consumption These developments can also have profound im-plications for supply chains for the organization of work and for the jobs to be done im-pacting governance and regulation and education and social security systems (EUR 2016a25)

Europe is a multicultural society There are several significant issues as regardscultural and technological transformations for human and social progress Afterthe revolutions of the Arab Spring of 2011 on the South Shore of the Mediterra-nean we have seen the emergence of

a transnational public sphere with what it implies as the appearance of new media and therepositioning of identity discourse of the religious type via cathodic electronic and discur-sive agoras echoed within urban public places (Kerrou 2016 1398)⁵sup2

Among the ones pushed forward within Societal Challenge 6 let me now outlinefour lines of research First Societal Challenge 6 was intended to point out thesocietal value of culturemdashincluding creative arts performing and visual artsmdashandask how culture produces cognitive effects acting as a source of cultural identitybonding and strengthening communities (EUR 2016a 7)

Second symbols and cultural heritage whereby new affordable and efficientdigital services are available to deepen the understanding of cultural expres-sions support the innovative approaches that generate new knowledge createadded value for society from cultural heritage and respond to the need to com-municate Digital offerings facilitate the analysis and interpretation of culturalresources including digital ones improve the accessibility of reference collec-tions and support cultural heritage information from different locations They

ldquolrsquoideacutee drsquoemergence concurrente ces derniegraveres anneacutees drsquoune sphere publique transnatio-nale avec ce qursquoelle implique comme apparition de nouveaux medias et repositionnement dudiscours identitaire du type reacuteligieux via les agoras cathodiques eacutelectroniques et discursivesreacutepercuteacutees au sein de places publiques urbainesrdquo

44 Inclusive Innovative Reflective Societies 79

connect people to heritage foster exchanges and cooperation among cultural in-stitutions academia individuals and communities from various sectors (egtourism gastronomy) stimulating their creativity by developing and improvingactive innovation methods In particular issues related to the conservation re-storation and transmission of cultural heritage in an environment characterizedby increased digitization were tackled first and foremost issues related to copy-right of digital cultural contents public distribution and portability within theEU-wide Digital Single Market (EUR 2016a 7ndash8)

Third identities radical ideologies belonging and social inclusion present astark and severe challenge to stability security social cohesion and democracyYoung and disenfranchised people searching for identity live in physical and on-line contexts in which they are being exposed to violent ideologies that deserveparticular scrutiny Video-sharing platforms also play a role in the prohibition ofhate speech and the protection of minors against harmful content The focus ison beliefs and narratives that may shape perceptions increase the polarizationof society and underpin and perpetuate radical ideologies History of philosophyplays a role in elaborating counter-narratives to radical ideologies while address-ing social inclusion marginalization and criminality particularly in the contextof cities (EUR 2016a 7)

Finally creativity creative industries and cultural diversity point attention tothe development of social media cultural and creative industries such as artspublishing design media libraries traditions and folklore craft and architec-ture They are at the heart of a vibrant economy and may serve the purpose of re-vitalizing regional economies The circulation of knowledge deeply affects demo-cratic societies because education and culture make the bulk of significant publicpolicies for social cultural and political cohesion while cultural diversity hasstrategic importance for creativity and innovation (EUR 2016a 8)

45 What Role for the Reflective Society

The Vilnius DeclarationmdashHorizons for Social Sciences and Humanities of 23 Sep-tember 2013 states

Europe will benefit from wise investment in research and innovation and Social Sciencesand Humanities SSH are ready to contribute European societies expect research and in-novation to be the foundation for growth Horizon 2020 aims to implement inter-discipli-narity and an integrated scientific approach If research is to serve society a resilient part-nership with all relevant actors is required A wide variety of perspectives will providecritical insights to help achieve the benefits of innovation The effective integration of


SSH requires that they are valued researched and taught in their own right as well as inpartnership with other disciplinary approaches⁵sup3

We are talking about the integration of the SSH in society (EUR 2019) Under theheading of Living Together Missions for Shaping the Future a group of institu-tions headed by the network of All European Academies has called for ideasto put forward mission-oriented research in Horizon Europe while proposing con-crete suggestions that consider global challenges ahead (ALLEA et al 2017) TheAustrian Council of the European Union presidential conference on the Impact ofthe social sciences and humanities for a European Research Agenda in Vienna on28ndash29 November 2018 was opened by the Austrian Federal Minister for Educa-tion Science and Research Heinz Faszligmann He insisted that the challenges ofour time cannot be solved only by STEM sciences because also SSH research pro-duces innovation All disciplines must work together while the critical and self-reflective perspective of the SSH is indispensable insofar as it continually putsestablished patterns into question⁵⁴

In Horizon 2020 the proposed approach was that of the so-called embed-ding according to which the dimension of reflectivity would not only havebeen lost but would instead be enhanced by the explicit request to be evaluatedfor the rankings of projects Despite the good intentions however embeddingdid not work in Horizon 2020 The scientific integration of the SSH has notbeen achieved yet In fact the integration of the contribution of the SSH has pro-ven to be crucial during the drafting phase of the funding work program (up-stream embedding) Truly interdisciplinary topics are to be designed so thatthe challenges in question are framed with the SSH as an integral part of the sol-ution Hence there is a strong correlation between the quality of the topic textsand the respective outcomes in terms of the integration with SSH (EUR 2019 5)Clear scope for SSH input yields higher participation from SSH partners confirm-ing that integrating the dimension of the SSH needs to happen from the earlieststages of the drafting process Good integration of the SSH steers the researchand innovation process towards concepts solutions and products relevant to so-cietal needs directly applicable or marketable and cost-efficient The researchpartners of SSH investigators belong to a broad range of institutional back-grounds higher education establishments research organizations and the pub-lic and private sectors

httphorizonsmrunieuwp-contentuploads201402ssh_mru_conference_report_finalpdf visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwssh-impacteu visited on 6 May 2021

45 What Role for the Reflective Society 81

Summing up at the basis of innovative reflective and inclusive societies arethe SSH and their twenty-first-century offspringsmdashie computational social cul-tural analytics and innovation in religion As it is clear from amendment 67 toarticle 6a of the proposal constituting Horizon Europe (mentioned above in sec-tion 52) the battle for attributing to the humanities a role within Horizon Europerevolves around a change of method (EUR 2021 6) The experience gained in Ho-rizon 2020 has made it clear that to implement interdisciplinarity with the fullinvolvement of the SSH it is best to neglect the idea of embedding and think in-stead of cooperation in an atmosphere of mutual respect⁵⁵ It is to be expectedthat under Pillar II Global Challenges and Industrial Competitiveness of HorizonEurope the SSH will cooperate and participate in all phases of the implementa-tion cycle of the projects of each cluster Again historical-philosophical reflec-tion is mobilized to engage the SSH in carrying out research in all domains ofscience

In this direction the Guidelines on How to Successfully Design and Implemented Missions Ori-ented Research Programs issued by the Zentrum fuumlr Soziale Innovation in Vienna on 23 January2019 are particularly useful httpswwwssh-impacteuguidelines-on-how-to-successfully-design-and-implement-mission-oriented-research-programmes visited on 6 May 2021


5 Societal Readiness

In this Spring of 2021 the COVID-19 pandemic is persisting and the world hasentered into the second year of struggle Present conditions require the studyof the dynamics of bottom-up initiatives and define the scope of their reflectivityInsisting on humanities-led reflectivity helps raise awareness of the importanceof framing issues around engaging with science and society identifying prob-lems and defining solutions (Pozzo 2019) Possible outcomes of integration ofsociety in science include the aspect of ldquoimplementable integrationrdquo (Foray2006) The dimensions of the disaster caused by COVID-19 are becoming clearerday by day Comparisons with the 2004 tsunami and the 1986 radioactive dustcloud have shown to be insufficient instead one looks at the atomic bomb of1945 and the famines following the economic crisis of 1929 Above all the per-ception that nothing will be the same as before in the economy health manage-ment science and everyday life has inexorably gained certainty We are experi-encing a paradigm shift as Thomas Kuhn (1962) first described it a process thatis triggered when the dominant thought unable to explain numerous anomaliesthat should not occur is supplanted by a different thought The impact ofCOVID-19 on society is receiving enormous attention from those who are involvedin research and innovation The pandemic is not the first and it will not be thelast of the twenty-first century Still already today we can consider it as the mostsignificant science communication experience in the history of the world In themedia we are witnessing an explosion of initiatives of citizen science the scienceof ordinary citizens or the science without scientistsWe might even say that thepandemic invites us to rethink the indicators of responsible research and innova-tion (RRI) to redetermine their effectiveness in the interaction between theknowledge of scientists and the experiential knowledge of communities

In this chapter I look into the issue pragmatically because I think that infront of a COVID-19 induced fast-changing institutional environment scienceand technology studies researchers have some ideas to offer The pandemic re-quires social and cultural innovation policies that make communities ready torespond to catastrophic events on their own territorymdashI consider a case studyin Italyrsquos inner areasmdashthrough access to data communities of practice co-crea-tion reflection and inclusion Finally COVID-19 ought not to undermine thework done so far to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 1 (Poverty) 3(Health) 4 (Education) 5 (Gender) 6 (Water) 8 (Work) 10 (Inequalities) and16 (Peace) Pope Francis has made it clear ldquoThis is the moment to see the poorrdquo


51 Experiential Knowledge

Education research and innovation form a triangle that becomes a square if weadd the fourth side society A few words first on current usageswhereby societaldenotes the society as an actor ldquosocietary eg societal change societal pres-sure to conformrdquo (OED 1989 sv) while social continues to mean the individualsocii and what they tend to do ie persons ldquoliving together in more or less or-ganized communities belonging to a community of some kindrdquo and active insocial disposition social engagement and social life (OED 1989 sv 5b)

Communities stand at many different stages of readiness for implementingprograms and their readiness is a significant factor in determining whether alocal program can be effectively carried out and supported within a community(Edwards et al 2000 291) In contrast the government cannot impose any actionthat induces a community to voluntarily accept new content and processes InItalian inner areas eg recent surveys have provided qualitative and quantita-tive data to establish how far communities are ready to remediate to the effects ofnatural disasters by signing up for additional insurances taking up new mort-gages and subscribing to further services for utilities (Russo and Scagliarini2017 154) which communities did not do in compliance with the law but volun-tarilyWe can measure the effectiveness of the exchange between the knowledgeof the scientific community and the knowledge of the general public through in-creasingly precise indicators that range from no-awareness to professionaliza-tionmdashstage after stagemdashthrough denial vague awareness preplanning prepara-tion initiation stabilization confirmation and expansion (Edwards et al 2000298ndash300) Today the COVID-19 pandemic makes it urgent to revisit this dimen-sion of the knowledge economy highlighting the institutional mechanisms thatmake it efficient in producing cumulative and reliable knowledge as publicgoods (Foray 2006)

The Rome Declaration on Responsible Research and Innovation was issued atthe end of the Italian Council of the European Union presidential conference onScience Innovation and Society Achieving Responsible Research and Innovationin Rome on 22ndash24 November 2014 It was adopted by the Permanent Represen-tatives Committee on 3 December 2014 and has been gaining recognition sincethen The novelty of the Rome Declaration was to point out that

the continuous engagement of all stakeholders is essential for sustainable desirable andacceptable innovation alongside the four dimensions of economic social environmental

84 5 Societal Readiness

and institutional sustainability Hence excellence today is more than ground-breaking dis-coveriesmdashit includes openness responsibility and the co-production of knowledge⁵⁶

The Rome Declaration lies at the crossroad between the economics of knowledgethe economics of scientific institutions and knowledge management Its startingpoint is Dominique Forayrsquos definition of experiential knowledge ldquoExperientialknowledge springs from the experience of individuals and organizations It isnot anti-scientific it merely has not undergone the tests that give a piece ofknowledge scientific status It is nonetheless wide-ranging sound rationaland effective in a particular circumstance or life-eventrdquo (Foray 2012 270) Al-though as for any other form of knowledge (scientific knowledge for example)the production and management of experiential knowledge are affected by thepresence of externalities (knowledge spillovers in particular) in the domain ofexperiential knowledge there are no institutions that as in other domains(ie scientific research) enable these externalities to be corrected or their effectsto be attenuated This is why experiential knowledge can be described as fragiledespite its centrality and importance (Foray 2012 270) According to increasinglyprecise indicatorswe can measure the effectiveness of the exchange between theknowledge of the scientific community and the experiential knowledge of thegeneral public The management of experiential knowledge requires analyzingsituations in which this knowledge is crucial to achieving specific objectivesand in which devices and mechanisms that are barely visible explained oreven ignored in the literature are conceived and deployed to attenuate the fragil-ity of this knowledge Also we cannot deny the existence of injustice in the dis-tribution of knowledge education and communication which Miranda Fricker(2007) calls epistemic injustice

In this context it is helpful to keep in mind that the need for expressions ofcitizen science implies a connection to the ldquofragility of experiential knowledgerdquoie the knowledge thatmdashalthough not scientificmdashis produced through the expe-rience activity of the laity It is rational and reliable while remaining fragile Ex-periential knowledgemdashForay has notedmdashis local since it arises from particularexperiences and applies to very particular contexts It is fragile since not onlyare few people who possess it but as it does not have a comprehensive codifi-cation it is not easy to transmit it and it disappears when the people who acti-vated it disappear (Foray 2012 272ndash273) Foray distinguishes two logics for themobilization of experiential knowledge within the framework of a scientific ap-

httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketennewsrome-declaration-responsible-research-and-innovation-europe visited on 6 May 2021

51 Experiential Knowledge 85

proach On the one hand the scientific institution realizes that amateurs and lay-persons are ldquoin contactrdquo with a particular environment or phenomenon from aunique set of distributed data collection capacities It is therefore up to the sci-entific institution to organize this collection and then integrate the data whiledevising an organization facilitating the systemrsquos continuity While this firstlogic is rather demanding in terms of systematic efforts of collecting and codify-ing data to be undertaken by the amateurs who therefore have to adapt andshare the epistemic culture of science there is a second superior logic of mobili-zation of experiential knowledge The superior logic is undoubtedly to acknowl-edge that persons ldquoin contactrdquo are not only proper as collectors but have devel-oped experiential knowledge and expertise that is admittedly local and non-scientific but rigorous and rational enabling them to formulate hypothesesand strategies test them and thus broaden the variety of possible options for ex-ample in terms of treatment of the considered subject (whether an ecosystem ora sick child is involved) This second logic is far more demanding as regards theinvolvement of both the scientific institution and the amateurs and laypersonsthat possess any pertinent experiential knowledge (Foray 2012 275)

It seems then that philosophy can be activated to manage and optimize ex-periential knowledge Philosophy can foster an integration process in which ascientific institution recognizes the potential value of experiential knowledgeas a complement to the scientific knowledge that it produces and implementsmechanisms to identify collect codify and use it

52 Conceptualizing Co-creation

Historians of philosophy ought to appropriate methodological approaches aimedat integrating processes of co-construction (eg agenda-building and policy in-puts co-evaluation co-funding) processes of co-production (eg citizen sci-ence) society-sensitive design (eg value-sensitive design and gender-sensitivedesign) science communication (eg formal and non-formal processes for im-proving quality and effectiveness of the interactions between stakeholders)place-based activities combining process and content (eg smart cities livinglabs and the regional dimension linked to their smart specialization strategies)creation of spaces for public engagement including the development and use oftemporary and permanent physical spaces (eg exhibitions events) as well asdistributed ones (eg portals websites e-libraries) The processes listed aboveshow the emergence of a new social agent the so-called prosumer (Helbing2015 194) a consumer who becomes involved with designing or customizingproducts for hisher own needs Even if there is no doubt that co-creation proc-


esses already occur we cannot fully understand their occurrence Neither can weaccount for these processes to show how society benefits from the early partic-ipation of social agents As to the co-creation of knowledge there is still no rad-ical epistemic rethinking the debates have focused on the joint creation of valueby the company and the customer allowing customers ldquoto co-construct the serv-ice experience to suit their contextrdquo (Prahalad and Venkatram 2004 8) Philos-ophers might be interested in posing the following questions How is the co-cre-ation of knowledge possible Why does the co-creation of knowledge botherThese questions are central in co-creation epistemology and have significant ef-fects on benchmarking and the implementation of societal readiness

Access participation and co-creation are preconditions for achieving the in-tegration of science in society It may not be easy to attract an audience with adifferent profile from the usual The issues of access and participation seem toresolve much more about demand than about supply Scientific competenciesare about awareness-raising At stake is the notion of scientific citizenship (Jasan-off 2004) which consists of the ldquoactive and knowledge-driven participation ofcitizens in the democratic processes including agenda setting information gath-ering co-creation and evaluationrdquo (Archibugi 2015 15) For instance in 2016 thenetwork of the Ciecircncia Viva science centers took part in a pilot program of thePortuguese government to launch a nationwide process of bottom-up participa-tion by ordinary citizens in defining and prioritizing research agendas alongsidetheir local representatives The initiative Public Participation Labs (Laboratoacuteriosde Participaccedilatildeo Puacuteblica) invited local citizens and municipal authorities to pro-pose ideas for research projects relevant to their regions or cities in spaces of ex-change that were hosted at the Ciecircncia Viva science centers to provide neutralenvironments closer to the local public⁵⁷

Europe has existed as a cultural political and economic identity for centu-ries although its nature and coherence have been contested dramatically overtime The following years need a great effort of responsibility and participationThe pandemic invites us to urgently rethink the paradigm of the six keys indicat-ed by the European Commission for RRI which are ldquoengagement of citizensgender equality formal and non-formal science education open science re-search ethics and research integrity governancerdquo (Archibugi 2015 12) Responsi-ble research and innovation is a notion that asks societal actors to work togetherduring the whole research and innovation process to align them with the citi-zensrsquo values needs and hopes In a nutshell responsible research and innova-tion is a cross-cutting topic whose aim is to engage society better RRI occur

httpswwwcienciavivapthome visited on 6 May 2021

52 Conceptualizing Co-creation 87

where forms of creativity and diversity can be modeled or practiced where sep-arateness difference and specificity can be asserted and maintained in produc-tive ways that enhance the quality of life The cultural political and economicspheres exist in dynamic relation to each other In sum to deepen the relation-ship between science and society and thus reinforce public confidence in sci-ence it is necessary to foster the engagement of citizens and civil society in re-search and innovation by promoting science education by making scientificknowledge more accessible by developing responsible research and innovationagendas that meet concerns and expectations of citizens and civil society and byigniting a fruitful and rich dialogue with stakeholders During the 6th Frame-work Program Science and Society was launched to establish a common strategyto better connect science and European citizens Under the 7th Framework Pro-gram Science and Society became Science in Society with the primary objective offostering public engagement through a sustained two-way dialogue between sci-ence and civil society With Horizon 2020 (ie the 8th Framework Program) re-sponsible research and innovation has become a cross-cutting issue that takesup all appropriate activities In this context the program was renamed Sciencewith and for Society and aimed to build effective cooperation between scienceand society recruit new talent for science and pair scientific excellence with so-cial awareness and responsibility (Mejlgaard and Bloch 2012 Mejlgaard etal 2012 Mejlgaard et al 2018)

The traditional idea according to which an enlightened entrepreneur will un-derstand market demands and how the exploitation and the combination oftechnological opportunities will bring into the market a successful product ora process or a service innovation is more and more outdated when it comesto understanding processes of change in the economy and society Todayusers are more active and very often consulted by producers Users are notonly providing new inputs that manufacturers can use to develop and refinetheir ideas and products They can also modify and anticipate often on a modestscale the innovations of the future This provides new opportunities since thenumber of players that have a say in shaping the transformations of society ismore extensive than in the past While in the previous industrial revolutionsmost of the innovations were introduced by a restricted number of players (en-trepreneurs scientists and engineers) which had to face ex-post the successor the failure in the marketplace in the present time of Industry 40 we see amuch greater number of active players which often interact among themselvesnot only through market transactions but through a large variety of for-profitand non-profit connections

Nevertheless only marginally these models have taken into account the ac-tual and potential role that citizens and civil society can take in shaping the in-


novation process In recent years it has become clear that co-creation plays acentral role within innovation because a ldquospecific innovation can no longer beseen as the result of predefined and isolated innovation activities but ratheras the outcome of a complex co-creation process involving knowledge flowsacross the entire economic and social environmentrdquo (EUR 2016b 11) Theseflows warrant the highest interest in monitoring co-creation to integrate societyin science and innovation The success of co-creation is based on the continuousand intensive methodological cooperation of the partners Hence research ef-forts consist of the ongoing evaluation of each project including the preparationof prototype activities for the exchange between theorists and practitioners Toensure a consistent and coherent investigation researchers rely on diverse re-search methods from in-depth individual interviews to focus groups surveysand online fora

Unifying the roles of consumers and producers has implications for the pro-duction of goods and services and knowledge production Such a shift also ap-plies to cognitive sciences and the philosophy of the mind From the viewpoint ofethics specific human action areas have shown that the lack of involvement ofspecific social agents leads to unsatisfactory results as regards providing goodsservices and knowledge with related forms of injustice (Fricker 2007 Maschiand Youdin 2012) Finally the start of open innovation processes (as opposedto traditional closed innovation) and the democratization of science requirethe participation of all actors women and men In this last direction two fun-damental outcomes are expected first the critical reconsideration of the notionof homo oeconomicus and second the gender budgeting analysis that discloseshow actors within science research higher learning institutions and publicmanagement are stifling for gender equality and diversity of science Genderbudgeting has proven to be an effective tool to increase the awareness of genderand diversity in procedures and processes of resource allocation to improve theoutcomes for women and men It is ldquoa gender-based assessment of budgets in-corporating a gender perspective at all levels of the budgetary process and re-structuring revenues and expenditures to promote gender equalityrdquo (Council ofEurope 2005 10)

53 Preparedness and Readiness

Emergency management puts the usual division of roles and responsibilitiesunder stress Public officials must have precise knowledge of the specific norma-tive framework in which they operate specific mandates and associated role re-sponsibilities and the special normative tools contemplated by the system to

53 Preparedness and Readiness 89

deal with emergencies It is up to local administrators to raise risk awarenessdespite the different perceptions that citizens have of risk immediacy and the dif-ferent conditions for involving stakeholders The definition of an action protocolin emergency conditions is not sufficient to ensure the effectiveness of the ac-tion There is also a need for practices that mobilize the intervention of individ-ual employees of public administrations who are coping with conditions inwhich chains of command and purely hierarchical-organizational relationshipsmight be interrupted or with skills that would no longer be available in ordinaryconditions Municipalities that had already developed an emergency plan (in thewake of natural disasters) have proven to be more ready and effective in dealingwith the specific risk conditions of the pandemic (Pagliacci and Russo 2019a)

The uneven geographic distribution of COVID-19 remains an enigma in Italygiven the intense flow of movements between regions before the isolation mea-suresWe are facing irregular patterns of geographical distribution However thedata collected so far indicate that air pollution in the various regions (eg thefine dust in Lombardy) determines causal links that have significant implicationsfor the virus spread (Becchetti et al 2020)

A community can be more or less resilient Its resilience improves if a properassessment is made of hazards and vulnerabilities The analysis of local expo-sures suggests that communities are to look out for spatially linked risks⁵⁸Socio-economic research can elaborate analytical insights into specific and geo-graphically defined risks using data with different spatial granularity producedby various official sources to allow their use in combination with data on expo-sure and vulnerability (Pagliacci and Russo 2019b)

In Italy epidemiological data about COVID-19 are collected daily by the re-gional institutions that send them to the Italian Ministry of Health The ItalianMinistry of Health in turn sends the data to the Italian Civil Protection Depart-ment (Morettini et al 2020) which is the government agency entrusted with driv-ing rapid response and informed decision-making during emergencies Thanks tothe accurate and quick availability of data Italian central and local administra-tions can provide careful assessments of the pandemicrsquos severity spread andimpact on implementing efficient and effective response strategies The samecan be shown for many countries beyond Italy as the Research Data Alliancehas documented⁵⁹

httpswwwundrrorg visited on 6 May 2021 RDA COVID-19 Working Group Recommendations and Guidelines on data sharing ResearchData Alliance 2020 DOI httpsdoiorg1015497rda00052


In Italy the requirement for timely and accurate collection reporting andsharing of data within and among research communities public health practi-tioners clinicians and policymakers has been met effectively The issue isnow building processes that can create a lasting coalition around the goals need-ed to reduce vulnerability Dedicated to social and material vulnerability and re-silience of communities exposed to natural hazards is Italyrsquos REDI consortium(an acronym for Reducing Risks of Natural Disasters) which has its seat at theUniversity of Camerino and which also includes the National Institute of NuclearPhysics the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology and the GranSasso Science Institute REDI is a research innovation and training center Itsmission is to contribute to the development of interdisciplinary research for im-proving preparedness and readiness to respond to disasters by communities de-creasing their recovery and recovery times It is currently carrying out projects onrequalified built environment community resilience as well as on risk aware-ness education training and engagement for disaster risk reduction for com-munities struggling to recover from natural disasters⁶⁰ Finally a public debateon lessons learned from the first phases of COVID-19 management is currentlytaking place in Italy because the perception of a lack of coordination hasemerged between political and scientific levels institutional claim-makersand the media (Ruiu 2020)

Returning to COVID-19 and taking territory as a reference (region metropol-itan city province internal area) today we know that in order to comply withsocial distancing precautions and be effective with positive case tracking localadministrations must equip themselves with management infrastructures thatwere unimaginable before the pandemic The reference definition for communitypreparedness in the face of epidemiological risks was proposed by the UnitedStates Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2018 and updated in Janu-ary 2019 Community preparedness is the ability of communities to prepare forwithstand and recover from public health incidents in both the short and longterm

Administrations at national regional and municipal levels as well as local and territorialstakeholders are responsible for preparing communities to do their part in support the de-velopment of public health health care human services mentalbehavioral health andenvironmental health systems that support the community preparedness Communitiesneed to be made aware of preventing responding to and recovering from incidents thatadversely affect public health⁶sup1

httpwwwredi-researcheuithomepage visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwcdcgovcprreadinesscapabilitieshtm visited on 6 May 2021


At this juncture one of the tasks that researchers in science and technology stud-ies can take upon themselves is precisely to verify the interplay of the proposedmanagement solutions with existing societal readiness levels (SRL) It has be-come clear that the assessment of technology readiness levels (TRL)⁶sup2 ought tobe accompanied by that of the corresponding SRL The SRL have been developedat Denmarkrsquos Innovation Fund They are meant for assessing ldquothe level of soci-etal adaptation of for instance a particular social project a technology a prod-uct a process an intervention or an innovation to be integrated into societyrdquo⁶sup3The lower the social adaptation the better the transition plan is expected to beSRL 1 is the lowest and SRL 9 is the highest level

SRL 1mdashidentifying problem and identifying societal readinessSRL 2mdashformulation of problem proposed solution(s) and potential impact expected soci-etal readiness identifying relevant stakeholders for the projectSRL 3mdashinitial testing of proposed solution(s) together with relevant stakeholdersSRL 4mdashproblem validated through pilot testing in relevant environment to substantiate pro-posed impact and societal readinessSRL 5mdashproposed solution(s) validated now by relevant stakeholders in the areaSRL 6mdashsolution(s) demonstrated in relevant environment and in cooperation with relevantstakeholders to gain initial feedback on potential impactSRL 7mdashrefinement of project andor solution and if needed retesting in relevant environ-ment with relevant stakeholdersSRL 8mdashproposed solution(s) as well as a plan for societal adaptation complete and quali-fiedSRL 9mdashactual project solution(s) proven in relevant environment⁶⁴

Community readiness is about fostering epistemic responsibility Its effectivenesscan be measured in terms of community engagement and accountability rela-tionships At the local level the availability of correct information to peoplewith relevant competencies and skills at the right time and in the correct formis crucial in coping with emergencies Typically conflicts arise about whetherhow and when to distribute information In this respect Italian inner areashave faced critical situations It has been shown that a proper assessment oflocal hazards and vulnerabilities can enhance community resilience (Pagliacciand Russo 2019a)

httpswwwisoorgstandard56064html visited on 6 May 2021 httpsinnovationsfondendksitesdefaultfiles2019ndash03societal_readiness_levels_-_srlpdf visited on 6 May 2021 httpsinnovationsfondendksitesdefaultfiles2019ndash03societal_readiness_levels_-_srlpdf visited on 6 May 2021


At the European level Pan-European Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing(PEPP-PT) and Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing (DP3T) havebecome an issue Both the European Parliament and the European Commissionhave adopted a firm position on safeguarding privacy in the fight against COVID-19 According to an SWG survey published on 31 March 2020 in the Corriere dellaSeramdashat the climax of the COVID-19 spread in Italymdashit appears that (i) 63 ofItalians agree that the state can control the movements of citizens even withouttheir consent (ii) 64 agree on the hypothesis of putting the electronic braceleton people who are in quarantine (iii) 67 accept that mobile phones are used tocheck whether or not people are complying with the bans and finally (iv) 74have nothing to object to the use of drones to control the movement of people onthe street (Arachi 2020 22)

As the COVID-19 emergency increases the need for transparency grows(Pozzo and Virgili 2020) If societal readiness for a determinate technical or so-cial solution remains low measures should induce a natural transition towardssocial adaptation In the case of natural disasters and such is the COVID-19 pan-demic at issue is how to set into motion social and cultural innovation process-es that prepare communities⁶⁵ through access to data participation in commun-ities of practice co-creation reflection and inclusion (Esposito et al 2017 Pozzoet al 2020)

The overall challenge lies in fostering participation and strengthening prac-tical modes of co-creation Some people do not want to share their knowledgeeg on transportation or urban planning issues making place-based formal andinformal education activities at science centers a part of their solution The anal-ysis of (self)exclusion requires a qualitative methodology based on a multiple-case-study approach It is necessary to consider carrying out pilot researchthrough Delphic interviews with experts and professional staff of science cen-ters museums and festivals who routinely work with audiencesmdashthe need forlongitudinal investigation and the lack of primary empirical data are the mainreasons for using this methodology Particularly interesting exploratory contextshighlight new phenomena heuristics emergence trends or weak signals whicha more quantitative approach does not disclose Interviewers extract informedopinions about the essential identification and specificity of (self)excluded indi-viduals and groups and the causes of (self)exclusion (National Endowment forthe Arts 2014) Many local actors are involved in the process from the very begin-ning As regards devising research tools that ensure access and research penetra-tion of (self)excluded groups it is essential to engage representatives of the iden-

httpswwwundrrorg visited on 6 May 2021


tified (self)excluded groups to gather data enabling the deepened identificationof the causes of (self)exclusion from co-creation Local partnerships reflect thesocial environment and the specific cultural character of the territories Simulta-neously the consultation and research processes serve to develop initial modelsof activities to be prototyped Activities are strictly combined with indicators onpossibly unknown access thresholds and limits in readiness of target groups tobe involved in co-creation activities and science capital levels The process mustbe repeated many times until a final activity scenario is delivered The redesign-ing process is combined with research on change as regards the readiness to en-gage ways and possibilities to gain new knowledge and the ability to shareknowledge and experience with others

One might conclude that experts and institutions specializing in sciencecommunication like science centers and museums as well as science festivalsand place-based public engagement activities (science parliaments hackathonsinnovation labs) are particularly well-suited to put the responsible research andinnovation public engagement agenda into practice at the regional and locallevel for they are the ones that are reaching out best to non-traditional researchand innovation actors in the framework of several configurations of place-basedactivities experiences and gatherings These institutions provide interfaces be-tween civil society and research whose potential is still underdeveloped whichis proven by three reasons First they already have several participants in theireveryday programs Second they have the ability and experience to encouragenew groups and involve them in cooperation Third they look for new ways ofengaging actors who have not attended any of their programs yet This has ledto a broader understanding of the process of knowledge generation and hasshown how an innovation that is based on scientific and technological advancescan be successful or unsuccessful not only economically but also according toits capability to integrate with other social organizational and cultural innova-tions

In sum the striking feature of societal readiness assessments lies in theirbeing designed and tested in a co-creation process which requires step afterstep to conceptualize the needs identify specific targets design the activity pro-totype it test it with a controlled target group and release it to open groups al-ways under strict ongoing evaluation and co-evaluation with the involvement ofusers Last but not least the replication of the prototypes by new actors to bereached out through appropriate communication and dissemination strategiesin order for them to implement the prototypes and the methodological researchlocally fosters a cascade effect of the activities for the benefit of the community


54 Society-sensitive Design

Co-construction and society-sensitive design are well-intentioned but researchought to consider how they are refracted through practicalities embedded in ex-isting institutions and interests This has been documented extensively for ICTThere is a structural element here in the sense that co-construction and designnecessarily occur at an early stage Simultaneously there are many other factorsand circumstances at play in the later stages that co-determine outcomes Draw-ing on these practices and analyzing the bias on the production of goods or serv-ices it is possible to reframe the process of creating new knowledge in a partic-ipative way We might start from the presupposition that mono-stakeholderalliances belong to the past Instead the focus is on local partnerships that con-nect research and innovation with citizens and possibly diverse civil society ac-tors (eg municipalities local stakeholders representatives from industry cre-ative economy non-governmental organizations etc) In fact ldquosociety can nowwork with and for science as much as science is working with and for societyrdquo(EUR 2016a 8) Not surprisingly the Horizon Prizes of the European InnovationCouncil call for projects that demonstrate the feasibility or potential of particulartechnologies and promote their acceptance in society⁶⁶

The United Nations is calling for a global effort to tackle the pandemic crisisldquowhich risks erasing decades of progress in the fight against poverty and exac-erbating the already high levels of inequality in and between countriesrdquo⁶⁷ Localadministrations are the first to work on societal readiness and reduce inequali-ties which is also the exhortation of Pope Francis

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has illuminated inequities that have put poor peo-plemdashin both low-income nations and in rich countriesmdashat the greatest risk of sufferingPope Francis recently pointed to that in an interview ldquoThis is the moment to see thepoorrdquo (Von Braun et al 2020 214)

Working on participatory approaches fueled by social and cultural innovationprocesses related to accessing data creating communities of practices establish-ing the boundaries of group use (Floridi 2014) while fostering individual process-es of reflection and collective processes of inclusion (Pozzo et al 2020) can boostcommunity readiness for local COVID-19 management

httpseceuropaeuresearcheicindexcfmpg=prizes visited on 6 May 2021 United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2020) UN working to fightCovid-19 and achieve Global Goals httpswwwunsdsnorg visited on 6 May 2021

54 Society-sensitive Design 95

History of philosophy has a say because fragile knowledge has become rel-evant for actors specializing in science communication who concentrate onstrengthening the perception of visitors or event participants that science and re-search are a crucial and inseparable part of modern society In this process sci-ence centers aim at enhancing fragile knowledge in specific areas while ignitinga constructive dialogue between civil society and research However sharingfragile knowledge eg on public health issues can be problematic Some peo-ple can be not confident enough or feel intimidated by the presence of expertsThis can be remediated by providing proper conditions for knowledge and expe-rience exchange For this reason it is necessary to develop a better understand-ing of co-creation processes and outcomes under various cultural societal andregulatory backgrounds which allows better-targeted policy support in the fu-ture The key notion is co-creation which is the indicator for measuring culturalinnovation thus providing an effective new basis for benchmarking and compar-isons


6 Cultural Innovation

Social and cultural innovation is a notion that embraces two syntagmata It hasbecome of current usage among researchers since 2013 due to the name chosenby the European Strategy Forum Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) for its workinggroup on projects and landmarks that are primarily connected with the SSH

The Social and Cultural Innovation Strategy Working Group proposes possible solutions (re-lated to Research Infrastructures) that can help tackle the Grand Challenges facing societysuch as health or demographic change or the ldquoInclusive innovative and secure societiesrdquochallenge from the third pillar of Horizon 2020 called ldquoTackling societal challengesrdquo It es-tablishes possible methods through which social sciences and humanities could be used asan evaluation criterion for the activity of other Research Infrastructures in the ESFRI road-map (eg social impact etc) It also explores how Research Infrastructures can contributeto social innovation or better knowledge transfer towards society⁶⁸

This chapter provides a conceptualization of cultural innovation as an additionaland autonomous dimension of the different processes of innovation As a work-ing hypothesis cultural innovation can be understood as the outcome of com-plex co-creation processes that involve the reflection of knowledge flows acrossthe social environment while promoting diversity within society This chapter de-fines and contrasts the notion of cultural innovation against other recently dis-cussed forms of innovation such as social innovation scientific culture andheritage-led innovation Based on such conceptualization in a second step itproposes indicators for measuring cultural innovation and shows their opera-tionalization in some empirical case studies Finally considering science andpublic policy agenda-setting it wraps up by discussing policy implicationsand verification strategies for widening participation in cultural experienceson behalf of policymakers such as the ministries of research education econom-ics and culture

61 What Does Cultural Innovation Stand for

While several definitions of social innovation are abundantly discussed in theliterature (Moulaert et al 2017) it is a fact that within innovation studies the cul-tural dimension of innovation is far less defined than the social aspects accom-panying technological innovations (Pozzo et al 2020) For instance the term has

httpwwwesfrieuworking-groupssocial-and-cultural-innovation visited on 6 May 2021


been used around creativity (Joumlstingmeier and Boeddrich 2005) marketing (Holtand Cameron 2012) and migration (Pozzo and Virgili 2017) The lack of a clearconceptualization of cultural innovation has also prevented the developmentof indicators for measuring it which are crucial to plan monitor and evaluatepolicies (Archibugi et al 2009 Godin 2009 Bonaccorsi 2018)

Today we are considering the transformative capacity of social innovation(Dias and Partidaacuterio 2019) No wonder policymakers researchers in scienceand technology studies and economists would also want to know more abouta notion that finds its origin in the domain of cultural economics innovationeconomics and social innovation studies (Godin 2007 2015 Bontems 2014)No doubt cultural innovation might sound like an oxymoron as I have suggest-ed above in section 13 when I first referred to Chinese culture It is not void inany case It is something that tops up social and technological innovation It isabout competencies related to various forms of shared experiences such as com-munication in foreign languages social and civic competencies and culturalawareness and expression (EAC 2014 16)

How can we measure cultural innovation The answer is as a result of co-cre-ation (Prahalad and Venkatram 2000 2004) ie by analyzing the traces that weleave behind us when we have a cultural experience which has become quitesimple today starting with the contents we download from the internet especial-ly from providers to whom we as users have agreed to have our profiles being setup as it happens eg with content providers such as Netflix An emerging ap-proach for tackling many of these issues is to focus on co-creation for growthand inclusion engaging citizens users academia social partners public au-thorities businesses including small and medium enterprises entrepreneurs inthe social and creative sectors in processes that span from identifying problemsto delivering solutions⁶⁹

62 Sources of Innovation

A project of research and development (RampD) should result in a potential for thetransfer of new knowledge ensuring its use and allowing other researchers toreproduce the results as part of their research and development activities Thisincludes research and development that has negative results in the case thatan initial hypothesis fails to be confirmed or a product cannot be developed

httpswwweuro-accesseucallsco-creation_between_public_administrations_once-only_principle visited on 6 May 2021

98 6 Cultural Innovation

as originally intended (OECD 2015 48) For itself research and innovation (RampI)means providing research aimed at creating new products and services by bring-ing to the market a new idea The Oslo Manual (OECD 2018 1) defines innovationas ldquothe implementation of a new or significantly improved product (good or serv-ice) or process or marketing method or a new organizational method in busi-ness practicesworkplace organization or external relationsrdquoWhile fundamentalresearch is curiosity-driven it also has a translational impact because the trans-fer of knowledge makes research and innovation possible and innovation isproduct-driven insofar as it generates new products and production lines Inno-vation is the affair of research councils worldwide which are quite different fromboth universities and academies Research councils were founded about a cen-tury ago at the time of World War I while universities date back to the MiddleAges and academies to the Renaissance They differ because universities arecommitted to teaching although professors are free to teach and investigatewhatever they like academies were funded by kings who wanted scholars tolive at court so that they might be able to pose questions of their interest andreceive answers while governments funded research councils to achieve resultsof strategic relevance for the country It is up to national governments to con-struct infrastructures to provide competencies that generate complexity (Hidalgoand Hausmann 2009)

For long the equation innovation equal to technology has been the hallmarkof economic theory and the agenda of policymakers (Nelson and Rosenberg1993 Von Hippel 1998) As Andrea Filippetti has noted a growing empirical lit-erature has focused on the typology of innovation (eg product process serv-ice) the sources of innovation and the related strategies (ie in-house vs out-sourced) and the growing importance of non-technological innovation This hasled to the concept of innovation modes aiming at grouping firms depending on anumber of characteristics of the innovation activities behaviors and strategies(Filippetti 2011 7) The linear model of innovation emphasizes the role of scienceas a source for further technological developments and thus innovation for themarket As such innovation was conceived as new products and new processesthat encompass some novel technological steps The first step of development isplanning followed by analysis the most crucial design phase and eventuallyimplementing the products processes or business models and their mainte-nance from the initial curiosity-driven discovery of new knowledge This was de-fined as the linear model of innovation because the government played the fun-damental role of spurring innovation in the business sector by funding basicresearch in the public sector within a clear-cut division of labor between thetwo It takes up a similar role to that played during World War II when significantresources were directed towards technological advancements in the defense sec-

62 Sources of Innovation 99

tor It happened for instance in the cases of the development of the radar of thefirst computer to decrypt the messages of the enemies and of the quintessentialamong the science-push projects funded by governments the one that playedwhen the first atom bomb was conceived and on which the refugee scientist En-rico Fermi was involved (Pozzo et al 2020 426)

The linear model of innovation has been later criticized in favor of the chainmodel of innovation which conceives innovation not as a linear unidirectionaland necessary sequence of events initiated by primary research and fundamentalscience but rather as a recursive chain in which the technological sphere canalso reinforce and pull science towards specific problems and domains whicheventually are translated into innovation in the market (Kline and Rosenberg1986) Here science and technology are more interdependent and they also in-teract circularly with the needs of the business sector

The open innovation model has further enriched the debate in that it hasshed new light on how the firms also thanks to the latest technologies of infor-mation and communication have been increasingly relying outside their bordersin their relentless quest for new and more competitive sources of innovation(Chesbrough 2003 Tapscott and Williams 2006) Design and research are com-plementary sources of innovation the design is predominant in firms character-ized by a complex innovation strategy and intense interactions with the externalenvironment These types of firms also show better economic performance (Fil-ippetti 2011 6) The idea that innovation does not come (solely) from within re-search in private companies and development labs is today a unanimous claimWhat are the sources of innovation outside the company The universities andthe government research facilities have been emphasized by research on nation-al innovation systems (Lundvall 1998 Godin 2007) and the triple helix view (Etz-kowitz and Leydesdorff 2000)While according to the traditional knowledge pro-ductionmdashso-called Mode 1mdashwhich is motivated by scientific knowledge alone(fundamental research) and is neither bothered by the applicability of its find-ings nor by bridging over to other disciplines in contemporary research multi-disciplinary teamsmdashso-called Mode 2mdashare brought together for short periods towork on specific problems in the real world for knowledge production (Gibbonset al 1994) These models have stressed that collaboration among different insti-tutions is crucial for successful innovation However only marginally have theyconsidered the actual and potential roles that citizens and civil society couldhave in shaping the innovation process (Leydesdorff and Etzkowitz 1998 Etzko-witz Leydesdorff 2000 Chesbrough 2003 Carayannis and Campbell 2009 Archi-bugi and Filippetti 2015)

More recently the concept of social innovation has evolved as the develop-ment of new products processes organizations and services that tackle


unmet social needs and very often are developed through a bottom-up processby the prospective users and beneficiaries The emergence of evolutionary eco-nomics and the penetration of non-linear thinking into science and technologystudies have challenged any linear thought model Here the sources of innova-tion lie outside the firms and the main actors are outside them Besides inno-vation is no longer driven by technical problems or by novel scientific discover-ies but rather by social (unmet) needs

What still ought to be looked into is the gap between the discourse aboutinnovation as part of the economic sphere and the reflective critical attitudeof science and technology studies that stresses the social shaping of technolog-ical innovation (Bijker et al 2012) At a larger scale this is also present in themission-oriented innovation policy model developed in recent studies by Maria-na Mazzucato (2013 2018)

63 Research Infrastructures

Research infrastructures foster economic growth by providing access to servicesand knowledge Infrastructures are the backbone of our society and an excitingphenomenon to be studied We all use infrastructures for transport energywater telecommunication etc However we are less aware of the specific infra-structures needed to support processes in some particular areas of society Oneof them is academia Knowledge production and specific knowledge productionin academia have always relied on supporting systems and structures Librariesarchives research centersmdashthey all contribute as infrastructures for research

Research infrastructures are planned built and managed to serve vast re-search communities that operate in diversified sectors by the principles ofopen access and competition Generally speaking an infrastructure can be de-scribed as a technological substratum that allows a series of actions by many ac-tors the networked technology behind the telephone or the internet is an infra-structure that enables the entire world to be virtually connected Similarly trainrailways allow people to reach distant locations thanks to the coverage of theterritory Infrastructures are tightly connected to technological advancementsbut their connection to institutional layers is also relevant infrastructures re-quire massive intellectual engineering and political investments In this con-nection it is easy to see that an infrastructure is something that emerges for peo-ple in practice connected to activities and structures Not only the investmentbut also the return of infrastructures is considerable both socially and econom-ically they allow to make previously isolated communities more connected bycreating new social and economic opportunities (eg by allowing students to

63 Research Infrastructures 101

access previously inaccessible schools or to open markets in an area previouslyunderrepresented)

During the last two decades ie since the start of the ESFRI we have beenwitnessing the emergence of research infrastructures that to some degree oper-ationalize processes of coordination among research support Research infra-structures are defined by their capacity to connect bridge communities resour-ces (scholarly outputs) and ultimately knowledge In recent works scholars arediscussing research infrastructures as installations interfaces or structures thatassemble ldquoa mediating set of technologies for research and resource discoverycollaboration sharing and dissemination of scientific outputrdquo (Edmond etal 2020 208) This definition stresses the facilitating and mediating role (andin some instances also the brokering role) of research infrastructures

First convened by the European Union in 2002 the ESFRI is a strategic in-strument to develop Europersquos scientific integration and strengthen its interna-tional outreach The competitive and open access to high-quality research infra-structures supports and benchmarks the quality of the activities of Europeanscientists and attracts the best researchers from around the world The missionof the ESFRI (2018) is to keep a coherent and strategy-led approach to policymak-ing on research infrastructures in Europe and to facilitate multilateral initiativesleading to the better use and development of research infrastructures at the EUand international level Research infrastructures are distributed ie implement-ed in a network of centers however they can also be virtual ie they can beaccessed and they provide services via the internet

We are currently looking at a total of fifty-five ESFRI projects and landmarksadmitted to the ESFRI 2018 Roadmap which is to be augmented with new com-munities once the ESFRI 2021 Roadmap later this year is approved and launchedTodayrsquos European research infrastructures are of different kinds their scope goesfrom large-scale facilities with advanced instrumentation (eg the CERN Labo-ratories the European Synchrotron Laboratory etc) to resources devoted toknowledge storage such as archives and databanks The latter have stoppedbeing mono-locational they are instead the result of an integration of resourcesand laboratories distributed all over Europe with governance and legal statusstructured in the shape of a European Research Infrastructure Consortium(ERIC)We might think about research infrastructures as systems within an inter-actionist framework meant to open up toward society

The development of interactions between SSH data science and ICT pro-vides a promising perspective in terms of scientific and socio-economic impactThe matching of large data series concerning the environmental situation healthstatus economic situation and representative trends in society (eg opinionspreferences and concerns) can be a powerful tool to uncover large behavioral


patterns and their determinants as well as to detect emerging social practices(we see here an interesting perspective for computational social science)Thus an appropriate convergence of research infrastructures for SSH environ-mental sciences and medicine secured by applicable norms and rules (anonym-ization by proxies legal checks to preserve privacy) might set the ground for adramatic advance in the scientific understanding of human individual and col-lective behavior The migrant and refugee crisis has clarified how urgent it hasbecome for local regional national and international administrations to workout social and cultural innovation policies to the advantage of new citizensthat make them welcome in full dignity

For the SSH the following six items for admission into the ESFRI roadmapare required data archiving and curation flexible repository system adequategrain authorization and authentication system ease of access to all e-infrastruc-ture resources (possibly via single-sign-on) access to grid and cloud computingfacilities for the processing of stored data and education and training for e-in-frastructure usage

After having sketched the current understanding of innovation and its socialshaping aspectmdashand the shared assumption in studies from various angles thatthere is more to it the users the citizens the society at largemdashI now turn to de-scribe the cultural dimension of an innovation in public spaces The idea is that aspecific set of research infrastructures can support initiate and trigger a contin-uum of participation and shaping of innovation for society

631 Research Infrastructures for Cultural Innovation

Research infrastructures foster innovation by providing access to services andknowledge First and foremost they are knowledge infrastructures that enhancethe human factor (Borgman et al 2013) The new ESFRI 2021 Roadmap is config-ured to embrace six groups of research infrastructures Data Computing andDigital Research Infrastructures (DAT) Energy (ENE) Environment (ENV) Healthand Food (HampF) Physics and Engineering (PSE) and Social and Cultural Inno-vation (SCI) The ESFRI distinguishes two stages of maturity ESFRI Landmarksand ESFRI Projects

Regarding infrastructures for cultural innovation some of them are ldquoamongthe first known infrastructuresrdquo such as traditional libraries museums and ar-chives ie ldquothe most obvious examples of this legacyrdquo However in todayrsquos dig-ital age infrastructures are expected to ldquoenhance research into the historical so-cial economic political and cultural contexts of the European Union providingdata and knowledge to support its strategiesrdquo (ESFRI 2018 107) I am not talking


about isolated events of cultural innovation as they might occur in any area ofsociety I am talking instead about the systemic boundary conditions that enablecultural innovation In other words cultural innovation is triggered by a specificpolicy discourse which sets the conditions of possibility for the outcomes out-lined in the next section Six research infrastructures for cultural innovationare currently up and running (at various stages of maturity)

CLARIN ERICmdashCommon Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure an ESFRI Land-mark is a large-scale pan-European collaborative effort to create coordinate and make lan-guage resources and technologies available and readily usableDARIAH ERICmdashDigital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities an ESFRI Land-mark is the first permanent European digital infrastructure for the arts and humanitiesEHRImdashEuropean Holocaust Research Infrastructure an ESFRI Project supports the Holo-caust research community by building a digital infrastructure and facilitating human net-worksE-RIHSmdashEuropean Research Infrastructure for Heritage Science an ESFRI Project createssynergies for a multidisciplinary approach to heritage interpretation preservation docu-mentation and managementOPERAS-DmdashDesign for Open Access Publications in European Research Area for Social Sci-ences and Humanities coordinates an ESFRI project that pools university-led scholarly com-munication activities in Europe in the Social Sciences and Humanities to enable open sci-ence as standard practiceRESILIENCEmdashReligious Studies Infrastructure collect an ESFRI project that historical docu-ments and current information on global theological-political issues while fostering inter-faith dialogue (ESFRI 2018 107ndash 115 177ndash178 212ndash216 Maegaard and Pozzo 2019)

Let me single out DARIAH as an example of key infrastructure for cultural inno-vation for DARIAH fosters innovative forms of collaboration among scientistsand helps humanities researchers to produce excellent digitally-enabled open-data scholarship that is reusable visible and sustainable thus contributing tothe understanding of the cultural economic social and political life in Europeand beyond The mix of scientific cultures fostered at DARIAH and the mix of cul-tures in society are strongly connected

632 Features and Processes that Define the Outcomes of CulturalInnovation

Research funding institutions need outcomes to monitor and evaluate their in-vestment in research infrastructures Outcomes are innovative products process-es or methods by type of innovation and intellectual property rights applica-tions In sum while all knowledge production could be a cultural innovation


we nevertheless need to discriminate For this reason the outcomes of culturalinnovation can be defined in terms of the following features1 Fostering open innovation Cultural innovation itself is necessarily open inno-

vation because culture is understood as shared in society Moreover a cul-tural innovation should contribute to the character of openness of innova-tions in other forms eg technological innovations or innovations in thepublic administration In the public sector as well as in other sectors re-search infrastructures are data-driven Consequently their management sys-tems are designed in an open data context

2 Improving welfare This feature of cultural innovation is shared with socialinnovation namely the improvement of individual or community welfarefor both are innovations ldquodefined by their (social) objectives to improvethe welfare of individuals or communitiesrdquo (OECD 2018 2)

3 Transmitting heritage the content of culture from the world heritage to allkinds of local collections

4 Fostering creativity Cultural and creative industries address this feature Cre-ativity is the process of creating new experiences out of existing materialswhich are common goods

5 Experiencing beauty a philosophical condition which requires a politics ofbeauty

Two processes make knowledge production an outcome of cultural innovationThey are1 Reflection the ability of the individual to single out from the whole indis-

criminate mass of the stream of floating content certain fixed elements inorder to isolate them and to concentrate attention upon them

2 Inclusion which is the social process of sharing onersquos reflection in participa-tory co-creation processes

Based on these five features and two processes the ldquooutcomes of cultural inno-vation are products or services that represent an open innovation that improvessocial welfare by creatively processing beauty-laden heritage content in a reflec-tive and inclusive wayrdquo (Pozzo et al 2020 428ndash429)

64 Contrasting Cultural Innovation

After having defined cultural innovation outcomes let us examine how theychange our view of innovation in general In particular we have to ask how cul-tural history can be described as a sequence of cultural innovations I must ac-

64 Contrasting Cultural Innovation 105

count for the implications of innovation for redefining how culture has been en-visioned mainly to visualize the various ways in which users engage with cultur-al content and processes in the past present and future To better understandwhat cultural innovation is we can contrast it with other types of innovationsuch as (641) social innovation (642) scientific culture and (643) heritage-led innovation

641 Social Innovation

Social innovation lies in the interface of state and civil society (Lehtola andStaringhle 2014 159) Social innovations aim ldquoto directly address unmet socialneeds in new ways by developing or enhancing new products and servicesthrough the direct engagement of the people who need and use them typicallythrough a bottom-up processrdquo (EUR 2016a 6) Social innovation occurs when aservice responds positively to the following three questions (1) Does it solve theproblem (2) Does it cost right (3) Is it universally accepted (Moulaert etal 2013 17ndash 18) An example of social innovation is the regional healthcarecard of Lombardy which was introduced in 1999 a pioneer endeavor at thetime It solved the problem of providing access to data not only did it costright but it also enabled substantial savings and finally it was accepted with-out any opposition On the contrary the whole paradigm of personalized medi-cine has been failing the test to date insofar as it has solved the problem onlyvery partially by prolonging the life expectancy of a limited number of terminalcancer patients for months not for years it has had enormous costs and con-sequently has not yet found general acceptance (Holgate et al 2012)

Arguably a healthcare card would meet successful social innovation re-quirements but not yet those of successful cultural innovation Culture and artpotentially offer non-authoritarian and self-regulated fields for interaction re-flection and change Building on Prahalad and Venkatram (2000) Pozzo andVirgili (2017) suggested that measuring cultural innovation would be by lookingat co-creation ie by analyzing the traces that we leave behind when we have ashared experience of common cultural goods At that level social innovation be-comes reflective and generates cultural innovation

It seems then that cultural innovation must come to terms with social inno-vationWhat part of social innovation is cultural innovation and what rights cancultural innovation claim for society (Koefoed 2017) It appears that social inno-vation and cultural innovation are not co-extensive Knowledge is always situat-ed for ldquoall knowledge is produced in specific circumstancesrdquo which ldquoshape it insome waysrdquo because everybody situates oneself and onersquos interpretation by re-


flectively examining onersquos positionality (Rose 2010 237) For instance the needto be reflective has been thoroughly explained by feminist geographers In ldquopro-ducing representations of [Third World] women we are inextricably bound upwith questions of authority communication and representationsrdquo (Radcliffe1994 28) A preliminary answer is cultural heritage marks our cultural identitywhich is at the same time cultural diversity In sum cultural innovation presup-poses social innovation but is more than that

Cultural heritage makes a central contribution to identity that encompassesan appreciation of diversity and shared experiences values and aspirations(Oberg 2010) Today we ask to imagine it as a ldquoproduct of interrelationshipsrdquowhich asks for substitution of an understanding of identity that takes identitiesldquoas already and forever constituted (lsquowomanrsquo lsquohomosexualrsquo) and argues for therights of or claims to equality for those already constituted identitiesrdquo for a no-tion that stresses the ldquoconstructednessrdquo of identities and things including thosethings called political subjectivities and political constituencies (Massey 2012156) Constructed identities within spaces are themselves empirical construc-tions unblocked regions imagined spaces (Baynham 2012) Some governmentsdefend heritage by putting forward the notion of cultural exception (Graeffe2008 167)

642 Scientific Culture

Cultural innovation does not question the role of science for knowledge produc-tion but rather what knowledge means for individuals Over the last decades thespecificity of scientific culture has become a theme much discussed at all publicdiscourse levels Think of the debate about citizen scientists lay experts andother forms of knowledge than those produced in academia ie the fragileknowledge discussed above (see chapter 5) Most policymakers now integratescientific culture into their economic growth statements or social progress(Godin and Gingras 2000 43ndash44)

Cultural innovation however goes beyond scientific culture first and fore-most because scientific culture is about communicating the results of sciencebut also because cultural innovation is about openness In contrast scientificculture does not embrace open science and cultural innovation is about co-cre-ation while scientific culture does not require participation

The open science paradigm aims at changing scientific culture so that theway knowledge is produced becomes more transparent first for the actors withinthe science system (the researchers) and second for those outside of it (the pub-lic) Then we can say that cultural innovation goes beyond scientific culture be-


cause it impacts how science operates (change of the scientific culture) and howsociety operates For these social processes the knowledge of scientists and thefragile knowledge produced in other ways serve both as input

If other actors are involved and other processes occur cultural innovationtransforms knowledge into something concerning more than mere scienceAlso to achieve this we need cultural transformations inside the sciences andaround them and for this goal the humanities have a specific role

643 Heritage-led Innovation

The Handbook of the Economics of Art and Culture has a chapter that outlinesfour dimensions of cultural innovation as powered by cultural organizations(substance origin newness and referent) focusing on the goods and servicesprovided by institutions such as museums including a more extensive set of en-terprises whose merchandise also deal with emotions identity and aesthetics(Castantildeer 2014 273) Studies in museography consider questions such asldquoWhat types of value do museums have What is the ethically correct stancefor a museum to take towards its public Furthermore towards the objects con-stituting its collection Should museum exhibits seek to claim objectivityrdquo (Har-rison et al 2016)

Substantial work is currently being done in heritage-led innovation whichmeans that culture too fosters technological innovation For instance culturalheritage digitization is innovation The great challenge is the passage from datascience to data humanities which can be rich and complex non-standardized informat standard metadata and ontologies and can be subject to complicatedrights issues The main goal is to deal with every aspect of science and technol-ogy related to the field offering innovative solutions to the societal challenges ofthe new millennium Like hard-science researchers SSH researchers are alsoconfronted with massive amounts and increasing data complexity in highlyinterdisciplinary settings Let us only think of enabling technologies such asnear-field communication content-rights management content-aware networks(fruition and enjoyment) low-latency networks (for warning and security) huge-bandwidth networks (for augmented reality) However while heritage-led inno-vation is dependent on technology in the sense that without technology therewould be no innovation cultural innovation lies at the top of the knowledgechain It comes after social innovation which in its turn relies on technologicalinnovation


65 Indicators

To measure the impact of cultural innovation we have to consider the co-crea-tion of knowledge How do we measure co-creation We can do it by analyzingdata Indeed we measure cultural innovation in terms of co-creation Howeverthe use of data for reconstructing cultural innovation is praiseworthy but notsimple Measuring the impact is fundamental to improve social acceptance ofpublic investment insofar as it provides a basis for aligning research and inno-vation with the values needs and expectations of society (Kaase 2013 Žic-Fuchs2014 Bonaccorsi 2018 Maegaard and Pozzo 2019)

Public administrations sponsor cultural heritage and the performing arts(Towse 2011 Battistoni and Pedrini 2014) Museums primarily act as materialcustodians of memories Their responsibility is ldquoto collect things and to commu-nicate information about them in a truthful wayrdquo (Tonner 2016) The return oninvestment is measured primarily with knowledge production indicators suchas advances in scientific knowledge training of highly skilled people and useof research infrastructures Obviously the socio-economic impact is also ach-ieved through technology development in collaboration with companies includ-ing high-tech small and medium enterprises (Reale et al 2017)

To measure this we need to model the comprehensive impact of cultural in-novation at the societal level Complexity science tells us how minor effects cangrow to the prevalence and how social networks under different conditions canamplify or dampen the forces running along with them

Could these innovation outcomes qualify as cultural in the sense outlinedabove We live in an era of metrics Once based on tradition the managementof complex societies looks now for justification in optimization criteria inspiredby the scientific method systematic observation measurement and experimentbringing to the validation of hypotheses and lawsWe are looking for indicatorsThe simpler the better summing up complexity in simple figures Based on theavailable evidence we look for ldquothe means which has the greatest probability ofattainingrdquo the desired goal (Merton 1936 896)While all this functioned even be-yond expectations in the hard sciences field the application to the realm of so-ciety has been thwarted by the specificity of human societiesmdashnamely non-re-producibility unintended consequences and the persistence of traditionalsolutions to societal problems

How can we improve on oversimplifying indicators We advocate a searchfor those indicators that enable citizens in need of information to reflect ontheir decisions in a novel way (Hicks et al 2015) A promising approach inthis regard is being pursued at the Center for the Evaluation of Public Policiesof Fondazione Bruno Kessler The research center which is primarily aimed at

65 Indicators 109

carrying out public policy analysis uses counterfactual impact evaluation toolsthat integrate methodologies of computational social science⁷⁰ The awareness oftheir transient nature should always accompany the use of indicators Indicatorsought to change as soon as the ability to circumvent themmdashto game themmdashbe-comes widespread Also indicators should integrate information at different lev-els various kinds and from diverse disciplines capturing the counterintuitive re-sults of complexity science (path dependence tipping points) and integratingcontributions from qualitative science For an example of the latter considerhow important it would be for a model of social behavior to integrate ideasfrom Durrheim (et al 2018) showing how conflict about racism generates a tri-polar relation which helps both sides of the controversy to consolidate their so-cial identity by reappropriating stigmatized labels

Rosaria Conte and Mario Paolucci have shown that agent-based simulationwhich allows the reproduction and study of social life in silico could be used forsuch a purpose Simultaneously modeling their micro-context of cognitive proc-esses (such as beliefs desires intentions values etc) at the same time as theirmacro-context of social interaction simulation enables us to understand corephenomena of the social world and its dynamics such as trust norms and co-operation (Conte and Paolucci 2012) An agent-based simulation is unrivaled inits ability to integrate information at different levels various kinds and from di-verse disciplines making explicit the hidden assumptions that abound in natu-ral language An agent-based simulation would make an ideal approach for de-veloping tools to explore strategies and not just calculate indicators through riskanalysis of the options and what-if scenarios for the outcomes for a simulationon the impact of social measures should consider at least two ideas from com-plexity science social percolation and critical massWithout taking these effectsinto account any indicator will be incomplete It will lack the multiplicative fac-tor generated by social percolation and ignore the risk of some field disappearingcatastrophically if the minimal critical mass for its existence is endangered(Pozzo et al 2020 428)

This methodology relies on composite indicators with reliable characteristicswhen complex and multidimensional phenomena need to be measured It con-siders the effects of engaging stakeholders and civil society in the dynamics ofscience-based innovation To this purpose we can use a reasoned collection ofingredients that should enter such a model and such calculation as a base fordeveloping indicators The existing DARIAH Impactomatrix classification toname an example consists of twenty-one impact areas

httpsirvappfbkeuabout-us visited on 6 May 2021


External ImpactmdashEducationmdashData SecuritySafetymdashDisseminationmdashEffectivitymdashEfficiencymdashFunding PerspectivemdashInnovationmdashIntegrationmdashCoherencemdashCollaborationmdashCommunica-tionmdashTransfer of ExpertisemdashSustainabilitymdashUsagemdashPublicationsmdashRelevancemdashReputationmdashTransparencymdashCompetitivenessmdashTransfer of Knowledge⁷sup1

These areas produce an extensive base on which to evaluate the outcomes of cul-tural innovation but exhibit partial overlap and might be in general challengingto calculate in the absence of an underlying model As a first step in the directionof a model one can reorganize the DARIAH Impactomatrix areas into four groupsof indicators

651 First Group of Indicators Institutional Change

Institutions responsible for the production and the circulation of knowledgehave been continuously changing due to internet technologies such as socialmedia big data open-source software ubiquitous computing and Wikipedia(Borgman et al 2013) Co-creation requires extensive reforms of regulatory back-grounds which means that institutional change becomes essential Not bychance then the key performance indicator for the Science with and for Societycross-cutting area of Horizon 2020 is the number of institutional change actionspromoted by the program⁷sup2 For example think about changes in the organiza-tional structures of public libraries in which the open science paradigm has re-quired new norms procedures guidelines and protocols

Cultural innovation is related to the fragility of experiential knowledge(Foray 2012) It is also related to the unfairness in distributing epistemic goodssuch as knowledge education and communication the already mentioned epis-temic injustice (Fricker 2007) In sum fair and unfair epistemic practices of co-creation by elaborating on the practice of giving and taking reasons play a rolein the responsible co-creation of knowledge

652 Second Group of Indicators Access

Assessing the number of users of knowledge produced per discipline within thehumanities can be seen as a relative concept especially since cross-disciplinaryresearch is becoming more widespread A starting point might be to estimate the

httpsdariah-degithubioImpactomatrix visited on 6 May 2021 httpgrace-rrieuabout-grace visited on 6 May 2021

65 Indicators 111

number of users per discipline connected or using a research infrastructure (Žic-Fuchs 2014) In DARIAH the question is how it can expand its user access baseby building better interactions with national nodes not just at the top layer butalso into them To name one example it is arguable that more images have beenproduced and stored during the last twelve months than in the whole history ofphotographyWe are talking of a patrimony that is not only produced and disse-minated digitally it is also co-created which calls for capacity building so that itgenerates actual participation This technological vision is inclusive and open toeverybody The Politics of Metadata Group asks

How to develop open ecosystems that involve a diversity of stakeholders in the cultural her-itage domain from providers to consumers⁷sup3

Furthermore it indicates five directions controlling levels of access transparen-cy secrecy closeness connectedness alienation the relation between controldynamics and power relationships outside the technology framework differen-tiation in entryexit points to the platform the tensions between individual scor-ing systems and collective sharing processes and photo tagging behaviors acrosslanguages (Eleta and Golbeck 2012 Ridge 2014)

653 Third Group of Indicators Participation

The Rome Declaration for Responsible Research and Innovation in Europe hasmade it clear that participation is the issue which turns out convenient forthe argument of this chapter given that cultural innovation is about co-creationIndeed cultural innovation relies on the participation of groups of civil societythat take part in co-creation processes⁷⁴

Regarding participation at the individual level one must note that there arestill some social groups that are excluded or avoid engaging in participatory andco-creation activities in spaces of exchange For this reason cultural innovationneeds first and foremost to envisage (self)excluded individuals and groups to-gether with the causes of (self)exclusion (Wyatt 2003) To name an example di-versity has become a structural element of contemporary societies with migra-tion at the core of generative dynamics of our social economic and politicaltexture As regards participation at the institutional level the Politics of Metada-

httppoliticsofmetadatablogsdsvsuse visited on 6 May 2021 httpseceuropaeudigital-single-marketennewsrome-declaration-responsible-research-and-innovation-europe visited on 6 May 2021


ta Group asks ldquoHow to handle the tension between the institutionrsquos need for sta-bility continuity and control and dynamic participatory practices onlinerdquo andin fact

Participatory open science practices create new challenges due to the character of the net-worked publics involved and the established structures between and within institutionsbut also new opportunities and practices when it comes to an understanding and definingour common goods⁷⁵

DARIAH offers a meaningful case study for investigating how researchers em-brace new institutional freedom to shape conditions for their own researchThis infrastructure has adopted an open innovation approach that relies onthe input of working groups whose creation comes grass-rooted and research-driven DARIAHrsquos currently about twenty-one active working groups are com-munities of practice (Lave and Wenger 1991) that can be seen as a means forshaping cultural innovation outcomes and as particularly fertile examples for ex-perimenting with indicators The most striking aspects of the DARIAH workinggroups are the activities of co-creation and collaboration among scholars fromdifferent European institutions at different seniority levels and the fact thatworking groups are run voluntarily by their members (Edmond et al 2020225) What makes DARIAH unique is that the infrastructure becomes a spaceof exchange for all kinds of initiatives In the DARIAH wiki platform there aretemplates and information An example is the working group Ethics and Legalityin the Digital Arts and Humanities which discusses privacy protection intellec-tual property rights and ethical issues⁷⁶

654 Fourth Group of Indicators User Data

The last set of indicators looks into the data identifying users insofar as they in-duce open innovation The most urgent goal is to overcome barriers to participa-tion and receive valuable input from citizens (Maynard and Lepori 2017) The Pol-itics of Metadata Group notes that we need to look into different types ofparticipatory practices online concerning the cultural heritage domain andinto varying interaction levels Possible sites of analysis could be the interactionbetween participants the participation in the work by different stakeholders the

httppoliticsofmetadatablogsdsvsuse visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwdariaheuactivitiesworking-groups-list visited on 6 May 2021

65 Indicators 113

potentially privileged levels of interaction with the metadata or tensions in theagency of the participants in relation to the task

The directions are (1) communication needs within the crowd (2) avenues of communica-tion to support collaboration (3) relations between the crowd and the institution (4) nav-igating intersecting communities in crowd settings and (5) crowd dynamics⁷⁷

Although there might be some overlap between having access to datasets andusing them the difference lies in todayrsquos sharing practices of data initiated bythe users which substantially impact public policies The Proposal of a Directiveof the European Parliament and the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Mar-ket approved on 12 September 2018 states that ldquonew uses have emerged as wellas new actors and new business modelsrdquo so that uploading and downloading ofcultural contents have become processes that require constant monitoring⁷⁸ Thefirst results indicate an increase in understanding and awareness of what hu-manities and ICT researchers are doing to elaborate participatory approachesOn the other side the obsession for surveillance and control has conqueredour collective imagination and shaped the work of urban planners administra-tors policymakers and entrepreneurs Digital infrastructures have reshaped thetechnological landscape of our cities (Morozov and Bria 2018)

66 Impact

As regards ways to operationalize the definitions introduced in the precedingsections in some empirical case studies it is clear that cultural innovation hasan impact on related domains education science and culture in the first in-stance but also society policy and the economy It achieves impact by raisingawareness in the civil society thanks to the engagement of stakeholders in nar-rative co-creation processes by establishing broad audiences targeting stake-holders and involving them proactively in designing and evaluating narrativesand finally by enabling cooperation of diverse actors and partners (Pozzo etal 2020 430)

Migration offers compelling examples of the impact of cultural innovationbecause it implies transfers of cultures knowledge and competencies Migration

httppoliticsofmetadatablogsdsvsuse visited on 6 May 2021 COM(2016) 593 final 20160280(COD) httpseur-lexeuropaeulegal-contentENTXTHTMLuri=CELEX52016PC0593ampfrom=en Executive Summary and Articles 11 and 13 visited on6 May 2021


is the occasion of encounters and misunderstandings and conflicts (Cousins andDaley 2017) At the regional level cultural innovation has two main areas of im-pact regarding inclusion first by conceptualizing reasons needs challengesand keys of change under diverse backgrounds and second by co-designingtesting and practicing integration-related issues Current trends of radicalizationversus integration have made it clear with an extraordinary force that a most ur-gent objective is to work towards reflection and inclusion with attention to theeffects of migration on security and health environment and biodiversity with-out forgetting society and culture

The case-study analysis presented in chapter 2 allows a coherent applicationof the indicators outlined in the previous section It is clear that the students ofthe apologue of chapter 2 are working on the texts on behalf of an institutiontheir school (first group of indicators) They do what they do because theyhave gained access to common goods (second group) They are ready to set acommunity of practice that others might ask to participate in (third group) Final-ly the students leave digital traces either manifest or hidden (fourth group)

An additional example is research on the interactions between religion andinnovation carried out at the Center for Religious Studies of Fondazione BrunoKessler The center dedicates particular attention to the dynamic texture of reli-gious communities and traditions and the contextuality of social cultural andtechnological innovations thus avoiding reductive definitions of either religionor innovation (Beacutenabou et al 2015) Following an action-research approachthe centerrsquos work focuses on digital technologies in processes of social changeIt explores the potentials of technology-assisted and technology-enabled socialinnovation in collaboration with researchers in ICT as laid out in the positionpaper Religion and Innovation Calibrating Research Approaches and SuggestingStrategies for Fruitful Interaction⁷⁹ The analysis of a number of case studiesfor innovation in religion confirms the validity of the indicators listed aboveNew religious groups strive for institutional recognition (first group) they doso by accessing cultural legacies (second group) and constitute communitiesof practice while elaborating on them (third group) and finally they leave tracesin the form of user data (fourth group)

httpsisrfbkeuen visited on 6 May 2021

66 Impact 115

67 Defining Cultural Innovation for Policy Purposes

The strong acceleration of the twin ecological and digital transition is rapidlycreating ldquoa new world of work within which new models will be builtrdquo (Seghezzi2019 104)We are in the years of Industry 40 and we must ask ourselves in whatsense and in what ways the digital transition ldquoaffects our living conditions andthe articulation of our societiesrdquo (Zamagni 2019 7) First and foremost we mustrealize that the digital revolution has replaced the conflict between capital andlabor with that between information and productionmdashunderstood as the productof capital and labor (Quintarelli 2019 79) Let me conclude this chapter by pro-posing a comprehensive definition and a set of policies for widening participa-tion in cultural innovation

Cultural innovation can be understood as the outcome of complex co-creation processesthat involve the reflection of knowledge flows across the social environment while promot-ing the inclusion of diversity within society It takes a critical stance against inequalities inthe distribution of knowledge and builds innovation for improving the welfare of individ-uals and communities (Pozzo et al 2020 430ndash431)

Regarding policy recommendations on the role of actors such as the ministries ofresearch economics and culture for widening participation in cultural innova-tion a richer approach can be based on complexity science and social simula-tion declined via the four indicator groups proposed above Policymakerscould develop evidence-based policies for multilevel reforms in cooperationwith researchers and cultural practitioners and a direct and pro-active multista-keholder involvement (eg firms non-profit non-governmental organizationsunions users local authorities and policymakers) exploiting existing data sour-ces (eg Eurobarometer sources at EU level) to provide empirical evidence⁸⁰

Due to the role that cultural innovation plays at the intersection of the Re-search Infrastructures Societal Challenge 6 and Science with and for Societywork programs of Horizon 2020 it makes alreadymdashwithout definitionmdasha signifi-cant case for science policy Horizon Europe is the ninth European frameworkprogram for research and innovation to which no less than 955 billion eurosare to be allocated in the 2021ndash2027 multiannual financial period (EUR 2021)Looking at Horizon Europe it is to be expected that the definition given abovefor cultural innovation will trigger changes in the mindset regarding locating cul-ture for reflection and inclusion in education life-long learning healthcare

httpseuropaeueurobarometerscreenhome visited on 6 May 2021


urban development and regeneration First and foremost a change in the mind-set about common cultural goods (Graeffe 2017) including philosophical texts⁸sup1

With reference to the European Union a preliminary answer is cultural her-itage marks its cultural identity which is at the same time cultural diversitymdashtheEuropean Year of Cultural Heritage 2018 was about identity and diversity saidthe President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker in his openingspeech at the European 2017 Culture Forum in Milan on 7 December 2017

Reducing inequalities and social exclusion are crucial challenges At thesame time there is excellent potential through opportunities provided for exam-ple by new forms of innovation and citizen engagement Supporting innovativereflective and inclusive societies is a prerequisite for sustainable integration InHorizon 2020 they have been the matter of substantial research funding (13 bil-lion euros allocated during the multiannual financial period 2014ndash2020)

Reducing inequalities and social exclusion in Europe are crucial challenges for the future ofEurope At the same time there is great potential for Europe through opportunities provid-ed for example by new forms of innovation and by the engagement of citizens Supportinginclusive innovative and reflective societies is a prerequisite for a sustainable Europeanintegration⁸sup2

In Horizon Europe more funding is expected (23 billion euros to be allocated forthe multiannual financial period 2021ndash2027) SSH researchers are looking atCluster 2 Culture Creativity and Inclusive Society which supports ldquosustainableinnovation job creation improved working conditions and a European senseof belonging through a continuous engagement with society citizens social part-ners and economic sectorsrdquo and assists ldquoin the transition to new forms of workensuring the social inclusiveness of such transformations and attracting protect-ing and retaining a skilled workforce It will also tap into the full potential of cul-tural heritage arts and cultural and creative sectors and industriesrdquo (EUR 20215)

To assess cultural innovation as the value-sensitive integration to technolog-ical and social innovation is the great challenge contemporary science and tech-nology studies are confronted with Innovative education and training policiescan enhance labor productivity social equality and eventually democratic par-

A project on the ldquoGeography of philosophyrdquo is currently being led by Edouard Machery Ste-phen Stich and H Clark Barrett at the University of Pittsburgh httpswwwgeographyofphilosophycom visited on 6 May 2021 (European Commission Decision C (2015)2453 of 17 April 2015) httpseceuropaeuprogrammeshorizon2020enh2020-sectioneurope-changing-world-inclusive-innovative-and-reflective-societies visited on 6 May 2021

67 Defining Cultural Innovation for Policy Purposes 117

ticipatory processes Let it be noted that culture remains embedded in severalUnited Nations Sustainable Development Goals namely in the following

‒ Good Health and Well Being (goal 3)‒ Quality Education (goal 4)‒ Gender Equality (goal 5)‒ Work and growth (goal 8)‒ Industry Innovation and Infrastructure (goal 9)‒ Inequalities (goal 10)‒ Sustainable Cities and Communities (goal 11)‒ Responsible Consumption and Production (goal 12)‒ Peace and Justice (goal 16)⁸sup3

Today the biggest challenge is the lack of a shared conceptualization which pre-vents the development of indicators from measuring impact that are crucial toplan monitor and evaluate policies For migrants settling down in adoptedhome countries discrimination and racism make inclusion processes challeng-ing Striving toward an ideal of unity in diversity in democracies necessitatesan approach that people might disagree with as legitimate others not as ene-mies Culture cannot be but plural changing adaptable constructed Inclusionand reflection are constructed whenever we contact other human beings regard-less of where they come from

History of philosophy contributes to social innovation and cultural innova-tion insofar as it provides a significant benchmark for migrants that are bound tokeep their cultural identity while mingling with the cultural backgrounds of oth-ers Theories events doctrines facts and real-life are an essential part of todayrsquosworld if their knowledge will not be explored with new educational instrumentsand transferred in a participated and constructive way national narratives andidentitarian ideologies will attract the minorities and affect the majorities aswell which is a drift the world should be aware of bearing in mind the experi-ence of the Holocaust⁸⁴

httpssdgsunorggoals visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwehri-projecteu visited on 6 May 2021


Part ThreeCorpora

7 Corpora that Talk to Each Other

The idea that lies at the basis of a data-driven history of philosophy is to enableresearchers and readers to delve into XML formatted corpora that are bothhuman-readable and machine-readable History of philosophy is particularlyapt for multilingual semantic alignment experiments because of its essentialnon-redundant lexicon The need and added value of providing easy access tocomplex highly structured philosophical content through corpora that talk toeach other have been highlighted in the literature However they have not yetbeen fulfilled (Pozzo 2016) Given that concepts do not have an independentlife and are mediated by linguistic expressions and only from these expressionsdo they have their specific meaning a thorough lexicographical investigation isldquoindispensable and unavoidable for determining both the conceptual apparatusand the philosophical problemsrdquo (Sgarbi 2012 ixndashx)

In this chapter I shall start with a user-based analysis of existing reposito-ries in alphabets and hanzi汉字 characters An effective approach is to developadd-on modules and plug-ins for already existing open-source tools The objec-tive is to assess the potential of available repositories and the coherence amongexisting research e-platforms and e-infrastructures through a comparative anal-ysis of currently operating formats while considering international standards oflearning content to ensure their export both directly and through metadata har-vesting procedures

71 Multilingual Corpora

A text corpus is a large and unstructured set of texts that once were on paper buttoday are electronically stored and processed Text corpora are used to carry outstatistical analysis and hypothesis testing check occurrences and validate lin-guistic rules within a specific language territory Originally drawn out manuallycorpora are now automatically derived from source texts Online corpora withquery engines are a part of todayrsquos life Think of clusters with multiple piecesof speech-tagged corpora each using a different set of tags and corpus-querylanguage (Baker 1993)

A corpus may contain texts in a single language (monolingual corpus) or tex-tual datasets in multiple languages (multilingual corpora) Multilingual corporathat have been specially formatted for side-by-side comparison are called alignedparallel corpora To make corpora more useful for linguistic research they are an-notated ie enriched with further information One of the most dynamic proj-


ects in the construction of parallel text corpora of modern languages and the de-velopment of reliable tools for alignment and morphosyntactic annotation ofwords is InterCorp (Bozzi 2015 37)⁸⁵

At the Leibniz Institute for the German Language in Mannheim the programarea Corpus Linguistics is dedicated to developing and testing tools for the auto-matic analysis of corpora and the construction and application of quantitativemathematical models of explorative corpus analysis Researchers in Mannheimare working on preparation and annotation of corpora analytically based metri-zation of their properties and relations of linguistic units extraction reconstruc-tion and exploration of linguistic knowledge from corpora of texts in naturallanguages fostering applications in the field of text analysis and text technologyand supporting linguistic theory formation⁸⁶

Computational concept modeling is a process that exploits a successful syn-thesis of working practices in the humanities and computational linguisticsOnce humanities scholars have agreed to study a corpus they first identify ap-propriate levels and categories of analysis they then perform annotations on asubsample of the corpus that acts as reference data which become the basisfor ldquomachine learning experiments with candidate model classes including ad-ditional tools or data resourcesrdquo (Kuhn 2020 76) The token class of a sequenceof characters cannot be determined before the semantic analysis has been car-ried through as names and variable names are lexically identical but constitutedifferent token classes (Li Wenchao 2015) It is the reader who calls the semanticanalyzer (say the root of a Greek-Latin concept pair such as phantasiaimagina-tio) and checks if the sequence requires lemmatization In this case informationhas to flow back not merely from the text itself but from the semantic analyzerback to the reader which poses a challenge to the design ldquoWhenever we aretempted to talk about the hermeneutic meaning of a text we should talk insteadof the meaning of the text for someone that is the meaning of a workrdquo (Bevir1999 74)

As a matter of fact in the lexica of non-roman languages a copious intro-duction of Greek and Latin forms has taken place the consequence of the diffu-sion in Europe of a set of scientific lexica which were in relevant part globallyshared Researchers understand and elaborate texts in different languageswith the option of interrogating them across alphabets from the standpoint ofa meta-language to be chosen by the user They rely on transcriptions transla-tions and distillations of texts (eg Yahya 2014 Yi Zhuang 2014) A data-driven

httpsucnkffcuniczcs visited 6 May 2021 httpwww1ids-mannheimdeklhtml visited on 6 May 2021

122 7 Corpora that Talk to Each Other

history of philosophy shall consider texts how they have been transmitted andused within the individual cultural communities which today happens throughwebsites for example in the Islamic Philosophy Online portal⁸⁷

Researchers in history of philosophy ought to have the gift of multilingual-ism because a new sociolinguistics of multilingualism is now being forgedone that takes account of the new communicative order and the particular con-ditions of our times while retaining a central concern with the ldquoprocesses in-volved in the construction of social differences and social inequalitiesrdquo (Gardnerand Martin-Jones 2012 1) As a matter of fact it is easy to see that one ground-breaking aspect of history of philosophy lies in its addressing multilingual as-pects On one side we have texts and terms on the other ideas and problemsThe solution is an innovative way of working with the history of scientific lexicawithin cultural studies to the advantage of twenty-first-century philosophers

For example annotating Kantrsquos work as a corpus is an endeavor that hasbeen increasingly carried out over more than sixty years alongside the progressof computational linguistics The start was given by the Allgemeiner Kantindex(Martin 1967 Roser and Mohrs 1992) which gave Kantrsquos words in non-inflectedform and is currently preserved within the Korporaorg platform⁸⁸ A giant leapforward was achieved by Tullio Gregory (1967) and Norbert Hinske (1982) re-spectively with the Lessico Intellettuale Europeo (now on TEI) and the Kant-Index (built on TUSTEP) which granted access to Kantrsquos writings in lemmatizedform with metadata and semantic annotations that are interoperable also as re-gards multilingualism (ie Kantrsquos use of Greek Latin German and Frenchterms) The next giant leap forward is expected to be achieved by recontextual-izing Kant within multilingual philosophical corpora around computational con-cept modeling making it possible to kick-start the so-called computational his-tory of ideas (Betti and Van den Berg 2016)

Generally one can take up the text-corpus method that derives a set of ab-stract rules that govern a natural language from texts in that language and ex-plores how it relates to others The scientific approach is empirical but in differ-ent ways to digitalize and operationalize Kantrsquos work in two languagespresupposes philosophical expertise to control the translation

The nine volumes of Kantrsquos printed works with their 158000 words offermaterial for a full lemmatization and a formidable basis for reflected text analyt-ics Starting from an Urtext of German lemmata it is possible to create an in-duced network of concepts based on which to pursue empirically verifiable hy-

httpsmuslimphilosophyorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekant visited on 6 May 2021

71 Multilingual Corpora 123

potheses on meaning shifts over the centuries At the Center for Reflected TextAnalytics of the University of Stuttgart⁸⁹ the interdisciplinary research teamled by Jonas Kuhn has developed methods for theory- and data-driven corpusanalysis (Kuhn 2020) These methods enable scholars to formulate hypothesesregarding systematic patterns in distributing specific concepts in a corpus andtest them empirically For example one might try to verify a presumed tendencyfor a school of thinking to translate the term A as Arsquo in the context of debate Xbut as Ardquo in other contexts which is what happened with the first translation inFrench of Kantrsquos Kritik der reinen Vernunft when the word Vernunft was renderedwith raison in some contexts and with entendement in others (Muumlller and Pozzo1988)

The corpora alignment of the German Urtext with its Chinese translation (seebelow chapter 8) might eventually be carried out on the Kant Online platformThe platform is currently under construction⁹⁰ Kant Online has the Kant-Lexikon(Willaschek at al 2015) as its nomenclature To name an analogous endeavorone can have a look at the Nietzsche Online platform (Nietzsche 2011) which pro-vides access to the complete edition of Friedrich Nietzschersquos works and letters byGiorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari as well as to almost all publications pub-lished by De Gruyter on Nietzschersquos works and reception In addition to aboutseventy volumes of the Nietzsche edition the platform offers access to mono-graphs and reference works such as the Nietzsche-Woumlrterbuch (Van Tongerenet al 2004) and the issues of the Nietzsche-Studienmdashall in all more than110000 book pages However Nietzsche Online offers significantly more thanthe sum of its printed content Below each text are witnesses presented bothas images and transcriptions (this is especially important for manuscripts)Searches can be made to obtain links between individual sentences or specificterms to corresponding sentences in other text witnesses (if any) and if neces-sary to their presence within the reconstructed object and the correspondingstemma codicum The content of the texts in the database is extensively linkedso that secondary literature dedicated to the passage by Nietzsche that isbeing read can be accessed directly The reconstructed text is enriched by a phi-lological apparatus that justifies critical choices between variants and historical-critical explanations that provide information about the content and context ofthe work (Pozzo 2014)

httpswwwcretauni-stuttgartde visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwdegruytercom visited on 6 May 2021


72 Digital Libraries

It is agreed that a digital library is a space in which to bring together collectionsservices and people for creating data providing access and preserving data andconsequently for information and knowledge The first occurrence of the syntag-ma dates back to 1971 The first digital library was Project Gutenberg initiated byMichael Hart to create a library of freely reproducible electronic versions of print-ed books⁹sup1 Nevertheless digital libraries existed well before the internet Theywere up and running long before they were called that way namely in the de-cades when the only available supports were punch cards then replaced by mag-netic tapes and later by floppy disks Among the first to develop computationalsystems for literary text was the National Research Council of Italy (CNR) start-ing from the reform of its statutes in 1963 when its range of action finally ex-panded to 360 degrees with the foundation of SSH dedicated centers of studiesCNR made possible enterprises such as the Index Thomisticus by Roberto Busawhich was conceived as early as 1946 and eventually published in 1980 in fifty-six volumes with the support of the Institute of Computational Linguistics (ILC)directed by Antonio Zampolli⁹sup2 Think also of the Lessico giuridico italiano proj-ect that Luigi Lombardi Vallauri created at the Institute of Theory and Techniqueof Legal Information (ITTIG) which has been active since 1968⁹sup3

721 Institute for the European Intellectual Lexicon and History of Ideas

For scope impact and longevity however the priority belongs to the Institutefor the European Intellectual Lexicon and History of Ideas (ILIESI) foundedby Tullio Gregory with the collaboration of Tullio De Mauro in 1964 at the Insti-tute of Philosophy of Sapienza University as a center of studies of CNR Over thedecades the ILIESI has been a place of study and training for young researchersmost of whom today have become eminent scholars His raison drsquoecirctre was tomake scholars a digital library available enabling a more rigorous historicalreading of the philosophical texts and documents of the period in which Euro-pean cultural and scientific terminology was formed (Liburdi 2000 2007)

The ILIESI digital library (Lessico Intellettuale Europeo Banca dati di testi fi-losofici dellrsquoetagrave moderna) initially consisted of 100 philosophical and scientific

httpswwwgutenbergorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwwilccnrit visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwwittigcnrit visited on 6 May 2021

72 Digital Libraries 125

texts published between 1600 and 1800 including many by Galileo DescartesSpinoza Leibniz Vico and Kant⁹⁴ These were lemmatized texts the metadataof which made easy access possible and consequently annotation to find lem-mata and phrases expanding the search from one text to others with the re-searcher becoming an agent and the document a dynamic one given that accesswas required by different users at different times

Against the speculative approach of idealistic historiography which left thedetailed study of the text in the background and with a good dose of CNR trade-marked innovation Gregory opened the season of a history of ideas closelylinked to the history of terminology based on the assumption that ideas donot live in a hyper-uranium world pure and immaculate Instead ideas are em-bodied in linguistic impure often ambiguous signs Linguistic signs are carriersof a long history a crossroads of multiple experiences in the intertwining of di-verse currents of thought and different languages in the continuous transcriptionand translation from one culture to another (Gregory et al 1967ndash2021) In consid-eration of Eugenio Garinrsquos claim that history of philosophy implies sheddinglight on the function of philosophers in the history of a civilization (Ciliberto2011) one might argue that the approach set forward by Gregory was perhapsmore about rethinking and bringing to completion the long tradition of histori-cism started by Vico rather than about opposing and destroying its idealisticforms

For these reasons the ILIESI focuses on the phenomenon of cultural migra-tion which accompanies the whole history of civilizations while involving con-tinuous relations and reciprocal exchanges among diverse cultures ILIESI re-searchers investigate several epochs under the assumption that at the root ofthe history of philosophy and the sciences and more generally of the historyof ideas lie textual corpora developed in the context of each discipline overthe centuries Historical semantic tools consider technical uses and ambiguitiessynchronic and diachronic interrelations translations and transpositions acrosslexical fields The specificity of the methodology requires keeping close to textsindividual terms and lexical families Hence the publication of lexica indicesand concordances the setting up of databases in which data processing is ap-plied to technical terminology in the humanities (Gregory et al 1967ndash2021)

httpwwwiliesicnrit visited on 6 May 2021 One renowned example for all Paolo Galluz-zirsquos (1979) ground-breaking monograph on the notion of momentum in Galileo


722 World Digital Library

While the ILIESI digital library contains metadata-rich and Europeana formattededitions of about 500 texts which are highly representative of philosophical andscientific thought in Greek Latin French Italian English German and Spanishthe World Digital Library (WDL) offers a much larger array of texts actual booksmanuscripts maps photographs and other primary materials in one-hundred-seventy languages⁹⁵ To date the WDL is one of the most exciting examples ofcorpora that talk to each other for it provides its users with navigation toolsand content descriptions in seven languagesmdashthe six official languages of theUnited Nations namely Arabic Chinese English French Russian and Spanishwith the addition of Portuguese The WDL was launched by the Librarian of Con-gress James H Billington before the US National Commission for UNESCO in2005 After some meetings dedicated to prototype development the libraryhas been operative on the internet since 2009 promoting intercultural dialogueincreasing the volume and the variety of cultural content offered on the internetproviding resources to educators scientists and the public at large while devel-oping cooperation agreements among national libraries and partner institutionsall over the world to diminish the digital divide between poor and rich countriesThese objectives require creating and managing modular research teams throughthe organizational structures provided by technology and digital communica-tions and techniques for cooperation with other SSH STEM and ICT disciplines

723 Twenty-four European Languages

Recent research has focused on corpora and resources for high resource languag-es with particular attention to the twenty-four official languages of the EuropeanUnionmdashBulgarian Croatian Czech Danish Dutch English Estonian FinnishFrench German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian MaltesePolish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovene Spanish Swedishmdashthat are allrepresented in Europeana⁹⁶ and European Cultural Heritage Online (ECHO)⁹⁷Both work towards multilingualism Europeana with metadata in the twenty-four official languages to support cultural heritage in its digital transformation

wwwwdlorg visited on 6 May 2021 wwweuropeanaeu visited on 6 May 2021 httpsechompiwg-berlinmpgdehome visited on 6 May 2021


while ECHO has created an infrastructure to bring cultural heritage on the inter-net

724 Greek and Latin

Greek and Latin are preserved in long-standing relatively small thesauri thatmake their lexical analysis quite useful Hence we rely today on several success-ful endeavors such as the Index Thomisticum Treebank⁹⁸ Computational Histor-ical Semantics⁹⁹ the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae A Digital Library of Greek Liter-aturesup1⁰⁰ the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Onlinesup1⁰sup1the Library of Latin Textssup1⁰sup2 thePatrologia Latinasup1⁰sup3 the Late Latin Charter Treebanksup1⁰⁴ the Archivio della Latin-ita Italiana Medievalesup1⁰⁵ and most importantly their connection on the Linguis-tic Linked Open Data Cloudsup1⁰⁶

725 Arabic

Looking into the Islamic world philosophers rely on the Islamic Philosophy On-line portalsup1⁰⁷ For instance Islamic philosophy insists on God having infinitenames and attributes the most important one being the Mother of Names(Umm al-Asmalsquo مأءامسلأا ) The names themselves are considered in the followingorder living (al-Havy يحلا ) knowing (al-lsquoAlim ميلعلا ) willing (al-Murīd دیرملا ) pow-erful (al-Qādir رداق ) speaking (al-Mutakallim ملکتملا ) hearing (al-Samilsquo یعمسلا ) see-ing (al-Basīr ریصبلا ) All names presuppose the category of living (al-Havy يحلا )which has priority over all and fulfills precisely the same function of the Aristo-telian substance (ousiacutea οὐσία) (Yahya and Sahli 2014) Also we might includeopinion (zann نظ ) and certainty (yaqīn نيقي ) (Smirnov 2018 11ndash 12)

httpsitreebankmarginaliait visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwcomphistsemorghomehtml visited on 6 May 2021 httpstephanustlguciedu visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwthesaurusbadwdetll-digitaltll-open-accesshtml visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwwbrepolsnet visited on 6 May 2021 httppatristicanetlatina visited on 6 May 2021 httpszenodoorgrecord1197357X34RxS8QOMw visited on 6 May 2021 httpalimunisiit visited on 6 May 2021 httpslinguistic-lodorgllod-cloud visited on 6 May 2021 httpsmuslimphilosophyorg visited on 6 May 2021


726 Chinese

The Chinese counterpart of the ILIESI is the Key Concepts of Chinese Thought andCulture project whose raison drsquoecirctre is to select concepts in Chinese thought andculture that reflect the characteristics of the countryrsquos traditional culture and theChinese peoplersquos way of thinking while embodying the core values of China(Wang Lin and Han Zhen 2015ndash2020)sup1⁰⁸ One should also mention the ChineseText Projectsup1⁰⁹

727 Global Perspective

In chapter 8 I will look into the conditions of possibility of translating Kant intwenty-first-century academic and cultural contexts (Schluumlter and Hohenegger2020) The question is how to figure out ways to insert old and new philosophicaltranslations into text corpora ie into metadata-rich and fully interoperablesources translations bibliographies indexes lexica and encyclopedias For ex-ample the World Humanities Forum series is an interesting result of the conver-gence between SSH and state-of-the-art technology (Choi 2014 423ndash428)sup1sup1⁰ Thefollowing years will see a joint effort to mutually align texts from alphabets andcharacters involving not only European languages and Chinese but also ArabicFarsi Hebrew Korean Japanese Neo-Greek Russian Turkish and SanskritAgain insisting on the centrality of text requires today seeing beyond paper sup-ports into the realm of big data which means into text corpora

73 CLARIN DARIAH OPERAS

Historians of philosophy should take up the habit of reusing and conferring da-tasets and tools from and to three infrastructures that belong to the strategyworking group on Social and Cultural Innovation of the ESFRI namely the Com-mon Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure (CLARIN)sup1sup1sup1 whichserves the community of computational linguistics while granting access to sub-stantial resources on historical corpora translation issues the Digital Research

httpswwwchinesethoughtcn visited on 6 May 2021 httpsctextorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpworldhumanitiesforumcomengmain visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwclarineu visited on 6 May 2021

73 CLARIN DARIAH OPERAS 129

Infrastructures for the Arts and Humanities (DARIAH)sup1sup1sup2 which serves the com-munity of the digital humanities and arts and the European Research Infrastruc-ture for the Development of Open Scholarly Communication in the Social Sciencesand Humanities (OPERAS)sup1sup1sup3

According to a generic but effective definition research infrastructures arecomplex and varied instruments that allow users from the scientific communityto share resources tools and data products First and foremost the centers ofthese three research infrastructures provide services to ensure the long-termpreservation of the data and software including newly created data and toolsTo make this work each infrastructure imposes specific requirements on the de-scription (metadata) of the resources the formats of the resources (to achievesyntactic interoperability) and provisions for specifying the meaning of ele-ments in the resource (to ensure semantic interoperability) Second as regardscreating and describing resources each infrastructure provides various tools toassist researchers in meeting these requirements

Just as astronomers need a virtual observatory to study the stars and otherdistant objects in our galaxy and beyond researchers in the humanities needdigital infrastructures to access information and knowledge embedded in digitalcontent Most importantly researchers are welcome to contribute to the lifespanof the infrastructure with new research projects that might either yield new dataand software or enrich existing data with new annotation layers New data andsoftware should be made available to the research community for a variety ofreasons These include ensuring transparency verification enablers and possiblythe replication of research results Most research outcomes are funded with pub-lic money and should therefore be made available to the whole research commu-nity They should be easily accessible also after the research project has endedIn this way other researchers can benefit from them in their research and theoriginal researchers can benefit from reusing them later

731 Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure

In 2012 CLARIN was established in the form of a European Research Infrastruc-ture Consortium (ERIC) and took up the mission to create and maintain an infra-structure to support the sharing use and sustainability of language data and re-search tools in the SSH With centers located in twenty-one European member

httpswwwdariaheu visited on 6 May 2021 httpsoperashypothesesorg visited on 6 May 2021


states CLARIN provides easy access to digital language data (in written spokenor multimodal form) for scholars in the SSH and beyond (Odjik 2016) CLARINalso offers advanced tools to discover explore exploit annotate analyze andcombine linguistic datasets wherever they are located This is enabled througha networked federation of centers including language data repositories servicecenters and knowledge centers all of them predisposed with single sign-on ac-cess for members of the academic community in the participating countriesTools and data from different centers are interoperable Data collections canbe combined and tools from various sources can be chained to perform complexoperations to support researchers in their work

Finding digital data relevant to humanities research requires consulting textcorpora with rich linguistic annotations lexica lexical databases audio record-ings (possibly with annotation) audio-visual data for language documentationmicro-comparative databases typological databases and many others Servicesto apply the software to the digital data in a user-friendly manner are a corefunctionality offered by CLARIN Most of the data and many of the softwaretools have already existed before However they require downloading and instal-ling software packages which often happen only on specific computer platformsand depend on other software packages The data and the software have beenproduced interoperable In several cases dedicated new services and interfacesmust be created that did not exist before This lowers the barrier for using thedata and software significantly to benefit linguistic research on a much largerscale than ever before CLARIN resources embrace a pool of web applicationsthat offer multiple interfaces to the same data Each interface has its target interms of the complexity of the query and the userrsquos expected technical proficien-cy Dedicated interfaces usually restrict usage but an environment is created toavoid this by combining different interfaces in one application It is challengingto create a correct query from scratch but making minor adaptations to an exist-ing well-formed question is much more comfortablesup1sup1⁴

732 Digital Research Infrastructures for the Arts and Humanities

DARIAH is a network of people expertise information knowledge contentmethods tools and technologies from nineteen European member states DA-RIAH brings together individual state-of-the-art digital arts and humanities activ-ities and scales their results to a European level It preserves provides access to

httpswwwclarineu visited on 6 May 2021


and disseminates research and research outputs that stem from these collabora-tions and ensures that best practices methodological and technical standardsare followed In 2014 DARIAH was established as an ERIC to empower research-ers with digital methods to create connect and share knowledge about cultureand society to build tools knowledge and groups to facilitate the digital trans-formation of the arts and humanities and to champion technology in the serviceof the arts and humanities DARIAH integrates digital arts and humanities re-search and activities from across Europe enabling transnational and transdisci-plinary approaches through its competence centers It promotes the further de-velopment of research methods in the arts and humanities documenting stateof the art supporting the reuse of research data focusing on particular challeng-es including diversity provenance multimedia collections and granularitywhile acting as a coordinator and integrator for communities of practice Infact as I have suggested above in chapter 6 DARIAH is particularly interestingfor understanding how cultural innovation can happen with the input of itstwenty-one working groupssup1sup1⁵

All things considered DARIAH impacts a series of interconnected domainseducation science and culture in the first instance but also society policy andthe digital economy While building services for researchers working with ICT-based methods DARIAH ensures the long-term accessibility of their work thusdirectly contributing to understanding the cultural economic social and polit-ical life in Europe and beyond Finally DARIAH offers teaching material andteaching opportunities to develop digital research skills (Romary et al 2016 Ed-mond et al 2020)sup1sup1⁶

733 European Research Infrastructure for the Development of OpenScholarly Communication in the Social Sciences and Humanities

OPERAS provides tools and systems for improving the quality and speed of thepeer review process which has become today a critical success factor for the fu-ture of scholarly communication The issue is especially important for the aca-demic books sector where quality assessment processes need to be mademore transparent perhaps via systems for open peer review and streamlinedto serve the research community better Although not yet established as anERIC (it will be in 2025) OPERAS implements several online collaborative

httpswwwdariaheuactivitiesworking-groups-list visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwdariaheu visited on 6 May 2021


tools for authoring from Open Source and proprietary providers Finally it devel-ops a high number of publishing systems and an existing trend for more open-source development At the same time OPERAS aims at integrating with an ever-increasing set of third-party tools enhancements and discoverability servicesbased on the general recommendation to simplify the distribution processthrough a service tool that receives a feed of data and files and automatically dis-tributes them to all the appropriate locations for a determinate publisher or jour-nalsup1sup1⁷

74 Forward Look

CLARIN DARIAH and OPERAS provide a perspective that sheds light on how a5G supported context of reading might look like in 2028 However we are not yetin 2028 and we would rather stick to what we have at hand One thing is surehistory of philosophy needs critical editions and together with them a method-ology of text interpretation Since these presuppositions are not always estab-lished in non-Western areas it should be a task of the Committee on Historyof Philosophy of the FISP to offer validated contacts to arrange a knowledgetransfer of the methods from experienced editors and interpreters to thosewho might need itsup1sup1⁸

The basic idea is that the study of corpora with their shifts in meaning andhybridizations is the most effective tool for cultural history and for studying lan-guages in the plasticity of their history which has a considerable effect on thework of translators as well An interesting experiment might be setting up andrunning a set of pyramidal e-books on philosophical contents say followingRobert Darntonrsquos (2009) depiction of a literary genre that does not exist rightnow The reader shall start at the top level by perusing the highest most uncom-plicated and most general narrative From there on she shall follow the linksand go into deeper levels of multimedia content according to hisher needs andinterests The most uncomplicated narratives (the top of the pyramid) shall beorganized starting from a few key concepts I am talking about an approachfor presenting linear texts and multimedia content that takes up the challengeof renewing scientific rigor and opening up new formats for multimedia publish-ing and broadcasting It is a vast territory that is up to be explored describedand mapped out

httpsoperashypothesesorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwfisporgcommittees visited on 6 May 2021

74 Forward Look 133

Let me make an example The terms representation and imitation are indeedtranslations for the same term namely mimesis (miacutemēsis μίμησις) (Pozzo 2010)However they have different meanings according to the contextsmdasheg followingeither Plato on ideas or Aristotle on tragedy or Dante on interpretation

Let us assume a user is working hisher way on paideiacutea παιδεία The following issue mightattract himher ldquoeducation is the imitation of role modelsrdquo Role models are to be found inthe family in the community and in society as a whole By browsing the highest narrativeof an e-book dedicated to paideiacutea the user encounters very soon a reference to Aristotlersquosdefinition of tragedy in the Poetica Περὶ ποιητικῆς as ldquoimitation of an actionrdquo achieved by anoble character Step 1 Movie-material (eg scenes from Saving Private Ryan by StevenSpielberg) Step 2 RaiEducational Docufilm on Aristotlersquos Poetica Step 3 Aristotle Poetica1449 b 24ndash28 Step 4 1542 Renaissance Latin Translation by Alessandro Paccio Step 5 1570Renaissance Italian Translation by Ludovico Castelvetro Step 6 1980 Contemporary FrenchTranslation (Aristotle 1980) by Dupont-Roc and Lallot Step 7 1997 Contemporary EnglishTranslation by Stephen Halliwell Step 8 2007 Contemporary Italian Translation by Dome-nico Pesce Step 9 Historical and Contemporary Translations in Other Languages Step 10Lemmatized occurrences of miacutemēsis (μίμησις) in Aristotle Step 11 Occurrences of miacutemēsisin ancient authors such as Plato Demosthenes Cicero etc Step 12 Encyclopedia articlesStep 13 Journal articles Step 14 Monographs Step 15 Position of a philosophical argu-ment ldquoEt que se passe-t-il quand on rend miacutemēsis par repreacutesentation au lieu drsquoimitationrdquodemanded Barbara Cassin (2004 sv) This was the decision taken by Roselyne Dupont-Rocand Jean Lallot in order to point out the ambivalence they came to the conclusion thatlsquomimeisthairsquo ought to be translated into French by lsquorepreacutesenterrsquo instead by lsquoimiterrsquo Infact mimeisthai ldquosauf preacutesence drsquoeacuteleacutements discriminants dans le contexte lsquorepreacutesenterun hommersquo offre la mecircme ambiguiteacute que mimeisthai anthrōpon (μιμεῖσθαι ἄνθρωπον)alors que la traduction traditionnelle par lsquoimiterrsquo seacutelectionne abusivement lrsquointerpreacutetationde lrsquoaccusatif comme celui du modegravelerdquo The reason Dupont-Roc and Lallot provide isldquoles connotations theacuteacirctrales de ce verbe et surtout la possibiliteacute de lui donner pour compleacute-ment comme agrave mimeisthai indiffeacuterement lrsquoobjet lsquomodegravelersquo et lrsquoobjet lsquoproduitrsquomdashau lieu qursquoi-miter excluait ce dernier le plus importantmdashne pouvaient qursquoemporter la deacutecisionrdquo (Aristo-tle 1980 20)

One hardly needs to point out how many issues of transdisciplinarity and multi-culturalism historians of philosophy are confronted with (Taylor 1994 Scaranti-no 2013) Philosophical texts constitute the common cultural foundation that liesat the origin of pluralism from antiquity to our days At stake is the ability tocome to terms with ambiguities to acquire a diversity of both internal and exter-nal origin productively In this context history of philosophy facilitates creativethinking It provides students and scholars with methods and content for bothplastic and differentiated expression and enriching logical arguments using met-aphors and iconic references Disciplinary boundaries can always be questionedfor the sake of a more encompassing perspective


In this chapter I have laid out some use cases of corpora corpus linguisticscomputational linguistics natural language processing and their contribution todigital humanities In connection with the CLARIN resource families the usecases implement FAIR data standards which stimulate the reuse and repurpos-ing of available research data thereby enabling scholars in the SSH to increasetheir productivity and open new research venues in and across disciplines thataddress one or more of the multiple societal roles of language Language isthe carrier of cultural content and information ldquoone of the central componentsof the identity of individual groups cultures or nations as an instrument forhuman expression as an object for study and preservationrdquo (ESFRI 2018 213)In conclusion this chapter is about igniting research agendas that ldquoillustratethe added value of well-supported access to the wealth of data types that areavailable for multiple languages hellip the research initiatives for the study of migra-tion patterns intellectual history language variation across period and regiondynamics in mental health conditions customer opinions and parliamentary dis-course just to name a fewrdquo (De Jong 2019 123)

74 Forward Look 135

8 Translation of Languages

We speak of the opposition of philosophical theories if the set of propositionsformed by the conjunction of the propositions of both theories is inconsistentThis presupposes that both theories are expressed in the same language Ifthis is not the case we speak of the opposition of styles methods or attitudesTrue but if a speaker is bilingual this does not hold (Cesana 2000) This is a def-inite possibility for bilingualism and multilingualism have become quite wide-spread today Besides translation does not simply occur between two languagesor cultural spheres It is shaped by a continuous cultural and media transforma-tion process between different semiotic registers (Ott and Weber 2019) Compara-tive philosophy has become necessary just like comparative literature (Hambur-ger 1956 Panikkar 1988 Sweet 2009) The translatio linguarum is an essentialstructure of the translatio studiorum (Gregory 2012 19) Let us think of thework done by Petrus Venerabilis in twelfth-century Toledo that after the turnof the millennium had become the center of translations from Arabic to Latinwith the intermediation of Hebrew Translation became the necessary premisefor mutual understanding (Gregory 2016 31) Translators found expression ingrafts that punctuated cultures while provoking exogamic marriages assiduousintertwining and exchanging experiences and values among diverse civiliza-tions Hence each culture was born by exploiting the inheritance of other cul-tures which have been made their own transcribed translated and interpretedin new contexts and languages (Gregory 2016 1)

This chapter is about the conditions of the possibility of contemporary trans-lation approaches to philosophical texts It insists on the tenets of the centralityof text and the transmission of texts and studies

81 Bilingualism and Multilingualism

What makes education unique is not a canon of scattered texts but familiaritywith traditions and their plurality ldquoReaders not professors make canonshellip Aspace outside the school where the canon is selected the marketrdquo (Moretti2013 67ndash68) This implies that if a research project is ldquofocused on a canonizeddevicerdquo then ldquoin the noncanonical universe it can only discover hellip the absenceof the device that is of the canonrdquo (Moretti 2013 87) Although English has be-come indispensable in its function as auxiliary international languagemdashas Um-berto Eco (1993) has put itmdashthe lingua franca of our days no nation-state can af-ford to lose its linguistic variety In the humanities everything speaks in favor of


multilingualism Bilingualism and multilingualism have become ldquothe normrather than the exception in everyday life of the citizens of the world todayrdquo(Li Wei 2010 1) It is true that language shift is ldquoa gradual process and cantake several generations to completerdquo (Li Wei 2010 6) However for individualsand groups of language users it has become easy to get ldquointo contact with eachother in different waysrdquo (Li Wei 2010 2) by relying on ldquocontact languagesrdquo underthe ldquostructural constraints of lexical borrowing diffusion and codeswitchingrdquoHere we have to look at the ldquoroles of specific languages versus the principlesand parameters of Universal Grammarrdquo (Li Wei 2010 7)

There is a ldquocontinuum from a subordinate or compound end to a coordinateendrdquo a continuum that can ldquoat the same time be more subordinate or compoundfor certain concepts and more coordinate for others depending on among otherthings the age and context of acquisitionrdquo (Li Wei 2010 9) We talk of audiencedesign based on the negotiation principle that directs speakers to choose theform of onersquos conversational contribution such that ldquoit symbolizes the set ofrights and obligationsrdquo which one wishes ldquoto be in force between speakersand addressees for the current exchangerdquo (Li Wei 2010 11)

The application of computational techniques and visualization technologiesin the humanities results in innovative approaches and methodologies for ana-lyzing traditional and new corpora (Zanettin 2014) Language technologies them-selves are available in English first About multilingualism however it is think-able to make better use of new technological approaches based on increasedcomputational power and better access to sizeable amounts of data in orderto foster the development of deep-learning neural networks which makehuman language technologies a solution to the problem of language barriersAs I have shown in chapter 7 research infrastructures such as CLARIN are upand running to promote and facilitate linguistic diversity and multilingualismin the digital sphere which ought to be ldquocloud-based and interoperable and pro-vide highly scalable and high-performance basic tools for several language tech-nology applicationsrdquo (Evans 2018)

A dimension to open up is that of integrational linguisticsWe can take up theperspective of languages spoken by migrants the integration of whom config-ures new ethnicities (Harris 1998 2003) We need to boost translation researchand its own rules (Kittel et al 2004ndash2011 Canullo 2017) Multilingual languagepolicies are the norm in multicultural societies Multicultural societies have thisname insofar as they have accepted ldquothe demand for group-differentiated rightsby ethnic and national minoritiesrdquo (Kymlicka 2011 327) All groups demand ldquorec-ognitionrdquo whereby Hegel ldquocomes to mind right off with his famous dialectic ofthe master and the slaverdquo (Taylor 2011 93ndash94) The ldquoone language-one nationideology of language policy is no longer the only available one worldwide (if

81 Bilingualism and Multilingualism 137

it ever was)rdquo (Hornberger 2010 432) Transnational labor migration has replacedearlier processes of ldquodispersion of populations and the peopling of the worldrdquoIn fact ldquothe characteristic form of language change in the modern era is thecoming together of languagesrdquo The consequence is that the former ldquorelativelyegalitarian linguistic diversity based on small-scale languages whose speakersbelieve their language to be superiorrdquo has been changed into ldquostratified diversitylocal languages are abandoned or subordinated to world languages in diglossicrelationrdquo (Hornberger 2010 434)

In narrative theory (Labov 2001) we talk of ldquonarratives of dislocationrdquo(Baynham and De Fina 2005) and of an ldquoecology of languagerdquo which is ldquothestudy of the interaction between any given language and its environmentrdquonamely considering ldquoits interaction with other languages in the mind of bi-and multilingual speakersrdquo together with ldquoits interaction with the society inwhich it functions as a medium of communicationrdquo (Hornberger 2010 434)The continuum of biliteracy is a model proposed by Nancy Hornberger to situateresearch teaching and language planning in multilingual settings Biliteracy isldquoany and all instances in which communication occurs in two (or more) languag-es in or around writingrdquo (Hornberger 2010 437) The consequence is that

one language and literacy is developing in relation to one or more other languages and lit-eracies (language evolution) the model situates biliteracy development (whether in the in-dividual classroom community or society) in relation to the contexts media and contentin and through which it develops (ie language environment) and it provides a heuristicfor addressing the unequal balance of power across languages and literacies (ie for bothstudying and counteracting language endangerment) (Hornberger 2010 437)

Research in bilingualism has accumulated an impressive amount of knowledgeon lexical and cognitive processing in bilingual individuals but still not muchldquoabout the impact of cross-linguistic and cross-cultural differences on thoughtprocessesrdquo (Pavlenko 2010 362) The latter being a line of research that buildson Benjamin Whorf rsquos (1956) original assumption ldquothat second language (L2)learningmdashjust like socializationmdashmay result in assimilation of new perspectivesand conceptual restructuringrdquo (Pavlenko 2010 365) ldquoLinguistic thinkingrdquomdashmaintained Whorfmdashis ldquothought insofar as it is linguisticrdquo (Whorf 1956 67ndash68)Language-based concepts in turn are subdivided into lexicalized and gramma-ticized concepts The former ldquoentail lexical encoding of natural objects artifactssubstances events or actionsrdquo and the latter ldquoentail morphosyntactically en-coded notions such as number gender tense or aspectrdquo (Pavlenko 2010 365)In this context the internalization of new concepts ldquoentail adoption of L2wordsmdashand underlying conceptsmdashinto the L1 of immigrant bilinguals and learn-ers in language contact situations who perceive the need to emphasize distinc-

138 8 Translation of Languages

tions nonexistent in the L1 or to refer to new objects and notions specific to theL2 communityrdquo (Pavlenko 2010 369) Immigrants that have become bilingualldquotend to retrieve memories in the same language in which they are encoded orat least to report more vividly and with more detail if reporting in the languageof the eventrdquo (Pavlenko 2010 381)

Again the ldquoChinese Philosophyrdquo article of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Phi-losophy makes it clear that the way to introduce and to handle concepts in theConfucian tradition differs radically from the Platonic and Aristotelian tradi-tions

Chinese ldquocategoriesrdquo (lei) are defined not by the presumption of a shared essence definingnatural ldquokindsrdquo but by an identified functional similarity or association that obtainsamong unique particulars Definitions are not framed in the terms of essential featuresand formal class membership instead definitions tend to be metaphorical and allusiveand invariably entail the human subject and human values (Hall and Ames 1998 sect 3)

Said in another way the Chinese cosmic order is best understood as the art ofcorrelating and contextualizing within the eventfulness of the human experience(Ames 2015 213ndash214) And if we compare and contrast life in China Japan andIndia on the one hand and the West on the other ldquowe must recognize thatpostindustrial advances in technology are both reducing and aggravating differ-ences in our worldviewsrdquo (Makkreel 2020 326ndash327) From the standpoint of bothChina and the West education ldquopromises to help us appreciate where others arecoming from in the fullest sense of that expressionrdquo (Blair 2010 1) The para-digm of multicultural education as ldquosocial reconstructionrdquo asserts the ldquoneed toreform the institutional structures and schooling practices that maintain the so-cietal status quordquo (Grant and Chapman 2008 1) The role played by the Chinesestudent of the apologue in chapter 2 is nothing more and nothing less than ldquoin-tercultural communicationrdquo which is a young field of study that deals withldquocommunication between and among people from different culturesrdquo (Cai2010 xxi) and brings about ldquocross-cultural entanglementsrdquo that often arecause of miscommunication because interlocutors use norms that are sociallyand culturally different for interpreting others However in voluntary contactsldquothese issues can be managed by interlocutors who attempt to negotiate mean-ings and understand the cultural other in a rather symmetrical mannerrdquo(Kramsch and Uryu 2011 212) The important thing is the student imagined inthe apologue (see above chapter 2) is bilingual for she masters both Italianand Chinese and possibly multilingual for she must have learned English andmight as well be able to read Greek and Latin (Li Wei 2010 Gardner and Mar-tin-Jones 2012)


82 Babel

Issues of multilingualism and translation can be addressed from both historicaland contemporary perspectives The objective is to gain from the past successfulways of coming to terms with the untranslatability of some words and experien-ces affecting intercultural communication quality The main concepts of contem-porary translatology are Translationese linguistic patterns that tend to maketranslations more similar to each other than to texts originally written in theirtarget language and variations that refer to the fact that different types of trans-lations such as written translations vs interpreting display systematic linguisticdifferences Tullio Gregory has pointed to the story of the tower of Babel (201666) and the scattering of what used to be a unique language

Now the whole world had one language and a common speech As people moved eastwardthey found a plain in Shinar and settled there They said to each other ldquoCome letrsquos makebricks and bake them thoroughlyrdquo They used brick instead of stone and tar for mortarThen they said ldquoCome let us build ourselves a city with a tower that reaches to the heav-ens so that we may make a name for ourselves otherwise we will be scattered over theface of the whole earthrdquo But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the peoplewere building The Lord said ldquoIf as one people speaking the same language they havebegun to do this then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them Come let usgo down and confuse their language so they will not understand each otherrdquo So theLord scattered them from there over all the earth and they stopped building the cityThat is why it was called Babelmdashbecause there the Lord confused the language of thewhole world From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth (Genesis11 1ndash9)

History of philosophy ought to consider changes in philosophical languages andin the modes of writing philosophy Current attention to evolutionism in Asia hasbrought up great attention to sociobiology and humanities (Kang 2014 407ndash417)Today we talk of ldquocultural intelligence in virtual cross-cultural interactionrdquo (Pre-sbitero 2016) In seventeenth-century China we see Matteo Ricci translating theBible into Chinese (Canullo 2017 14ndash 16 Pirni 2018 234) That Chinese charactersare the signs of the universal language and their 214 radicals the keys for stream-lining the input and the output of every source and target language was the hy-pothesis advanced as early as 1667 by Athanasius Kircher in his encyclopedic en-deavor China illustrata Kircher was among the first to point out the anatomy ofthe ancient characters of Chinese (Kircher 1986 216) following the natural originof language thesis proposed by Plato (2011) in the Cratylus (Κρατύλοςmdash394 bndashc)and its corollary of a clavis universalis to be found in hieroglyphics and the Kab-balah הלבק ndasha line of research also pursued by Leibniz in the De arte combinato-ria (1666 see Eco 1993 Li Wenchao 2014)


In 1911 in China the Imperial government started the project of a Civil Codethat was based on Roman Law It was abandoned however because of the po-litical turmoil and was taken up again in 1949 with the establishment of a centerat the newly founded Renmin University one of the Chinese universities that aremainly dedicated to the SSH Today the China University of Political Science andLaw is working with Sapienza University on translating Roman Law into Chinese(Jun Xue 2016 509) the Corpus Iuris Iustinianeum translation into ChineseLuoma fa 罗马法 which has made considerable progress (Schipani 1991ndash20012001ndash2021Wang Zhenmin 2006 Colangelo 2015 Raini 2015) going well beyondthe existing information based on the first English translation of the Corpus Iurisedited by Thomas Collett Sandars (1853) Not only have sixteen volumes beenpublished so far (Schipani 1994 2001 see Colangelo 2015) but most importantlyChinese terms have been charged with new more precise meanings Howeverthe Luoma fa 罗马法 does not offer users any interface and remains insteadon published volumes on paper which means it is not open for annotationand represents only an initial stage of implementing the alignment of transla-tions among corpora As regards philosophical terms Timon Gatta has pointedto the linguistic-lexical development of modern Chinese which the gradual intro-duction of Western philosophical production especially through publishedtranslations has enriched with new terms the main issue being ldquoto adequatelyconform the new discipline [of philosophy] to East Asiarsquos millennial philosoph-ical speculations about religion moral habits political and social behaviorrdquo(Gatta 2020 193ndash 194)

The use of Western categories for explaining Chinese thought and culture tothe Western public might bring about the unwelcome effect of distorting or de-contextualizing a figure or text (Bodde 1955 Hamburger 1956) In the past cen-turies we can say that Chinese scholars had worked with a pragmatic attitudebefore the Western world in the sense that although they did not have a genuineinterest in Western culture they studied it nonetheless to import the things thatwere useful to them As expressly explained by an official of the highest level ofthe Qing Dynasty Zhang Zhidong 张之洞 (1837ndash 1909) the fundamental basisought to remain Chinese culture and the Western elements are considered ben-eficial (zhong ti xi yong中体西用) Taking up egWestern Civil Law was part ofan attitude that has dominated the mentality of the ruling class in China until afew years ago Nevertheless slowly this attitude has been losing influence be-cause after forty years of rapid economic development no one seriously thinksthat China is still under the threat of the Western world The strategic position ofChina has changed naturally changing the Chinese vision of the Western worldCurrently explains Xue Jun 薛军 ldquoit is thought that China with European coun-tries and all other countries constitute a human society within which China is a

82 Babel 141

member of equal standing and equal dignity compared to all othersrdquo The West-ern world ldquois not an object to be learned but a companion to study and the rea-son for this type of study is to proceed in a more constructive dialogue to achievemutual understanding between China and the Western worldrdquo In todayrsquos global-ized world then ldquointer-cultural understanding is the fundamental basis for col-laborationrdquo (Xue Jun 2016 510ndash511)

Looking from another standpoint Zhao Tingyang赵汀阳 (2009) has arguedthat the all-under-heaven (tianxia天下) mindset the Chinese view of the worldwould be superior to the three Western approaches that most resemble it name-ly first the idea of the Roman Empire which relied on military conquest sec-ond Christian universalism which tried to solve political problems through reli-gion and third Immanuel Kantrsquos perpetual peacewhichmdashsays Zhang Feng张锋mdashldquosmacked of unilateral cultural imperialismrdquo Thus all-under-heaven (tianxia天下) might be put forward as contributing to a sustainable world order insofaras it ldquoenvisions a world system characterized by harmony and cooperation with-out hegemonyrdquo The result would be a mindset whose coherence ldquois maintainedthrough the internal harmony of diversityrdquo (Zhang Feng 2010) This being said inthe context of China one of the countries that claim together with Russia theprinciple of non-interference by states in the internal affairs of another statewhich is a pillar of the concept of Westphalian sovereignty Li Tieying 李铁映noted that at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty(around the turn between the sixteenth and the seventeenth century) when Eu-ropean culture began to spread to China ldquoChinese intellectuals boldly absorbedthe foreign culture and an exchange of ideas between China and the West wasgradually realized Chinese philosophy was able to communicate with Westernphilosophy and intellectual history developed into history of philosophyrdquo (LiTieying 2016 2)

83 Rendering Polishing Transferring

As regards translation studies one might say that today translation has risen tothe rank of an independent philosophical category (Diagne 2019) History of phi-losophy requires critical editions along with hermeneutics for text interpretationwhile translation studies require attention to history and trust (Rizzi et al 2019)A translation ldquois always an interpretation as shown by the connection of termswith the synonymic values interpretari vertere and transferrerdquo (Gregory 2012 4)Today research infrastructures such as CLARIN DARIAH and OPERAS make itpossible to reenact the activity of translating in a powerful way In this contextthe ground-breaking element lies in letting corpora talk to each other (see above


chapter 7) for corpora are instrumental for innovative ways to come up with tra-ditions

History of philosophy faces the challenge of dealing with multilingualismToday it is all the more necessary to consider texts among different languagesThis requires innovative approaches and methods for the study of traditionaland recent corpora Historians of philosophy should take our global world intoaccount Bilingual or multilingual historians of philosophy have today intercul-tural communication as their primary object

At issue is creating a multilingual textual database knowledge extractionprogram for enabling context-guided lexical analysis in the form of an open-ended knowledge-based architecture for providing access to datasets while in-cluding corpora into the LLOD cloudsup1sup1⁹ For instance in the context of the cul-tural exchange between China and the West historians of philosophy can playa significant role notwithstanding the difficulties of engaging with the mutualtextual legacyWe are talking of momentous cultural exchanges that raise aware-ness of the need for a culturally sensitive approach to different traditions includ-ing challenges related to cultural and religious diversity

Tradi perpoliri transferre are terms that express Cicerorsquos commitment tobringing over philosophical texts from Greece to Rome They are the foundationpillars of the translatio studiorum from Greek to Latin which lasted for centuriesTransferre and translatio lie at the root of neosemic creativity under certain con-ditions writes Quintilian (1920) ldquonecesse sit transferre aut circumirerdquo (De insti-tutione oratoria XII 10 34) Tullio Gregory (2012 6) has suggested one could in-scribe in the hendiadys transferre aut circumire the history of all problemsrelated to translating Boethius was well aware of thismdashand with him Cassiodo-rusmdashin the decades that saw the rise and the fall in the Latin West of that finalrenaissance of Hellenism which marked the sunset of the ancient world

An interesting example is the ERC-AdG-2009 project led by Cristina DrsquoAnco-na ldquoGreek into Arabic Philosophical Concepts and Linguistic Bridgesrdquo (G2 A)sup1sup2⁰which aimed at aligning passages of the Enneads (Ἐννεάδες) of Plotinus (2017)with its Arabic translation performed during the ninth century known as Theo-logia Aristotelis From the point of view of sociolinguistics of particular interestare the sentences of the original text difficult to be understood by those wholived and were formed in a different cultural environment and who moreoverwere dedicated to conveying ideas philosophical concepts moral and religiousprinciples from one culture to another (Bozzi 2015) G2A is meant to develop a

httpslinguistic-lodorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwwgreekintoarabiceu visited on 6 May 2021

83 Rendering Polishing Transferring 143

research interface with functionalities for parallel view and search via the G2AWeb App (a resource offered at the ILC4CLARIN Knowledge Center)sup1sup2sup1

831 Translation Group

Imagine a group of students at a North-American Graduate School of Philosophywho are worried about having to pass the German Language Exam which is anindispensable requirement if they want to write on a German-speaking authorThe picture is not unusual when one thinks of many challenging German-speak-ing philosophersmdashLeibniz Kant Fichte Hegel Schelling Marx NietzscheFreud Heidegger and Wittgensteinmdashwho are the subject of considerable num-bers of doctoral theses in North America

After all the translation group is about fostering bilingualism in this casefrom English speakers to German speakers not to mention the even highergoal of achieving multilingualism Bilingual or multilingual historians of philos-ophymdashespecially speakers of Arabic Chinese German English French ItalianPortuguese Russian Spanish as well as of Hebrew Greek and Latin (Cassin2004)mdashare still far too few today (Pozzo 2020)

832 Clockwise Translating

Students are aware of the general objection that ideas cannot be translated onceand for all since they are tied to the language and culture that identifies withthem We know the remarks of Hans-Georg Gadamer and Reinhart Koselleckthat philosophy lives from a language that is continuously in motion Conse-quently philosophy intends to clarify certain concepts historically and renewthe tension of thought that manifests itself in the breakpoints of the philosoph-ical usage that the term stands for (Koselleck 1972ndash2004) The legitimization ofconceptual history (Begriffsgeschichte) as philosophy lies exactly in these mean-ing shifts the fractures in which the relationship between concept and concept iscalled into question and everyday words are artificially transformed into newterms (Gadamer 1970 147) Hans-Georg Gadamer made the point that

httpwwwgreekintoarabiceu httpsg2ailccnritTeologia_WappHomexhtml visitedon 6 May 2021


The concept of philosophy is not yet applicable to the great answers that the advanced cul-tures of East Asia and India have given to questions of humanity as they are repeatedlyasked in Europe by philosophy (Gadamer 1993 68)sup1sup2sup2

Students may say that philosophy is suitable for multilingual semantics experi-ments because of its substantial lexicon which results from centuries of codifi-cation For example a text string in the ancient Greek alphabet such as recog-nize yourself (gnōthi seautoacuten γνῶθι σεαυτόν) can be transliterated today in theRoman alphabet and due to the constant development of Unicode produce newreliable transliterations Bronisław Malinowski claimed that culture ldquoas the wid-est context of human behavior is as important to the psychologist as to the so-cial student to the historian as to the linguist I submit that the linguistics of thefuture especially as regards the science of meaning will become the study oflanguage in the context of culturerdquo (Malinowski 1944 5) And Tullio Gregorymade it clear that in this perspective ldquoneologic invention takes up a centralrole The same happens to neosemy namely the meaning shifts of a word notonly concerning the translated text but also about the need to transcribe new ex-periences of thoughtrdquo (Gregory 2012 4)

Let us go back to our seminary room Imagine a table and twenty chairs Theinstructor sits at the head Each student has a photocopy of the German originalof say sect 15 of the Transcendental Deduction of the second edition of the Kritikder reinen Vernunft (B129) The instructor has brought hisher copy of the Philos-ophische Bibliothek edition by Raymund Schmidt (Kant 1956 137ndash 138) Somestudents have brought along the English translations by Norman Kemp Smith(Kant 1929 151ndash 152 see also Palmquist 1995) and Paul Guyer (Kant 1998 245ndash246) The instructor starts by translating the first sentence from full stop to fullstop a sentence of four lines (AA3 107[11ndash14] CE [KrV] 245) ldquoDas Mannigfaltigeder Vorstellungen kann in einer Anschauung gegeben werden hellip wie das Subjektaffiziert wirdrdquo Then it is up to the first student sitting at hisher left to translatethe following sentence to hisher misfortune a difficult one (AA3 107[14ndash25])ldquoAllein die Verbindung (coniunctio) hellip ein Actus seiner Selbsttaumltigkeit istrdquo Thesecond student to the left takes up the third one this time a simple one (AA3107[25ndash30]) ldquoMan wird hier leicht gewahr hellip hat gegeben werden koumlnnenrdquo Itis then the turn of the third student going around the table clockwise and thefourth and so on for full two hours of translation working groupmdashclockwise per-icope to pericope Nobody is writing Twenty heads are figuring out together how

ldquoDer Begriff der Philosophie ist noch nicht auf die grossen Antworten anwendbar die dieHochkulturen Ostasiens und Indiens auf die Menschheitsfragenwie sie in Europa durch die Phi-losophie immer wieder gefragt werden gegeben habenrdquo


to understand the sense of and figure out the reference in English to Kantrsquos Ger-man sentences The student whose turn it is to lead speaks first but everybody iswelcome to help himher out if she is looking for words Dictionaries are attimes looked at but twenty minds find acceptable wordings most of the timewithout consulting them An English sentence is being constructed piece bypiece Everybody follows its construction and memorizes it The correspondingproposition floats in the air Most participants are satisfied with their compre-hension level although nobody takes care to write down in English the resultThe translations of Kemp Smith and Guyer are eventually looked at just tomake sure how far the group has deviated from high standards of correctnessThe exercise aims not to provide a new translation but rather to break onersquosmind to understanding Kantrsquos German (Pozzo 2020 323ndash326)

Let us consider the general objection that ideas are non-translatable as theyare tied to the language and the culture that identifies with them Hans-GeorgGadamer has made it clear that philosophy issues from the life of languagewhich is continuously operating Philosophy does not only

intend to clarify historically certain concepts but to renew the tension of thinking manifestin the breakpoints of philosophical linguistic use in which the effort of the concept is re-futed These breakpoints in which the relation between the term and the concept is ques-tioned and everyday words are artificially transformed into new conceptual expressionsare the authentic legitimization of the history of concepts as philosophy (Gadamer 1970147)sup1sup2sup3

It is not possible to translate terms that ldquodo not allowrdquo translations ie termsthat are intraduisibles (Cassin 2004) such as spiritGeistespiritoesprit (Benja-min 1923 viii) to say nothing of the endeavor of identifying them with the Chi-nese jingshen精神 and tian天 the latter being part of the anthropocosmic tian-renheyi 天人合一 the unity of heaven and humanity because Confucianphilosophy is inspired by a cosmological and anthropological vision and istherefore not anthropocentric (Tu Weiming 2010 181) On the one side wehave texts and terms on the other ideas and problems Hence the necessityto interrogate texts among different alphabets

ldquoDie Philosophie beabsichtigt demzufolge nicht nur bestimmte Begriffe historisch zu klauml-ren sondern auch die Spannung des Denkens zu erneuern die sich an den Bruchstellen desphilosophischen Sprachgebrauchs manifestiert an denen der Begriff steht Solche Bruchstellenan denen das Verhaumlltnis zwischen Begriff und Begriff in Frage gestellt wird und die Alltagswoumlrt-er kuumlnstlich in neue Begriffsausdruumlcke umgewandelt werden sind die authentische Legitima-tion der Begriffsgeschichte als Philosophierdquo


833 Centrality of Text

For graduate students of philosophy the centrality of the text they have chosento submit to close reading is a shared value (Pasquali 1988) In our imaginaryGraduate School the German Language Exam consists of translating half apage of a writing by Kant The students who have participated in the translationworkgroup benefit from it substantially for not only were they broken into KantrsquosGerman which was the impulse they needed they also realize the liberality ofwhat they did for they did it voluntarily It was a trial they have submitted towhich they have done out of respect The students who have taken the transla-tion working group are now more robust

In recent decades scholarship has increasingly become aware of links con-necting early Greek Classical thought with the ancient Near East culture where-by languages and translations have been given particular attention This in-cludes ancient comparisons between Greek and barbarian languages(Ademollo 2011) colonization and subalternity (with their cultural but also eco-nomic and social implications) think of the baacuterbaroi periacuteoikoi (βάρβαροι περίοι-κοι) considered by Aristotle (1855) in Politica VII 10mdash1330a25ndash31 (Zuchtriegel2017) Classical Greek culture survived in the Middle Ages thanks to the media-tion of the Syrians whose knowledge was recovered and exported to Europe bythe Arabs Reactions and contaminations of these encounters brought innova-tion and transformation into European culture One might think of ErasmusMontaigne Bruno Gentili and other sixteenth- and seventeenth-century authorson issues related to geographic discoveries and forced evangelization In theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries we see Leibniz (2002) considering ChinaGoethe (1819) writing the West-oestlicher Diwan together with new ways of look-ing at world peace by Kant and on world history by Hegel (Bonacina 2015)

84 Aligning Kantrsquos Writings and Translations

The question now is when and why our students will consider the advantages ofshifting from the close reading of texts to the distant reading of corpora follow-ing some suggestions laid out by Franco Moretti (2013) For example thanks tothe distant reading of the Kant-Index (Hinske 1982ndash2020) we know that whatmakes the Wiener Logik particularly interesting is its proximity to the Kritikder reinen Vernunft Norbert Hinske has found several verbatim quotes fromthe first Critique especially from the Transcendental Theory of Method For ex-ample in the Wiener Logik the sentence ldquoThere is another world conceptrdquo (B866 AA3 542[23] CE [KrV] 694) is quoted ldquoBut one also has a philosophy ac-

84 Aligning Kantrsquos Writings and Translations 147

cording to a conceptu cosmicordquo (AA24 798[9ndash10])sup1sup2⁴ Hinske has noted that theLatin adjective ldquocosmicusrdquo does not appear in any other text of Kantrsquos logic cor-pus The term Logik shows a high-frequency in the list of the most frequentlyused lemmata in the Logik Poumllitz but is much less used in the Wiener Logikwhile the term Vernunftlehre completely disappears In this way the Kant-Index allows a reconstruction of the history of the logic corpus in the decisiveyears after the publication of each edition of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft(Hinske 1999)

Due to the celebrations of the tercentenary of Kantrsquos birth the history of theeditions of his work is expected to reach a turning point in 2024 when the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (BBAW) and the De Gruyterpublishing house will present the completed new edition of the published writ-ings ie volumes 1ndash9 of the Academy Edition (NAA Kant 2021 ff see Gerhardt2007 Karl 2007 BKGE 2016)

The editions sponsored by the BBAW started with the Aristotelis Opera edi-tion of Immanuel Bekker in the nineteenth century (continued by Olof Gigon inthe twentieth century) which was followedmdashamong othersmdashby the editions ofLeibniz and Wilhelm von Humboldt In 1894Wilhelm Dilthey initiated the Acad-emy Edition of Kantrsquos Works (AA Kant 1900ff) intending to provide access toreliable and complete texts for scholars and students At Diltheyrsquos time theKant-Kommission (of the predecessor of the BBAW) asked the editors to ironout most orthographic and syntactic variants Since Kantrsquos orthographical hab-itsmdashso argued the editors of the first volume of the Druckschriften that appearedin 1902mdashare neither systematic nor consequential the Kant-Kommission thoughtbetter not to disturb most readers with the desuete forms (AA1 513) HenceKantrsquos works from 1747 onward were rewritten using the language of the Kritikder reinen Vernunft with the result that Kantrsquos polygraphy was completely lost

Restoring Kantrsquos Urtext requires the closest attention for annotation so thatthe surface text does not lose anything of the original richness while giving ac-count for historical usages with deeper layers that offer standardized tokens forhorizontal investigation Hence before going into alignment issues it is first nec-essary to open up Kantrsquos re-established polygraphy for systematic text analysisof conceptual networks which is now feasible for the AAmdashthanks to the effortsof the De Gruyter publishing housemdashhas been reset for the NAA as XML files andoffers rich material for experimenting with reflected text analytics and machinelearning

ldquoEs giebt aber noch einen Weltbegriff (conceptus cosmicus)rdquomdashldquoMan hat aber auch eine Phi-losophie nach einem conceptu cosmicordquo


For this reason the first move of the editors of the NAAwas submitting quer-ies to CLARINrsquos historical corpora to check Kantrsquos polygraphy and see whethervariants were in use at the time In our work for the NAA Hansmichael Hoheneg-ger and myself have found numerous examples of Kantrsquos polygraphy Let memention the many cases of oscillating ortography such as ascendatadscendatcaussacausa CirkulCirkel druumlckendrucken excentumexemptum exsistentiaexistentia HeerdeHerde koumlmmtkommt promptuspromtus siehetsieht soepe-numerosaepenumero sumptumsumtum (AA1 514ndash516) The AA accounts nei-ther for oscillations in the use of v and u as in vniuersalitasuniversalitas norin the use of ſ and s as in vniuerſalitas Also interesting is Kantrsquos consistentusage of quum for causality and of cum for togetherness which marks a gram-matical difference although it does not belong to Classical Latin Finally theAA irons out most capitalizations that Kant evidently uses to stress the meaningof the term as a terminus technicus (Hohenegger 2020) as it was pointed out al-ready by Johann Joachim Lange (1734 372)

Today editors who must decide about reading the word as a typo or leavingit in the text on its own account use CLARINrsquos historical corpora such as the Lat-inize corpussup1sup2⁵ and the Deutsches Textarchiv (1600ndash 1900)sup1sup2⁶ as well as obvious-ly the DWDS (Digitales Woumlrterbuch der deutschen Sprache)sup1sup2⁷ and among itstools the DTA-CAB (Deutsches Text-Archiv Cascade Analysis Broker)sup1sup2⁸ Beingusers of CLARIN means having access to a whole intangible network of knowl-edge with specific areas of expertisesup1sup2⁹ especially to parallel corpora insofar asthey serve for training data Parallel corpora are the largest among the CLARINresource family and are central to translation studies and contrastive linguisticsMany of them are accessible through easy-to-use concordancers that considera-bly facilitate the study of interlinguistic phenomena CLARIN provides access toeighty-six parallel corpora the majority of which are available for downloadfrom national repositories as well as through concordancers such as Korp Cor-puscle and KonText Currently CLARIN offers access to forty-seven bilingualcorpora mostly containing European language pairs but also non-Europeanlanguages such as Hindi Tamil and Vietnamese Thirty-nine corpora are multi-lingual with five containing texts in more than fifty languages Almost half of

httpslindatmffcuniczrepositoryxmluihandle11372LRT-3170 visited on 6 May 2021 httpsclarinbbawde8088fedoraobjectsdta3503datastreamscmdicontentasOfDateTime=2019ndash09ndash30T092047158Z visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwdwdsde visited on 6 May 2021 httpskaskadedwdsde~moocowsoftwareDTA-CAB visited on 6 May 2021 httpsofficeclarineuvCE-2017ndash1093-ValueProposition-update2020pdf visited on 6 May2021


the corpora are sentence-aligned which allows for easy comparative research(Pozzo et al 2022b)sup1sup3⁰

Historians of philosophy use the CLARIN resource families for combiningdata from diverse linguistic resources by maximizing reuse and exploitation ofdatasets fulfilling the tenets of the data principles to be findable accessible in-teroperable and reusable (FAIR) in technical and multiple user-centric perspec-tives While considering the corpora that are already part of the CLARIN resour-ces families however one cannot help seeing the amount of work that still is tobe done for Chinese which is present eg in MultiUN (Multilingual UN ParallelText 2000ndash2009)sup1sup3sup1

In sum historians of philosophy should begin to realize that among text cor-pora exists a circularity of which they might benefit from the perspective of in-tercultural research and communication The application of language mega-cor-pora has contributed to the compilation of Chinese dictionaries either in paperor electronic form for native and non-native language learners and users How-ever the difficulty remains in defining lexical units for Chinese has no clearrules to segment words into data Due to this reason both character dictionariesand word dictionaries exist for Chinese (Shanghai Times 20210) In this directionthe already mentioned translation project of the Corpus Iuris Civilis Digesta intoChinesemdashLuoma fa 罗马法mdashhas made it possible to charge many Chinese char-acters with new precise meanings (Schipani 1991ndash2001 2001ndash2021)sup1sup3sup2

85 Looking for the Third Code

Translating philosophy is an endeavor that will be increasingly carried out overthe next few years with the help of electronic data processing Let us first con-sider the progress achieved so far in the NAA The corpora set-up provides aninteractive framework for text analysis that combines advanced machine learn-ing techniques which respond even to subtle patterns in the textual context ofterms with the background knowledge of scholars and their analytical insightsIn such a layout concept modeling can complement established approaches tothe history of concepts with novel empirical insights when applied to alignedparallel corpora of texts that have played a vital role in the history of ideasmdash

httpswwwclarineuresource-familiesparallel-corpora visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwweuromatrixplusnetmulti-un visited on 6 May 2021 httpwwwodcuniroma2it visited on 6 May 2021


as it is the case eg for Kantrsquos work and its translations augmented with cor-pora of secondary research literature from various traditions

The idea is to think about tackling the challenge of setting up in the form ofaligned corpora the NAA and its Chinese translation (Li Qiuling 2003ndash2019)thus opening the way to further alignments such as with the Cambridge Editionof the works of Immanuel Kant (CE Kant 1992ndash2020 Guyer and Wood 1992) theRussian translations coordinated by the Institute of Philosophy of the RussianAcademy of Sciences (Tuschling and Motroshilowa 1994) and many other trans-lation endeavors (Schluter and Hohenegger 2020) However because not manyaligned corpora exist that connect German and Chinese in this chapter I remainfocused on Kant in Chinese

In this perspective Chinese offers a particularly challenging state of the artSome sinologists first and foremost Marcel Granet (1968 7) have maintainedthat the difficulty of mutual understanding between Western and Chinese cul-tures might lie in the impossibility of Chinese to express logically defined andprecisely circumscribed concepts that are necessary for philosophical argu-ments However current understandable and faithful Chinese translations ofmany Western philosophical worksmdashand the translation of Kantrsquos works by LiQiulingrsquos李秋零 (2003ndash2019) is certainly onemdashshow that this assumption is in-correct and biased by cultural preconceptions This is where the idea of thealignment shows its added value insofar as it is about pushing forward compu-tational concept modeling with reference to Kantrsquos terminology in a validatedChinese translation

It is quite interesting to consider how the alignment of corpora impacts theso-called Western Grammar in Contemporary Chinese (xiandai Hanyu ouhua yufa现代汉语欧化语法) (Masini 2009 648ndash650 see Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin錢存訓 1954)which has been proven to cause not only terminological enrichment but also sig-nificant modificationsmdashboth morphological and syntacticmdashof Chinese grammarWe are talking of momentous cultural exchanges that raise awareness of theneed for a culturally sensitive approach to different traditions including culturaland religious diversity challenges

All translations are likely to show specific linguistic characteristics only byvirtue of being translations characteristics that are caused in and by the processof translation The effect of the source language on the translation is strongenough to make the translated language perceptibly different from the target na-tive language Consequently translational language is at best an unrepresenta-tive particular variant of the target language (McEnery and Xiao 2007) Transla-tional language (Translationese) entails the elimination of ambiguities regardingthe choice of one word over another It has four core patterns of lexical use arelatively lower proportion of lexical words over function words a relatively

85 Looking for the Third Code 151

higher proportion of high-frequency words over low-frequency words a relative-ly more significant repetition of the most frequent words and a smaller vocabu-lary (Xiao et al 2010)

From the point of view of translation theory we can encode a source lan-guage (German) through the translational language (machine-operated) to a tar-get language (Chinese) to be decoded Vice-versa is a feasible possibility Weknow of two types of translation universals (Mauranen 2007) one that shapesthe process from the source to the target text (S-universals) while the other (T-universals) compares translations to other target-language texts The distinctivefeatures of translational language can be identified by comparing translationswith comparable native texts thus throwing new light on the translation processand helping to uncover translation patterns ie what William Frawley (1984)has called the third code of translation

Translating Western philosophy into Chinese is a complex phenomenon thatinvolves the linguistic-lexical development of modern Chinese by means of thegradual introduction of Western philosophical production especially throughpublished translations (Masini 1993) For example Timon Gatta has presenteda selection of exemplary concepts that attest to the formation process of Chinarsquosphilosophical lexicography (Fan Bingqing 1926 Rosemont 1974 Shanghai Times2010) Western philosophical terms have reached standardized translations inChinese through similar and at the same time different paths of explicitationsimplification normalization sanitization and leveling out Think for instanceof the long history that has led to establishing the current Chinese terms forlogic (luoji 逻辑) metaphysics (xing er shang xue 形而上学) and aesthetics(meixue 美学) (Kurtz 2011 Gatta 2020)

Translating Kant into Chinese offers a striking visualization of a third code inmotion by means of increasingly successful adaptations of translated language tothe native language As Timon Gatta has explained the lexical renderings (pho-netic loans or semantic loans) of Western concepts that Chinese translators haveexperimented with over the centuries were initially incapable of adequately ex-pressing the richness of meanings and nuances of the original language Giventhe difficulty of Chinese to embrace words from other languages however trans-lators have been forced step by step to look for one or two-character words thatrecall the original meaning of the foreign term often with results that are any-thing but satisfactory (Gatta 2021 sect 222) For example if the rendering of intel-lect (Verstand zhixing 知性) has been established in all translations of KantrsquosCritiques of the past fifty years (Gatta 2021 2021 sect 221) the rendering of phe-nomenon (Erscheinung xianxiang 現象) shows a different story for it was seem-ingly established very early but underwent recent oscillations with for exampleLi Qiuling (2003ndash2019) who established a character that includes the meaning


of appearing of showing itself or even more the translations of transcendental(transzendental xianyan 先验) (Gatta 2021 sect 323) which sparked a debate bothin Japan and China during the first decades of the twentieth century and evennow finds different opinions about it (Gatta 2021 sect 227) The few dozen casesin which Kant uses PhaumlnomenErscheinung for actually meaning a ldquosurprisingcaserdquo in the context of the antinomic nature of the higher faculties complicatesthe translation but helps to refine the terminological analysis (Hohenegger 2020346ndash349)

86 Corpora in Translation Studies

Corpora work in synergy with dictionaries More precisely corpora can functionas either general or specialized dictionaries In this way comparable corpora canbe seen as a monolingual dictionarywhile parallel corpora can be compared to abilingual dictionary A bilingual dictionaryrsquos primary aim is to help the user es-tablish a link between a lexical unit in the source language and its equivalent inthe target language In a bilingual dictionary the headword is usually defined inthe target language In most cases a definition is only partially equivalent to theheadword because it is often an abstract generalization of the wordrsquos typicalmeanings instead of covering all of its meanings fully (Zanettin 2014) Thepoint is somebody in between ought to be aware of both traditions It is corporathat talk to each other not merely individual philosophers born in different partsof the world

Along with a general ontology scholars use narrower domain source ontol-ogies These more specific ontologies can be bibliographic specifying the differ-ent types of sources used by the community (commentary articles critical edi-tions etc) or conceptual embracing the terminology used by determinateauthors or constellations of authors (DrsquoIorio 2015 7) The alignment itself canbe anchored on the existing anchor points in the paratext the pages and thelines of the AA and NAA and in the text itself its pericopes and periodsTools that can be used are unsupervised sentence aligners for symmetricaland asymmetrical parallel corpora A parallel corpus is a collection of electronictexts assembled according to explicit design criteria aimed at representing a larg-er textual population It offers

a repertoire of translation strategies past translators have resorted to when confronted withsimilar problems to the ones that have prompted a search in a parallel corpus A parallelcorpus can provide evidence of how actual translators have dealt with this lack of directequivalence at word levelhellip Learning to use corpora as translation resources should also

86 Corpora in Translation Studies 153

be part of the curriculum of future translators and become part of their professional com-petencies (Zanettin 2014)

The alignment of parallel corpora is part of the challenge of how to boost exist-ing research on automated translation It is important to note that the alignmentof two or more philosophical corpora adds substantial amounts of datasets toenable progress in neural machine translation training and data development(Xiao and Ming Yue 2009) Today the role of machine translation in assistingwith the translation of literary texts shows both limitations and potentials A cru-cial issue in literary translation is that one needs to preserve the meaning (as inother domains such as technical translation) and the reading experience whichmeans that a literary translator must carefully select from possible options (Toraland Way 2015 2018)

Current machine translation models are performing only if applied to tech-nical texts containing many repetitions The translation faithfully replicatesthe original text in terms of structure wording and style In the case of literarytexts machine translation is much less performing because the adherence to thetext structure produces a translational language of its ownwhich native speakerscan hardly understand Centuries before machine translation famous historicalexamples of token-to-token translations are William of Moerbekersquos translationsof philosophical medical and scientific texts from Greek into Latin especiallyof many works by Aristotle which he did at the request of Aquinas between1253 and 1286 Williamrsquos translations were literal (de verbo in verbo) faithful tothe spirit of Aristotle and without elegance ie without any attempt at dimin-ishing the impact of both his rudimentary mastering of Greek and of the primi-tiveness of Medieval Latin philosophical terminology While William of Moer-bekersquos Aristotle are texts written in what we call today translational languagethe Plato translation from Greek into Latin by Marsilius Ficinus between 1462and 1484 represents a famous example of a literary translation that is quiteclose to the native target language I recall William and Marsilius to make itclear where the challenge lies Machine translation of philosophical textstoday produces Williamrsquos translational language which is not enough for histor-ians of philosophy who need boosting machine translation so that it pushes thethird code to mold the translation into the native language ie as close as pos-sible to the results achieved by Marsilius

A close study of the Chinese translation of Kantrsquos writings is useful in gaug-ing the reception of Kantrsquos thinking within the horizon of Chinese semanticsAligned corpora are also useful for the study of the mechanics of translationsinto very different linguistic environments which could eventually be instrumen-tal for computer-based translations Their most precious added value lies in mak-


ing available easy access to validated translations of complex texts thus empow-ering Chinese readers with automatically generated references for words whosetranslation and definition they might have to look for in glossaries or vocabula-ries ldquobecause graphically the term would not contain any clue as to its mean-ingrdquo (Gatta 2021 sect 222 see Fan Bingqing 1926)

Orientation among CLARIN corpora lexica and tools includes the SheffieldCorpus of Chinese Annotation (of the Oxford Text Archive)sup1sup3sup3 GATE (General Archi-tecture for Text Engineering)sup1sup3⁴ and the BilingBank (of TalkBank)sup1sup3⁵ Problemsarise in using computers in translation as the computer is no substitute for tra-ditional tools such as monolingual and bilingual dictionaries terminologies andencyclopedias on paper or in digital format Although one can easily access alarge amount of information one needs to find the right and reliable informa-tion One has to consider several variables like the directness of translationthe number of languages etc Researchers and students currently use many cor-pora available in presently operating SSH e-platforms and research infrastruc-tures Users are ldquofiguratively speaking facing the shelves of our digital libraryand can observe how ontologies may help to dynamically arrange the books ac-cording to the lenses we use to perceive them What about opening the booksWhat happens when we start to navigate not only in the library but in the docu-ments contained in the libraryrdquo (DrsquoIorio 2015 9)

A great challenge remains the protection of datasets under intellectual prop-erty rights (IPR) On top of boosting Kantian philosophical reception in Chinastraight from German into Chinese the Kant alignment might achieve impactby enhancing cultural exchanges between China and the West with a highly de-manding philosophical background by providing in-depth analysis of the trans-lation process while fostering advances of machine translation by influencingdebates in political philosophy metaphysics and philosophy of language andin linguistics natural language processing and last but not least by reachingout to communities of practices that receive and confer datasets and tools tothe research infrastructures such as CLARIN As Martin Wynne has made itclear CLARIN is ldquokeen to deal with all non-European languages includingmajor world languages such as Arabic Chinese Russian Japanese etcrdquosup1sup3⁶

Summing up when I propose to look into corpora talking to each other (seeabove chapter 7) I am aware of the objection that a corpus does not talk but

httpsotabodleianoxacukrepositoryxmluihandle20500120242481 visited on 6May 2021 httpsgateacuk visited on 6 May 2021 httpsbilingtalkbankorg visited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwclarineublogusers-clarin-who-are-they visited on 6 May 2021


only human beings talk who are reading and understanding texts that belong toa corpus The anthropomorphism is charming However it must not cover upcrucial details in the act of encoding that links the texts supposedly in conversa-tion namely the embedding of assumptions and implicit interpretations that inmaking the possible talking prejudices it Users must understand what annota-tion entails the discipline it imposes the cautions it requires by anyone usingthe results and the amount of actual critical work to be done on text analysisconcept modeling so-called machine learning etc The case for extensive appli-cation of CLARIN corpora and tools on this scale is the occasion to consider theirpotentially illuminating limitations

87 The Future of Reading

Federico Zanettin has noted that the translatorrsquos workplace has changed in re-cent years as personal computer information is easier and faster than ever before(Zanettin 2014) Similar translation working groups as the one I have imaginedabove for the Kritik der reinen Vernunft might be easily organized also for Aristo-tlersquos Ethica Nicomachea (2009) or the Meditationes Metaphysicae of Descartes(1993) on behalf of English-speaking students wishing to break their bones onrespectively Greek and French I am talking of canonic books Think of the me-dieval auctores octo (Curtius 1948 35 2013 119) a collection of Latin textbooksof an elementary standard that includes Dionysius Cato (third-fourth centuryAD) the pseudonym Theodulus the pseudonym Facetus Bernard of Cluny(twelfth century) the pseudonym Floretus Matthew of Vendocircme (twelfth centu-ry) Alan of Lille (1128ndash 120203) and Aesop translated by Gualterus Anglicus(fl 1175) Of this collection which according to Ernst Robert Curtius was printedno less than twenty-five times at the dawn of the art of printing ie between1490 and 1500 Rabelais made fun in Gargantua et Pantagruel (chapter 14)China too has canonic books the celebrated four classics Analects (Lunyu 论语) Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸) Great Learning (Daxue 大学) andMencius (Mengzi孟子) and the early historical narratives Discourses of the States(Guoyu 国语) Chronicles of Zuo (Zuozhuan 左传) and Strategies of the WarringStates (Zhanguoce 战国策) Later imitations of the classical style used in litera-ture and formal writings from the third century to the early twentieth century aresaid to be written in Literary Chinese (wenyanwen 文言文 ldquoliterary textrdquo alsoreferred to as wenli 文理 by Biblical scholars)

In China the classical versus literary divide is in many ways similar to therelationship between Classical Latin and Medieval Latin in Europe Think of Boe-thius when he set the conditions for a bilingual understanding of Aristotle and


he did so in classical Latin ignoring the corrupt forms of the Latin of use spokenat his time in the sixth century Think of the author or the authors who wrote theso-called Theologia Aristotelis in the ninth century and did the same for Aristotlein Arabic Descartes translated himself from French into Latin Leibniz translatedhimself many times from Latin into French and vice-versa and possibly some-times also from German into either French or Latin Pierre Coste translatedLocke into French Kant translated himself into Latin and Johann Heinrich Tief-trunk translated Kantrsquos Latin back into German The attempt to translate Kantinto Latin failed (Kant 1796ndash1798) Soon attempts were made to translate himinto modern languages the first into French as early as 1788 (Muumlller andPozzo 1988) In all these cases we see two forms of the same learned languagesthe latter of which emulates the more consistent grammar and lexis of the for-mer How such a procedure might look in the end is open to discussion

The group that calls itself The New Humanities Project is looking into thetransition space and the platform that makes it possible to experience ldquonew re-search methodologies and teaching curricula that would question the presentepistemological order of the European university systemrdquo (Fiormonte etal 2014 415 see Gottschall 2008) For it is the media that

determine and organize memory and its practices the collective and even more the person-al Each dominant medium with its codes imposes itself as a metaphor of memory Theever-present danger is that a medium might restrain and regiment memory as imaginativecapacity which constructs knowledge about the past necessary for the present The dangeris already to be seen in Platorsquos [1925] Phaedrus [274cndash277a] which opposed memory under-stood as storehouse of data and memory as process of reminiscence which is always crea-tive (Fiormonte et al 2014 425)

The Stavanger Declaration concerning the Future of Reading states that ldquoPaperand screens each afford their types of processing In todayrsquos hybrid reading en-vironment of Paper and screens we will need to find the best ways to utilize theadvantages of both Paper and digital technologies across age groups and pur-posesrdquosup1sup3⁷ Natalie Philipps and Franco Moretti have been pioneers in designingan experiment with functional magnetic resonance imagery to test ldquothe existenceof a neurophysiological basis for Engelsingrsquos typology of extensive and intensivereadingrdquo (Moretti 2013 159 see Engelsing 1974)

httpsereadcosteuwp-contentuploads201901StavangerDeclarationpdf visited on 6May 2021

87 The Future of Reading 157

9 Translation of Studies

While all participants in the translation group made up in chapter 8 cling to thecentrality of text some start to think that it is possible to look beyond texts onpaper They figure out how to penetrate the realm of big data Although today wethink in terms of text corpora that are available online ie everywhere it isworth recalling the importance of the translatio textuum the actual movementsof books that took place during the past centuries

the circulation of books in all its material aspects (from printing to official and under-ground retail) is also a non-marginal aspect of the translatio studiorum which is endowedwith its own agents and ways of communication Testimony to this is provided by the manyletters mirroring interests friendships and tensions within the Respublica litterarum withall pressing requests and searches for and exchanges of new rare or prohibited bookshellipWhen on May 10 1933 Hitler ordered the burning of books by ldquodegeneraterdquo authorsmdashKarl Marx and Sigmund Freud Thomas Mann and Erich M Remarquemdashon the squares infront of the Reichrsquos universities those malevolent bonfires triggered a new series of migra-tions of men and books a new translatio on the path of freedom Beyond the voluntary ex-iles the daring transfer of the library of the Warburg Institute from Hamburg to London bytwo boats that landed on the shores of the Thames in December 1933 is paradigmatic sixtythousand volumes documents and photographs from a great school that had profoundlyaltered and renewed research into iconology art history and the history of ideas It was notmerely a library it was a cultural patrimony a school of research that landed in Londonthus setting off a new translatio in a climate of uncertainty and hope (Gregory 2012 19ndash21)

Books are preserved in libraries Libraries are public spaces and such are muse-ums science centers and any place in which co-creation activities may occurResearch infrastructures such as DARIAH are excellent examples because theyfoster new ways of knowledge production inside research performing organiza-tions which are influenced by and influence the engagement of the humanitieswith society at large

In this chapter I look into cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue as po-litical facts that need to be addressed as objects of multilevel governance of so-ciety by providing spaces of exchange in which citizens engage in the process ofsharing experiences while appropriating common goods content For such cross-fertilization many institutions that make public spaces possible must be takeninto consideration


91 Across Boundaries

The melting pot of diverse experiences and myths sets the stage for the theme ofthe translatio studiorum which is variously connected with the translatio imperii(Curtius 1948 36 2013 710) The succession of the reigns is also the successionof cultures the former and the latter being placed under the protection and theguidance of the great astral conjunctions (Gregory 2012 8) Think of the cargoson the ships of Gaiseric the king of the Vandals and Andals that in the after-math of the sack of Rome in the Summer of 455 brought to Carthage gold silverand many many books The transmission of texts takes place as a balance to itsopposite ie the destruction of texts like the ones ordered by Savonarola at theend of the fifteenth century in Florence or during the thirties of the last centuryby the Nazis which culminated with the setting ablaze of the special collectionsof the National Library in Warsaw as a part of the repression in the aftermath ofthe uprising of August 1944mdasha fire that destroyed most sources of the origins ofthe Polish language Another example was the impossibility of circulating spe-cific texts within the USSR and letting texts from the USSR reach the Westwhich called for the remedy of the clandestine transmission of cyclostyled prints(Leonardi 2012 68)

Philosophical terminology is present in a considerable number of languagesof culture starting with a series of different texts written mainly between thesixth and the eleventh century in a wide geographical area that extends fromWestern Europe to Indiamdashnot to mention the traces left even further to theEast in China Philosophical terminology deserves to be the subject of an effortto reflect and compare at the glottological and historical-linguistic levels (Zonta2018 9) Migrating texts (Sweet 2011) are written on migrating alphabets whichis the primary material of the Lessico Intellettuale Europeo (Gregory et al 1967ndash2021)

Occupation and emigration forcefully have internationalized intellectual his-tory First and foremost however migration has also intensified the transfer ofideas and knowledge and it has helped foster international communicationand interdisciplinary understanding (Schneider 2005 151) We can talk ofldquoexile historiographyrdquo of a ldquorefugee historianrdquo and of an ldquoexile historianrdquo (Berg-er and De Baets 2016 13) Comparative history of philosophy (Panikkar 1988)clarifies the extent to which the cultures of a limited historical period and a re-stricted area have been in contact with each other directly or indirectly It is timeto look at plurality (Diagne 2018) Comparative history of ideas has been the firststep towards a global history of ideas in which the development of ideas shouldbe viewed in the global scope (Nakamura 1986) Mou Zongsanrsquos (2014) Post-Kant-

91 Across Boundaries 159

ian Confucian metaphysics was among the first to implement the merging ofWestern and Chinese traditions (Tu Xiaofei 2007)

The task is to identify the phenomena of transferring and transcribing a cul-tural experience from one to the other historical and geographic context follow-ing the prevailing of diverse cultural and political supremacies The fact is everytime a language was written down it was the result of a migratory phenomenonIt matters little whether according to the legend accepted until the end of theeighteenth century of the onomatopoets Φορωνεύς (Phoroneacuteus) mentioned byPlato (1998) in the Timaeus (Τίμαιοςmdash23b) and Adam (Genesis 2 20) thatwhen they transliterated the phonemes of the first human language they firstdid it into ideograms and then into alphabets or vice-versa (Gregory 2006 32)As Bronisław Malinowski put it

We need a theory of culture of its processes and products of its specific determinism of itsrelation to basic facts of human psychology and the organic happening within the humanbody Such a theory is by no means the monopoly of the anthropologist He has however aspecial contribution to make and this may provoke corresponding efforts on the part of theempirically-minded historians sociologists psychologists and students of specific type-ac-tivities legal economic or educational (Malinowski 1944 12ndash 13)

All Latin Medieval civilization is a continuous acquisition and interpretationEach translation is an interpretation of works of ancient pagan civilizationand from distant culturesmdashGreek Byzantine Arab Chinesemdashto transfer theircompetencies and studies (Gregory 2012 1) The notion of a culture of intercultur-ality accompanies all cultures ldquolike a shadow and hinders them from absolutiz-ing themselvesrdquo (Mall 2000 9) The declaration unanimously adopted by theministers of culture of 180 countries during the International Conference of Cul-ture Ministers of 31 Julyndash4 August 2015 organized by the Italian Ministry of Cul-tural Heritage Cultural Activities and of Tourism at Expo 2015 in Milan statesthat

Cultural heritage is the mirror of history civilization and of the society which is expected toprotect it Cultural heritage both tangible and intangible is also the essence of identity thememory of peoples and their past and present civilizations It expresses at the same timeuniversally recognized values of tolerance dialogue and mutual understanding hellip the workof man and his extraordinary talent must be protected and preserved for the benefit of fu-ture generations (MIBACT 2014)

In the globalized world of the near future the idea of the plurality of transla-tiones studiorum makes mutual enrichment possible We must learn to embracean intercultural identity rather than an arbitrary thick cultural identity (Geertz1973 3ndash30)

160 9 Translation of Studies

92 Spaces for Exchange

In our quickly changing society we face issues of multiculturalism and migra-tion innovation and sustainability security and freedom In recent years inclu-sion has become one of the most dominant values and objectives in education(Felder 2018 54) Intercultural competencies are about awareness-raising (EAC2014 52) Intercultural dialogue encourages an advanced broad-spectrum multi-disciplinary discussion of the issues taken into consideration to define a specificscientific reference framework The aim is to provide tools to overcome prejudi-ces and encourage a more conscious and thoughtful reflection on the issues ofpluralism while offering sector operators and policymakers a clear and specificvision for their actions and choices

There is a consensus that a ldquobroader concept of commitment to social inclu-sion through the artsrdquo is to be wished for Because ldquothere is no audience in in-tercultural dialoguerdquo while ldquointercultural work means a process of co-creationrdquoThis is due to the reason that ldquoaccess participation and co-creation are precon-ditions for achieving intercultural dialogue in practicerdquo (EAC 2014 91) Due tothe challenges of access and limits in libraries as public spaces especially anarchitecture of openness that lets the outside in (Mickiewicz 2016 238) the proc-ess of creating spaces of exchange requires programming staffing and boardsreaching out to new audiences creating spaces for encounter and results in in-tercultural sensitivity and competencies which are cultural innovation outcomes(EAC 2014 25 see above chapter 6)

I am talking of spaces for exchange ie public spaces such as libraries mu-seums science centers and digital libraries in multiple languages (EAC 2014 9)We are now in the twenty-first century and we can do so much better than weused to do We rely already on hypertexts that provide metadata-rich and fullyinteroperable sources translations bibliographies indexes lexica and encyclo-pedias Users begin at the top level by perusing general narratives They followthe links to critical editions their translations in many languages articles indi-ces and monographs In sum spaces for exchange are most importantly re-search infrastructures that allow users to engage in access participation andco-creation The research infrastructures I have presented in chapter 7 serve ashubs in so far as they facilitate all services of virtual and instrumental accessto data simulations and best practices as well as government-led activitieseg satellites and topographical techniques drones and sensors for heritageprotection in broad areas advanced diagnostic systems nano-materials andnano-technologies for conservation 3D for the enhancement of cognitive accessin historical and archaeological contexts methodologies and protocols for 3D

92 Spaces for Exchange 161

rendering in hazardous contexts monitoring artifactscontext interaction ad-vanced exhibition systems smart showcases

93 Humanities European Research Area

The Humanities in the European Research Area consortium (HERA) started in2006 and has funded five joint research programsup1sup3⁸ It has served as a launchingpad for projects on social cultural political and ethical development that havegenerated new knowledge and enabled policymakers researchers and the gen-eral public to interpret a changing worldrsquos challenges HERA is about Europe andits historysup1sup3⁹ Being first understood as a pure geographical concept differentiat-ed from Asia and Africa Europe coalesced a cultural definition only in the eighthcentury signifying the new mix created through the confluence of Germanic tra-ditions and Christian-Latin culturesup1⁴⁰ To pose ldquoEurope in the Mirror of WorldCulturesrdquo is an exciting stage for showcasing non-European extra-European dis-coveries of Europe (Mall 2000 109) To give an idea let me sketch the outline ofHERArsquos last joint research project about culture integration and the Europeanpublic space

First the arts and humanities are well-positioned to investigate the role ofculture in integration processesmdashconsidering both successes and failures Cul-ture plays an essential role as a driver of human behavior such as values beliefsystems memories heritage languages educational systems and creative prac-tices The cultural political and economic spheres exist in dynamic relation toeach other The coherence of Europe (or any such political and economic forma-tion) is closely related to and impacted by events and practices at the level ofculture

Second the integration of people of differing values traditions ethnicitiesraces and gender identities within overarching frameworks such as citizenshipcommunity nationality while globalization has been a long-standing challengeworldwide Integration has been seen as a way of overcoming divisive conflicts

httpheranetinfoabout-uswho-we-are visited on 6 May 2021 The titles of the five callsso far are JRP Ia (2009ndash2012) Humanities as a Source of Creativity and Innovation JRP Ib(2009ndash2012) Cultural Dynamics Inheritance and Identity JRP II (2013ndash2016) Cultural Encoun-ters JRP III (2016ndash2019) Uses of the Past JRP IV (2019ndash2022) Public Spaces Culture and Inte-gration in Europe See the museum for the history of Europe the House of Europe httpseuroparleuropaeuvisitingitvisitor-offerbrusselshouse-of-european-history visited on 6 May 2021 httpheranetinfoabout-uswho-we-are visited on 6 May 2021


promoting tolerance and respect and creating creative innovation Simulta-neously it has also been argued that integration can potentially lead to disem-powerment erasure of difference and loss of identity for some Various modelsand experiences of integration exist that differ in both their aims and their ef-fects For example can integration co-exist with diversity or does it inevitablytend towards homogenization and the erasure of differences How are power re-lations constructed within integration processes At present integration issuesrelate strongly to societal challenges involving inequality disenfranchisementintolerance xenophobia extremism ethnic conflict Euro-skepticism and theNorth-South and East-West divide

Third a great deal of cultural integration (or resistance to integration) occursin various public spaces where personal encounters occur shared values and be-liefs are expressed and social and cultural institutions are made and used Pub-lic spaces are the arenas in which critical cultural interactions and societal dy-namics occur and can be observed (Metha 2015) Specifically there is a urgentneed to define public space and the role of science in enabling or problematizingintegration while respecting diversity The notion of public space can be inter-preted widely physical and built environments landscapes and material cul-ture However it also includes cultural zones public spheres and virtual spacesdefined by media language ethnicity shared values political allegiances reli-gious identities creative practices and communication technologies Thesespaces are populated not just by people but by material objects texts artworksperformances and institutions all of which contribute to creating a sense ofplace Recent research acknowledges the crucial importance of physical thingsobjects and material traces of culture and the value of material culture for pro-viding new ways of looking at multiple histories and identitiessup1⁴sup1

Summing up HERA has asked scholars to clarify how and why the human-ities talk to citizens civil society organizations public administrations The hu-manities transfer knowledge and aim at public engagement which ought to beevaluated just as much as technology transfer to the industry The humanitiesconstruct cultural innovation based on social innovation Primarily they providethe conditions of possibility for intercultural dialogue It is a matter of consider-ing how ideas cultures traditions and practices have come into being transmit-ted and diffused among different actors in different regions It is a matter of ex-ploring and systematizing precisely what the reflective society is in its historical

httpheranetinfoprojectspublic-spaces-culture-and-integration-in-europe visited on 6May 2021

93 Humanities European Research Area 163

development innovation and change a fundamental process for the humanconditionsup1⁴sup2

94 Equals in Dignity

The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity recognizes cultural diversity as aldquocommon heritage of mankindrdquo and considers its preservation a concrete andethical imperative inseparable from respect for human dignity (UNESCO 20012005) This declaration was reinforced in 2005 at Paris by the Convention onthe Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions whichalso talks about the goal of fostering interculturality to develop cultural interac-tion in the spirit of building bridges between peoplessup1⁴sup3

The scope of the endeavor is breathtaking It sets off from the claim stated inarticle 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that ldquoAll human beingsare born free and equal in dignity and rightsrdquosup1⁴⁴ If dignity were a property be-stowed on human beings by birth dignity could never be lost However in thecase of dangerous criminals Kant has expressed doubts about dignity as an in-alienable property Hence the set of questions that provide the red thread for cur-rent discussions ldquoAre human rights grounded in dignity so that they can be de-rived directly from the concept of dignity Or does dignity in and of itself providereasons for human rights Is there a connecting tie between it and the legalsphere of human rights at allrdquo (Kato and Schoumlnrich 2010 1)

On top of dignity and human rights other questions arise when it comes todefining the bearers of dignity The notion of dignity is not limited to human be-ings only It extends instead to all rational beings A careful reading of Kantrsquostexts shows that he does not narrow the extension of the notion of dignity tothe only species of homo sapiens Hence the second focus is about questioninganthropocentrism for any being that meets specific rational autonomy criteriamay be a bearer of dignity According to Kant there may even be super-personalbearers of dignity like the state Kant Oliver Sensen (2011) has pointed out usesdignity in three different senses First for saying that one being is elevated overthe others eg the ldquomonarchrsquos dignityrdquo (Streit der Fakultaumlten AA7 19[27] CE[Streit] 248) the ldquodignity of philosophyrdquo (Kritik der reinen Vernunft B86 AA3

httpheranetinfoabout-uswho-we-arehera-vision-2018ndash2022 visited on 6 May 2021 httpsenunescoorgcreativitysitescreativityfilespasseport-convention2005-web2pdfvisited on 6 May 2021 httpswwwunorgenabout-usuniversal-declaration-of-human-rights visited on 6 May2021


81[22] CE [KrV] 199) the ldquodignity of mathematicsrdquo (Kritik der reinen VernunftB492 AA3 323[9ndash 10] CE [KrV] 496) the ldquoworth of the teacherrdquo (Religion inner-halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft AA6 162[19] CE [Religion] 184) Secondfor expressing that human beings are elevated over the rest of nature in virtueof having freedom ldquofrom the dignity of human nature from its freedomrdquo (Reli-gion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft AA6 57[26ndash27] CE [Religion]101)sup1⁴⁵ and third for specifying that moral worth is unconditional ie infinitelyraised above price (Kato and Schoumlnrich 2020 164)

The Council of Europe has indicated the political actions needed for intercul-tural dialogue to advance through its white paper on intercultural dialogue Liv-ing together as Equals in Dignity (Council of Europe 2008) Growing diversity inEurope is now a cultural reality which should be considered and addressed in-dividually and collectively The democratic governance of cultural diversityshould be ldquoadapted in many aspects democratic citizenship and participationshould be strengthened intercultural skills should be taught and learnedspaces for intercultural dialogue should be created and intercultural dialogueshould be taken to the international levelrdquo (EUR 2015 5 9) At stake is the pro-motion of social cohesion (Grant and Chapman 2008 Cai 2010)

It is time to move beyond the mere passive acceptance of multiple culturesco-existing in a society (inclusive society) and promote cultural diversity and in-tercultural dialogue (reflective society) Steven Vertovec has proposed to callldquosuper-diversityrdquo the interplay of factors such as ldquodifferential immigration sta-tuses and their concomitant entitlements and restrictions of rights divergent la-bour market experiences discrete gender and age profiles patterns of spatialdistribution and mixed local area responses by service providers and residentsrdquoVertovec raises questions such as How can the diversity of generations genderstatus standard of living and culture be considered Is Europe a good thing aresource for the member states and humanity or does it present a risk of increas-ing tensions Is the simple promotion of the universal values of human rights anadequate response to ensure equal treatment for all How do we ensure that thewealth of cultural expression and languages does not disappear under the he-gemony of political and economic issues and dominant cultural models (Verto-vec 2010 66)

ldquoWuumlrde eines MonarchesrdquomdashldquoWuumlrde der PhilosophierdquomdashldquoWuumlrde der MathematikrdquomdashldquoWuumlrdedes LehrersrdquomdashldquoWuumlrde der menschlichen Natur der Freiheitrdquo

94 Equals in Dignity 165

95 Intercultural Dialogue

The reflux of multiculturalism in countries that have applied it shows that recog-nizing cultural diversity can in social and economic conditions of segregationand unemployment generate conflicts (EAC 2014 10ndash 11) Intercultural dialogueis an ldquoopen and respectful exchange of views between individuals and groupsbelonging to different cultures that leads to a better understanding of the otherrsquosglobal perceptionrdquo (EAC 2014 16) Interculturalism differs from multiculturalismbecause it is not about the preservation and promotion of separated culturesIt is instead about mutual understanding and interaction (Dietz 2007) Whilethe risk of multiculturalism is to reinforce isolation and conflict interculturaldialogue bears hardly any risk for it aims to strengthen social cohesion by cre-ating bridges and links among people and communities Intercultural competen-cies relate to key competencies such as communication in foreign languages so-cial and civic competencies cultural awareness and expression

The issue boils down to ldquohow do we understand how culture influencescommunicationrdquo (Cai 2010 xxi) The way Kant has put it as regards the interplayof concepts and intuitionsmdashfollowing Kantrsquos metaphor that ldquothoughts withoutcontent are empty intuitions without concepts are blindrdquo (Kritik der reinen Ver-nunft A51B75 AA4 48[13ndash 14]AA3 75[14ndash 15] CE [KrV] 193ndash 194)sup1⁴⁶mdashone mightsay that in the case of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue reciprocitydoes not hold

intercultural dialogue cannot exist without recognizing cultural diversity while cultural di-versity can exist without giving rise to intercultural dialoguehellip Cultural diversity impliesthe existence of common characteristics of a group of people such as language religionlifestyle artistic expressions relations between men and women young and old etc Allcultures are hybrid mixed infused (EAC 2014 9ndash 10)

Intercultural dialogue aims to create a framework for relations between statesorganizations and peopleWhat matters is the transformation of what circulatesbetween people and how it transforms them because it is people living in a com-plex society and speaking with their languages customs and beliefs that keepthe dialogue alivemdashalso organizations associations businesses cultural institu-tions museums libraries archives and community centers While the recogni-tion of cultural diversity belongs to human rights intercultural dialogue aimsto enable the sharing of experiences of common goods in spaces for exchangeIntercultural means questioning the content of what one transmits it means ask-

ldquoGedanken ohne Inhalt sind leer Anschauungen ohne Begriffe sind blindrdquo


ing what one calls art heritage and self-expression (EAC 2014 10) Some sub-stantial challenges come up due to the intensity with which the dynamics ofglobalization have impacted not only on the flows of cultural goods media prod-ucts and information as well as on migration

New forms of mobility have created new kinds of cultural juxtapositions encounters andexchanges which have resulted in greater and more complex patterns of diversity withinthe European cultural space Because these new forms of diversity and complexity aretransnational and transcultural in their naturemdashfunctioning across national frontiersmdashthey present a challenge for national policy frameworks The established national mecha-nisms through which European states have hitherto managed cultural policy diversity andcitizenship must now be supported by international or transnational strategieshellip The chal-lenge at the beginning of the 21st century must be to develop a democratic transnationaland transcultural approach to cultural diversity policy in Europe (Robins 2006)

How does migration affect the overall sentiment of a community There is a needto quantify sentiment in the millions of tweets coming from different countrieswhich are the basis for comparing sentiment of various languages in the exactlocation that is geolocalized in other languages and compare the sentiment ofthe same language in multiple locations across areas with different levels of im-migration (Coletto 2017) Currently flows and stocks come from official datawhich implies substantial delays in estimating migration incorrect estimates var-iations from one dataset to another Through the approach of nowcasting iethrough real-time estimation research can help policymakers build timely poli-cies by estimating migration plans in the Twitter population (language geoloca-tion social links) and subsequently by extrapolating the trends to the generalpopulation using accountable models as pursued by Fosca Giannotti and her So-BigData team of at the Institute of Information Science and Technologies of CNR(ISTI)sup1⁴⁷

As Dana Diminescu has made clear ldquothis culture of bonds became visibleand highly dynamic once migrants began massively to use modern informationand communication technologiesrdquo (Diminescu 2008 567) According to RamAdhar Mall

A peaceful encounter among religions for example demands that there must be room for atheory and practice of pluralism even in the case of so-called revealed religions Polythe-ism and pluralistic theology rightly understood are more tolerant and conducive to peaceamong religions than monotheism This is because a pluralistic approach to the truthmdashsec-ular or sacralmdashis by nature open and tolerant A common conviction that cultures possess

httpsobigdataeu visited on 6 May 2021

95 Intercultural Dialogue 167

basic similarities and illuminating differences that enable them that they meet to differ anddefer to meet is a need of our age (Mall 2015 75)

We are at the beginning of a long and tenacious struggle The theory and thepractice of interculturality are bound to provide a substantial help we need toindividuate in the great reservoir of universalizing values those theoretical in-struments and those forms of life that would make not only comparisonamong diverse cultural and religious options possible but also concur to thecommon grounding of the principles of freedom equality tolerance and recog-nition of otherness (Cacciatore and DrsquoAnna 2010)

96 Dialogical Culture

We are witnessing the paradigm change from a dialogue of cultures to a dialog-ically born culture Before closing let me leave the word to the Congregation forCatholic Education (2017) which has issued guidelines on Educating to FraternalHumanism Building a Civilization of Love that can be seen as a forerunner of thealready mentioned encyclical letter Fratelli Tuttisup1⁴⁸ As also maintained by TuWeiming (2018 1) dialogical culture does not stand for a mere exchange ofviews to know one another and mitigate the alienating effect of the encounterbetween citizens of different cultures It must ignite an authentic dialogue withinan ethical framework of requirements and attitudes for social objectives The eth-ical requirements for dialogue are freedom and equality Dialogue participantsmust be free from contingent interests They must be prepared to recognize thedignity of all parties These attitudes are supported by the consistency of dia-logue with onersquos specific universe of values which results in the general inten-tion to match actions with words in other words to link the ethical principles weproclaim (eg peace fairness respect democracy etc) with social and civicchoices We are looking at a grammar of dialogue as pointed out by Pope Fran-cis that ought to be able to ldquobuild bridges and hellip to find answers to the challeng-es of our timerdquo (Congregation for Catholic Education 2017 12ndash 13)

In sum considering the conceptual cultural and behavioral barriers to co-design (Jackson et al 2018) initiatives ought to be taken by ministries consult-ing organizations teaching establishments at all levels the media museums



public libraries science centers and organizations devoted to the promotion andsharing of experiences of common goods in public spaces

96 Dialogical Culture 169

10 Conclusion

This book has pointed to the new challenge for historians of philosophy world-wide to investigate access and content dissemination as an overarching schemefor establishing a dialogical civilization In addition to their constant scientificproduction historians of philosophy break the ground for transforming their dis-cipline as a field at the frontier of research today The task of history of philos-ophy is indeed momentous It is the task of supporting communities towards arespectful and fruitful dialogue The migrant practices of transfer of organizingprinciples and conditions for developing competencies to act in intercultural set-tings are not just about adding foreign spices to a homemade meal In a global-ized world mutual enrichment has become necessary because looking into shar-ing cultures means striving for unity in diversity It means to advance in thequest for freedom and integration Historians of philosophy expect to have agrowing impact on policymakers and economic authorities This ought to be-come evident as the twenty-first century advances

In these last pages I will enucleate three research lines alongside the no-tions of liquidity biodiversity and humanism Their objective is to achieve awider audience by relying on the intellectual growth of the global communityand preserving intellectual resources while providing a platform for their plural-ity I am talking of a substantial objective that goes well beyond the current stateof the art

101 Ocean

Reacutemi Brague has pointed out that the Arabic term for dictionary qāmūs سوماق is atranslation of the Greek name for the titan Oceanus (Ōkeanoacutes Ὠκεανός) in theoriginal literal sense of a liquid extension that embraces all emerged lands per-mitting navigation and hence communication (Brague 2004 see also Brague1993 Brague 2009) Leibniz has used the ocean metaphor for designating an en-cyclopedia (Selcer 2007) Languages are the place of constant commerce andcommerce takes place in space and time Oceans are wet ontologies fluid spacesThey give depth to volume Today we consider fluidity and liquidity with Zyg-munt Bauman as fitting metaphors ldquowhen we wish to grasp the nature of the pre-sent in many ways novel phase in the history of modernityrdquo (Bauman 2000 2)Contemporary geographers are asking for a ldquowet ontologyrdquo that gives body to theperspective of a world of ldquoflows connections liquidities and becomings hellip ameans by which the searsquos material and phenomenological distinctiveness can fa-


cilitate the reimagining and enlivening of a world ever on the moverdquo (Steinbergand Peters 2015 248)

The fluidity of the continent of the migrants in march worldwide provides uswith a powerful resemantization of Baumanrsquos liquid modernity If it is true thatcultures shape national identities and are bound to one countryrsquos language andhistory but it is also true that cultures are fundamentally the constituent oftransnational ties and identities (Myrdal and Karjalainen 2004 15) We are talk-ing about an understanding of cosmopolitanism that constitutes both cultureand the self (Taraborrelli 2015 87) The technologization of border controls hastransformed the nature of borders from zones of barriers to differentiated elec-tronic screening zones (meant to slow down but not stop) Robert Sack (198619) has claimed that territory acquires meaning at the political level to monitorpeople processes and social relations As Dana Diminescu has noted todayrsquosborders are no longer constrained by physical geography They are processedin the form of datasets in consulates prefectures on the laptops of police offi-cers parked alongside an ordinary highway tollbooth and within the datasetsof different transport companies These new electronic borders which use extra-territorial networks extend national or community territories beyond their na-tional boundaries (Diminescu 2008 567ndash568)

Significantly the role played by the Chinese diaspora for the promotion ofcultural diversity and intercultural dialogue is prominent its bilingualism andmultilingualism make it possible to throw bridges across textual corpora Every-body knows what Plato (1998) stated in the Timaeus (Τίμαιοςmdash21cndash23e) and whatis said in the pseudo-Platonic (2013) Epinomiacutes (Ἐπινομίςmdash987dndashe) on the de-pendence of the culture of the Egyptians from that of the Greeks Just as in He-brew and Christian mythology Moses is said to be the one who picked up the artsof the Egyptian world These are non-marginal testimonies of a tremendous mi-gratory stream from the East to the West which has been well synthesized by thecommonplace saying ex Oriente lux (Gregory 2012 2)

History of philosophy is about philosophy but intercultural dialogue is notlimited to philosophy Indeed history of philosophy is particularly telling regard-ing migrating ideas and transferring competencies but why should culturaltransfer be restricted to philosophy Cultural transfers take place also in medi-cine to say nothing of what happens in economics History of philosophy be-comes the start The issue might become a general one and history of philoso-phy opens the way Perhaps there are universals of culture out there which willturn the questions raised by history of philosophy upside down and ask for iden-tifications of connecting aspects instead of maintaining diversity

Europe is now looking for a conceptual framework for cultural diversity andintercultural dialogue (EAC 2014 9) Are we sure Europe wants to think intercul-

172 10 Conclusion

turally when each member state is first attentive to enhance its heritage An ef-fective suggestion lies perhaps in using history of philosophy for starting an in-novative education policy that considers incoming and outgoing transfers Theremight be a metalevel of governance that establishes guidelines History of philos-ophy brings about the notion that culture is the branch of an evolutionary treethat is complex and articulated which is the start of thinking in terms of culturewithin cognitive evolution Thus history of philosophy can have an impact onpolicymakers indeed

102 Biocultural Diversity

Thinking of future generations biodiversity and cultural diversity are a naturalheritage and a public good to be preserved as a moral duty The syntagma bio-cultural diversity refers to ldquothe diversity of life in all its manifestations biologicalcultural and linguisticmdashwhich are interrelated (and possibly coevolved) within acomplex socio-ecological adaptive systemrdquo (Maffi 2007 269) We need to start aconversationmdashin Laudato Sirsquo Pope Francis has urgedmdashthat ldquoincludes everyonesince the environmental challenge we are undergoing and its human roots con-cern and affect us allrdquosup1⁴⁹ Biodiversity and cultural diversity are resources for na-ture and culture-based solutions aimed at addressing societal issues solutionsthat allow a holistic approach to addressing challenges such as climate andwater regulation food quality and safety and sustainable urbanizationmdashat thesame time providing business and employment opportunities and promotingthe protection restoration and sustainable management of ecosystems Recog-nizing biodiversity and cultural diversity as engines for a sustainable economyand sustainable development the philosophy of food helps to transform environ-mental and societal challenges into opportunities for innovation with impacts onenvironmental social and economic policies However the connection betweenglobal warming and the COVID-19 pandemic has made it clear that we cannottake anything for granted We must continue investigating the relationship be-tween biodiversity and cultural diversity and exploring methods to evaluate de-velop and implement large-scale solutions for continuing education We mustpromote diversity interdependencies between species and appreciate the contin-uum between nature and human beings Philosophical reflection and culturalinnovation play a decisive role in assessing our experiences of ecosystems

httpwwwvaticanvacontentfrancescoenencyclicalsdocumentspapa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-sihtml visited on 6 May 2021

102 Biocultural Diversity 173

with the ultimate goal of enhancing the effectiveness of utility systems under-stood as part of the urban fabric and landscape

The relationship between food and culture has been considered from arange of disciplines and approaches including anthropology sociology historyeconomics philosophy and gender studies The basic questions are ldquoWhat isfood exactly What should we eat How do we know it is safe How shouldfood be distributed What is good foodrdquo (Kaplan 2012) Most importantlygiven that food is a product but eating is an action food has a strong connec-tion to ethics (Bellows 1868) due to the impact ldquoour food choices have on hu-mans animals and the environmentrdquo (Singer and Mason 2007) Food is art (An-tinucci 2016) Food is science (Thompson and Kaplan 2014) Obviously foodbeing about taste we require a comprehensive chronological history of tastefrom prehistory to the tastes of today (Gregory 1999 2021) ldquowhich employ fewrules and exhibit a glorious eclecticismrdquo (Freedman 2007) However the newtastes we have been developing contain addictive elements so that we have be-come aware we need to learn how to identify ldquoreal foodrdquo and why we should eatit (Davey 2013) Most recently Andrea Borghini has been laying out the skeletonof what is ahead as regards discussing food philosophically food is a relationwhich is about politics about ethics first and foremost however food isabout self-understanding because eating ldquomirrors the making of a self that isthe array of decisions and circumstances that bring us to eat the way we dordquo(Borghini 2019)

The UNESCO list of world intangible cultural heritage embraces currently547 itemssup1⁵⁰ Food has much to offer to the reflective society Biodiversity is tobe studied alongside the mobility of migrants which has an impact on agro-food systems It is necessary to combine global climate change models withlocal scenarios of social and economic growth The new missions of Horizon Eu-rope are meant to foster research on systemic change in the new generations andcontribute to creating a cross-border and multidisciplinary open innovation en-vironment for research data knowledge and services with engaged stakeholdersand organizations (EUR 2021) This centuryrsquos great challenge migration asks fora new narrative of inclusion and reflection for the choice of migrating is eitherdue to current changes in the terrestrial ecosystem or is caused by political dem-ographic and economic conditions in which the environment is an amplifyingfactor of the deterioration of living conditions The diverse stress factors on thehuman being and the environment are connected although water management

httpsichunescoorgenlists visited on 6 May 2021

174 10 Conclusion

remains the primary cause It is necessary to combine global climate changemodels with local scenarios of social and economic growthsup1⁵sup1

103 Spiritual Humanism

One of the most pronounced effects of the crisis and fall of grand ideologicalnarratives has been a strong revival in all five continents of religions and theiridentitarian forms This phenomenon is tightly connectedmdashphilosophically andhistoricallymdashto the profound crisis of what Juumlrgen Habermas (1985 10 1987 2)has called the ldquosecularization of values and normsrdquo (Saumlkularisierung von Wertenund Normen) Some fundamental changes are taking place The first is the differ-entiation and dissolution of metaphysical approaches The second is the disen-chantment regarding the expectation that the progress of science shall lead tothe discovery of truth which shall make all enchanted forms of understandingthe world disappear and thus also religion

Philosophy of Religion is possibly the most beautiful course offering a pro-fessor can dream of Only Ancient Philosophy might achieve the same statuswhich can be explained by the not quite common but valid notion that philos-ophers love stories with the Biblical narrative counted as a story From a founda-tional point of view Philosophy of Religion works the same way as Philosophy ofLaw does Just as natural law poses the condition for the possibility of all legalorders so does the concept of God offer to speculative theology the condition ofpossibility of all Holy Writings which is immediately apparent in the case ofAbrahamic monotheism where the concept of one God is the foundation ofthe Revelations of Jews Christians and Muslims

The point is however that philosophers are neither jurists nor theologiansThey think the question of God the way Jens Halfwassen (2010) has put it be-cause otherwise philosophy would give up its vocation as soon as it abandonedthis question Were philosophers to think like jurists they would consider reli-gion as a right within a multireligious and multicultural society for which thelegislative power has committed itself since a determinate moment in historyIf they thought like theologians they would evaluate religious propositions asthey follow the canonic books they refer toWhen philosophy considers the ques-tion of God it does so on a metatheoretical dimension which means first andforemost looking at interreligious dialogue For which it bears responsibilityIt ought not to renounce it It is true philosophy is not neutral but it poses

httpswwwbiodiversaorg1759 visited on 6 May 2021

103 Spiritual Humanism 175

the condition for the dialoguemdashthe fact of reason Philosophers have the task ofdouble questioning religious texts from an interreligious and intercultural per-spective

In the statements of historians of philosophy that have looked into the con-nection of politics and religion in the context of the analysis of secularizationthe nucleus is not simply the conviction that one could transformmdashbased onthe application of democratic principlesmdashthe appartenance to a religious denomi-nation from an element of conflict into a function of enhancement and stabiliza-tion of political democracy but also and most importantly for highlighting ofwhat conceptually and operatively follows from todayrsquos transfiguration of reli-gion the recognition of the pluralism of metaphysical ideological culturaland religious stances

All things considered were one to look into strengths weaknesses opportu-nities and threats of the argument I have laid out in this book the outcomesmight be as followsWhile its strength lies in the claim that history of philosophyis necessary for the twenty-first century the main weakness can be seen in historyof philosophyrsquos pledge for multilingualism against the overarching acceptance ofEnglish as a lingua franca which is an overwhelming task indeed Timeliness is itsopportunity for technological innovation in digital media is running very fastwhile humanist myopia the habit of assigning priority to classical studies asthe discipline required for all endeavors appears to be especially threatening in-sofar as it makes philosophy impermeable to interaction with other disciplines

History of philosophy is nonetheless expected to trigger a mindset-changeregarding reflection on locating culture (anthropology of space and place) for in-clusion in education life-long learning healthcare urban development and re-generation during the decade that has just started History of philosophy fostersnew forms of evidence-based education and employment policies for all educa-tion attainment levels across the entire innovation chain from school to labormarket and civil society The innovation lies in understanding dignity and other-ness shaped by history and threatened by historical philosophical and religiousilliteracy (Melloni 2014) Essential is the collaboration of philosophy with basicresearch in education psychology sociology social and behavioral sciences re-ligious science history economics and regional studies with applied researchin gender studies social cohesion research cross-cultural studies economic in-equalities and with entrepreneurial innovation for employment equity humancapital and talent work organization development The exciting thing is thatthe world will step up to considering innovation reflection and inclusion inthe direction of what Chinese scholars know for thousands of years under spiri-tual humanism jingshen renwenzhuyi (精神人文主义) (Tu Weiming 2015) Tu

176 10 Conclusion

Weiming (2018 7) reminds us that ldquoa concrete living person is made of a multi-dimensional complex of relationshipsrdquo


References

Acostamadiedo EduardoSohst Rhea RTjaden JasperGroenewold Georgede Valk Helga(2020) Assessing Immigration Scenarios for the European Union in 2030 RelevantRealistic and Reliable Geneva The Hague International Organization for MigrationNetherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute

Ademollo Francesco (2011) The Cratylus of Plato A Commentary Cambridge New YorkCambridge University Press

Agamben Giorgio (1979) Homo sacer Turin EinaudiAgazzi Evandro (2003) A Short History of the International Federation of Philosophical

Societies (FISP) Ankara FISPPhilosophical Society of TurkeyAgier MichelMadeira Anne-Virgine (Eds) (2017) Deacutefinir les Reacutefugieacutes Paris Presses

Universitaires de FranceAlagoa Ebiegberi JHarms Peter W (1994) ldquoAn African Philosophy of History in the Oral

Traditionrdquo In Robert W HarmsJoseph C MillerDavid S NewburyMichele D Wagner(Eds) Paths toward the Past African Historical Essays in Honor of Jan Vansina AtlantaGa African Studies Association Press 15ndash25

ALLEA-All European AcademiesHERA-Humanities in the European Research AreaELI-EuropeanLaw InstituteESA-European Sociological AssociationEuroScienceGlobal YoungAcademyNet4SocietyNORFACE-New Opportunities for Research Funding AgencyCooperation in EuropeYAE-Young Academy of Europe (2017) Living Together Missionsfor Shaping the Future An Agenda for the Next European Research and InnovationFramework Programme from the Humanities and Social Sciences httpswwwalleaorgwp-contentuploads201712Living_Together_Missions_for_Shaping_the_Future_2017pdf visited on 6 May 2021

Alquieacute Ferdinand (1966) Nostalgie de lrsquoecirctre Paris Presses Universitaires de FranceAlquieacute Ferdinand (1971) Signification de la philosophie Paris HachetteAmato FabioDellrsquoAgnese Elena (2016) ldquoLrsquoesperienza migratoria e la cultura popolarerdquo In

Geotema 50 66ndash71Ambrosini MaurizioNaso PaoloParavati Claudio (2018) Il Dio dei migranti Bologna Il

MulinoAmes Roger T (2015) ldquoLiving Chinese Philosophyrdquo In Confluence Online Journal of World

Philosophies 1(2) 207ndash220Amin Ash (2004) ldquoMulti-Ethnicity and the Idea of Europerdquo In Theory Culture amp Society

21(2) 1ndash24 DOI 1011770263276404042132Anonymous (1904) The Three Impostors Alcofribas Nasier Sr (Ed) New York httpswww

gutenbergorgfiles5071550715-h50715-hhtm visited on 6 May 2021Anonymous (2006) De tribus impostoribus Germana Ernst (Ed) Calabritto Mattia amp

FortunatoAntinucci Francesco (2016) Il potere della cucina Storie di cuochi re e cardinali Bari

LaterzaAppadurai Arjun (1996) Modernity at Large Minneapolis University of Minnesota PressAppadurai Arjun (2003) ldquoSovereignty without Territoriality Notes for Postnational

Geographyrdquo In Setha M LowDenise Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga (Eds) The Anthropology ofSpace and Time Locating Culture Oxford Blackwell 337ndash349


Arachi Alessandra (2020) ldquoDue italiani su tre Ok al controllo elettronicordquo In Corriere dellaSera 31 March 2020 22

Archer Margaret S (2003) Structure Agency and the Internal Conversation Cambridge NewYork Cambridge University Press

Archibugi Daniele (Ed) (2015) The Contribution of the European Commission to ResponsibleResearch and Innovation A Review of the Science in Society (FP6) and Science andSociety (FP7) Programmes Rome CNR Press

Archibugi DanieleDenni MarioFilippetti Andrea (2009) ldquoThe Technological Capabilities ofNations The State of the Art of Synthetic Indicatorsrdquo In Technological Forecasting andSocial Change 76(7) 917ndash931

Archibugi DanieleFilippetti Andrea (Eds) (2015) The Handbook of Global ScienceTechnology and Innovation London Wiley

Arendt Hannah (1943) ldquoWe Refugeesrdquo In The Menorah Journal 31(1) 69ndash77Arendt Hannah (1958) The Human Condition Chicago University of Chicago PressArendt Hannah (1963) ldquoEichmann in Jerusalem A Report about the Banality of Evilrdquo In The

New Yorker 17 May 1963 and followingAristotle (1855) The Politics Richard Congreve (Ed) London ParkerAristotle (1980) La Poeacutetique Roselyne Dupont-RocJean Lallot (Eds and Trans) Preface by

Tzvetan Todorov Paris Eacuteditions du SeuilAristotle (2009) The Nicomachean Ethics WD RossLesley Brown (Eds) Oxford New York

Oxford University PressBacon Francis (1908) ldquoOf Innovationsrdquo In Essays of Francis Bacon Mary Scott (Ed) New

York Scribnerrsquos 109ndash111Baker Mona (1993) ldquoCorpus Linguistics and Translation Studies Implications and

Applicationsrdquo In Mona BakerGill FrancisElena Tognini-Bonelli (Eds) Text andTechnology Amsterdam Philadelphia Benjamins 232ndash252

Bambach Charles (2019) ldquoDiltheyrsquos Critique of Historical Reasonrdquo In Eric Nelson (Ed)Interpreting Dilthey Critical Essays Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press82ndash102

Barabantseva Elena (2011) Overseas Chinese Ethnic Minorities and Nationalism De-centering China London Routledge

Basnage de Beauval Jacques (1690) Histoire de la Religion des Eacuteglises ReformeacuteesRotterdam Acher httpswwwdigitale-sammlungendedeviewbsb11345618page=5visited on 6 May 2021

Battistoni FrancescaPedrini Sabrina (2014) ldquoIndicatori per la valutazione degli istituticulturalirdquo In Paradoxa 8(4) 24ndash161

Bauman Zygmunt (2000) Liquid Modernity Cambridge PolityBauman Zygmunt (2004) Identity Cambridge PolityBaumann Gerd (2011) ldquoThe Value and the Valid What Is It Professor Taylor Should

Recognizerdquo In Gerd BaumannSteven Vertovec (Eds) Multiculturalism LondonRoutledge vol 2 125ndash135

Baumann GerdVertovec Steven (Eds) (2011) Multiculturalism Critical Concepts inSociology London Routledge

Baynham Mika (2012) ldquoCultural Geography and the Retheorization of SociolinguisticSpacesrdquo In Sheena GardnerMarilyn Martin-Jones (Eds) Multilingualism Discourseand Ethnography London Routledge 114ndash130

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Baynham MikaDe Fina Anna (Eds) (2005) DislocationsRelocations Narratives ofDisplacement Manchester St Jerome

Becchetti LeonardoConzo GianluigiConzo PierluigiSalustri Francesco (2020)ldquoUnderstanding the Heterogeneity of Adverse COVID-19 Outcomes The Role of PoorQuality of Air and Lockdown Decisionsrdquo httpspapersssrncomsol3paperscfmabstract_id=3572548 visited on 6 May 2021

Beck Ulrich (1993) Die Erfindung des Politischen FrankfurtMain SuhrkampBellows Andrew J (1868) Philosophy of Eating Cambridge Mass Hurd amp HoughtonBeacutenabou RolandTicchi DavideVindigni Andrea (2015) ldquoReligion and Innovationrdquo In The

American Economic Review 105(5) 346ndash351Benhabib Seyla (2011) ldquoDemocratic Iterations The Local the National and the Globalrdquo In

Gerard DelantyDavid Inglis (Eds) Cosmopolitanism London Routledge vol 2234ndash258

Benjamin Walter (1923) ldquoDie Aufgabe des Uumlbersetzersrdquo In Walter Benjamin (Ed) CharlesBaudelaire Tableaux Parisiens Heidelberg Weissnach viindashxvii

Benjamin Walter (1936) ldquoLrsquoœuvre drsquoart agrave lrsquoeacutepoque de sa reproduction meacutecaniseacuteerdquo PierreKlossowski (Ed) In Zeitschrift fuumlr Sozialforschung 5 40ndash66

Benveniste EacutemileLallot Jean (1969) Vocabulaire des institutions indo-europeacuteennes ParisEacuteditions de Minuit

Berger StefanDe Baets Antoon (2016) ldquoReflections on Exile Historiographyrdquo In Storia dellastoriografia 69 11ndash26

Berque Augustin (2000) Eacutecoumegravene Introduction agrave lrsquoeacutetude des milieux humains Paris BelinBerti Enrico (2010) A partire dai filosofi antichi Luca Grecchi (Ed) Padua Il PratoBetti AriannaVan den Berg Hein (2016) ldquoTowards a Computational History of Ideasrdquo In

CEUR Workshop Proceedings 1681 httpceur-wsorgVol-1681Betti_van_den_Berg_computational_history_of_ideaspdf visited on 6 May 2021

Betti AriannaVan den Berg HeinOrtwijn YvetteTreijtel Caspar (2019) ldquoHistory ofPhilosophy in Ones and Zerosrdquo In Eugen FischerMark Curtis (Eds) MethodologicalAdvances in Experimental Philosophy London Bloomsbury 295ndash332

Bevir Mark (1999) The Logic of the History of Ideas Cambridge New York CambridgeUniversity Press

Bevir Mark (2009) ldquoContextualism From Modernist Method to Post-Analytic Historicismrdquo InJournal of the Philosophy of History 3(3) 211ndash224

Bianco Giuseppe (2014) ldquoLe long et monotone chapelet de lrsquoEsprit universelrdquoDisciplinarisation et internationalisation dans les congres de philosophierdquo In Revue demetaphysique et de morale 84(4) 483ndash497 DOI 103917rmm1440483htm

Bijker Wiebke EHughes Thomas PPinch Trevor (Eds) (2012) The Social Construction ofTechnological Systems New Directions in the Sociology and History of TechnologyCambridge Mass MIT Press

Birmingham Peg (2008) Hannah Arendt and Human Rights Bloomington In IndianaUniversity Press

BKGE (Bundesinstitut fuumlr Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im oumlstlichen Europa) (2016)300 Jahre Immanuel Kant Der Weg ins Jubilaumlum Oldenburg BKGE

Blair AnnDuguid PaulGoeing Anja-SilviaGrafton Anthony (Eds) (2011) Information AHistorical Companion Princeton NJ Princeton University Press

References 181

Blair John BMcCormack Jerusha H (2010) Western Civilization with Chinese ComparisonsShanghai Fudan University Press

Bodde Derk (1955) ldquoOn Translating Chinese Philosophical Termsrdquo In Far Eastern Quarterly 14235ndash237

Boumldeker Hans Erich (Ed) (2002) Begriffsgeschichte Diskursgeschichte MetaphergeschichteGoumlttingen Wallstein

Bonaccorsi Andrea (2018) ldquoTowards an Epistemic Approach to Evaluation in SSHrdquo InAndrea Bonaccorsi (Ed) The Evaluation of Research in the Social Sciences andHumanities Lessons from the Italian Experience Cham Springer 1ndash29

Bonacina Giovanni (2015) The Wahhabis Seen through European Eyes (1772ndash 1830) LeidenBrill

Bontems Vincent K (2014) ldquoWhat Does Innovation Stand for Review of a Watchword inResearch Policiesrdquo In Journal of Innovation Economics and Management 15(3) 39ndash57

Borghero Carlo (2017) Interpretazioni categorie finzioni Narrare la storia della filosofiaFlorence Le Lettere

Borghini Andrea (2019) ldquoOrdinary Biodiversity The Case of Foodrdquo In Elena CasettaJorgeMarques da SilvaDavid Vecchi (Eds) From Assessing to Conserving Biodiversity ChamSpringer 415ndash433

Borgman Christine LEdwards Paul NJackson Steven JChalmers Melissa KBowkerGeoffrey C et al (2013) Knowledge Infrastructures Intellectual Frameworks andResearch Challenges Ann Arbor Mich Deep Blue

Bourdieu Pierre (2002) ldquoLes conditions sociales de la circulation internationale des ideesrdquoIn Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 145 5ndash9

Bozzi Andrea (2015) ldquoGreek into Arabic A Research Infrastructure Based on ComputationalModels to Annotate and Query Historical and Philosophical Digital Textsrdquo In AndreaBozzi (Ed) Digital Texts Translations Lexicons in a Multi-Modular Web ApplicationMethods and Samples Florence Olschki 27ndash42

Brague Reacutemi (1993) Europe La voie Romaine Paris GallimardBrague Reacutemi (2004) ldquoLangues et traditions constitutives de la philosophie en Europerdquo In

Barbara Cassin (Ed) Vocabulaire europeacuteen des philosophies Dictionnaire desintraduisibles Paris Eacuteditions du Seuil-Robert 694ndash699

Brague Reacutemi (2009) Eccentric Culture A Theory of Western Civilization Samuel Lester (Ed)South Bend In St Augustinersquos Press

Braun Lucien (1973) Histoire de lrsquohistoire de la philosophie Paris OphrysBredekamp Horst (1997) ldquoZur Vorgeschichte von Thomas Hobbesrsquo Bild des Staatesrdquo In

Hans-Joumlrg RheinbergerMichael HagnerBettina Wahring-Schmidt (Eds) Raumlume desWissens Repraumlsentation Codierung Spur Berlin Akademie 23ndash37

Brucker Jakob (1742) Historia critica philosophiae a mundi incunabulis ad nostram usqueaetatem deducta 6 vols Leipzig Weidemann

Brucker Jakob (1747) Institutiones historiae philosophicae Leipzig WeidemannBrucker Jakob (1791) The History of Philosophy from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of

the Present Century William Enfield (Ed) London Dove Baynes PriestlyBrunner Fernand (1964) ldquoHistorie de la philosophie et philosophierdquo In Leslie J BeckYvon

BelavalJean-Louis Bruch et al (Eds) Eacutetudes sur lrsquohistoire de la philosophie enhommage agrave Martial Gueroult Paris Fischbacher 179ndash204

182 References

Buck Guenther (1978) ldquoThe Structure of Hermeneutic Experience and the Problem ofTraditionrdquo In New Literary History 10 31ndash47

Butler Clark (1997) History as the Story of Freedom Philosophy in Intercultural ContextAmsterdam Rodopi

Butler Judith (1990) Gender Troubles Feminism and the Subversion of Identity New YorkRoutledge

Cacciatore Giuseppe (2001) ldquoLa storiografia filosofica italiana tra storia delle idee e storiadella culturardquo In Rivista di storia della filosofia 56 205ndash224

Cacciatore GiuseppeDrsquoAnna Giuseppe (Eds) (2010) Interculturalitagrave Tra etica e politicaRome Carocci

Cadeddu Maria EMarras Cristina (Eds) (2019) Linguaggi ricerca comunicazione FocusCNR Rome CNR Edizioni

Cai Deborah A (Ed) (2010) Intercultural Communication Los Angeles SageCanullo Carla (2017) Il chiasmo della traduzione Metafora e veritagrave Sesto San Giovanni

MimesisCarayannis Elias GCampbell David FJ (2009) ldquolsquoMode 3rsquo and lsquoQuadruple Helixrsquo Toward a

21st Century Fractal Innovation Ecosystemrdquo In International Journal of TechnologyManagement 46 201ndash234

Carens Joseph A (Ed) (2013) The Ethics of Immigration Oxford New York Oxford UniversityPress

Cassin Barbara (Ed) (2004) Vocabulaire europeacuteen des philosophies Dictionnaire desintraduisibles Paris Eacuteditions du Seuil-Robert

Cassirer Ernst (1944) An Essay on Man An Introduction to a Philosophy of Human CultureNew Haven Conn Yale University Press

Castantildeer Xavier (2014) ldquoCultural Innovation by Cultural Organizationsrdquo In Victor AGinsburghDavid Throsby (Eds) Handbook of the Economics of Art and CultureAmsterdam North Holland vol 2 261ndash276

Castles StevenDe Haas HeinMiller Mark J (2013) The Age of Migration Basingstoke NewYork Palgrave Macmillan

Cesana Andreas (2000) ldquoPhilosophie der Interkulturalitaumlt Problemfelder AufgabenEinsichtenrdquo In Jahrbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache 26 435ndash461

Chan Wing-Tsit 陳榮捷 (Ed) (1963) A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy Princeton NJPrinceton University Press

Chen Lai 陈来 (2016) ldquoPractical Wisdom in Confucian Philosophyrdquo In Yearbook of Easternand Western Philosophy 1 335ndash348

Cheng Anne (1997) Histoire de la penseacutee chinoise Paris Eacuteditions du SeuilChesbrough Herbert W (2003) Open Innovation The New Imperative for Creating and

Profiting from Technology Cambridge Mass Harvard University PressChiesi Antonio MDe Luca Deborah (2012) ldquoImprenditori immigrati in Italia Il problema

della dimensione e dellrsquoefficienzardquo In Quaderni di sociologia 58 41ndash65 DOI 104000qds589

Ching Julia (2000) The Religious Thought of Chu Hsi Oxford New York Oxford UniversityPress

Choi Jeong-Woo (2014) ldquoLights and Shades of Research into Convergence Asking theHumanities for the Directionrdquo In 3rd World Humanities Forum Humanities in the Era ofTransformative Science and Technology Seoul NRF 423ndash435

References 183

Christian David (2009) This Fleeting World A Short History of Humanity Great BarringtonMass Berkshire

Ciliberto Michele (2011) Eugenio Garin Un intellettuale nel Novecento Rome Bari LaterzaClarke Simon (2005) From Enlightenment to Risk Social Theory and Contemporary Society

London Red Globe PressClaverini Corrado (Ed) (2019) LrsquoItalian Thought tra globalizzazione e tradizione Giornale

critico di storia delle idee Numero Speciale 1 Sesto San Giovanni MimesisClaverini Corrado (2021) La tradizione filosofica italiana Quattro paradigmi Macerata

QuodlibetColangelo Lara (2015) ldquoLrsquointroduzione del diritto romano in Cina Evoluzione storica e recenti

sviluppi relativi alla traduzione e produzione di testi e allrsquoinsegnamentordquo In Roma eAmerica Diritto romano comune 36 175ndash210

Cole Philipp (2000) Philosophies of Exclusion Liberal Political Theory and ImmigrationEdinburgh Edinburgh University Press

Coletto Mauro et al (2017) ldquoSentiment-enhanced Multidimensional Analysis of Online SocialNetworks Perception of the Mediterranean Refugees Crisisrdquo In Computer ScienceSocial Information Networks arXiv160501895v1 [csSI]

Collingwood Robert G (1946) The Idea of History Oxford Oxford University PressCollins Randall (2002) The Sociology of Philosophies A Global Theory of Intellectual

Change Cambridge Mass Harvard University PressComenius Johann Amos (1938) The Way of Light Ernst T Campagnac (Ed) London Hodder

amp StoughtonConfucius (1673) Confucius Sinarum philosophus sive scientia sinensis latine exposita

Prospero IntorcettaChristianus HerdtrichPhilippe CoupletFranccedilois de Rougemont(Eds) Paris Horthemel httpsbooksgoogleitbooksid=_7sWaP0PQfACampprintsec=frontcoveramphl=itampsource=gbs_book_other_versions_rampredir_esc=yv=onepageampqampf=false visited 6 May 2021

Confucius (2017) Understanding the Analects of Confucius A New Translation of Lunyu withAnnotations Ni Peimin (Ed) Albany NY State University of New York Press

Congregation for Catholic Education (2017) Educating to Fraternal Humanism Building aldquoCivilization of Loverdquo 50 Years After Populorum Progressio Guidelines httpwwwvaticanvaroman_curiacongregationsccatheducdocumentsrc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20170416_educare-umanesimo-solidale_enhtml visited on 6 May 2021

Conrad Sebastian (2016) What Is Global History Princeton NJ Princeton University PressConte RosariaPaolucci Mario (2014) ldquoOn Agent-based Modeling and Computational Social

Sciencerdquo In Frontiers in Psychology 5(7) 1ndash9 DOI 103389fpsyg201400668Council of Europe (2005) Final Report of the Group of Specialists on Gender Budgeting

Strasbourg Directorate-General of Human Rights httpsrmcoeint1680596143 visitedon 6 May 2021

Council of Europe (2008) White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue Living together as Equals inDignity httpswwwcoeinttdg4interculturalsourcewhiteldquo20paper_final_revised_enpdf visited on 6 May 2021

Cousins JillDaley Beth (2017) ldquoMaking Europe Cultural Heritage Campaign to ShowMigration Is Part of the European Identityrdquo In Cartaditalia 1 109ndash121

Cristaldi Flavia (2012) ldquoImmigrati e integrazione nel sistema territoriale urbano epolicentrico di Siracusardquo In Geotema 43 70ndash75

184 References

Croce Benedetto (1915) Teoria e storia della storiografia Bari LaterzaCrutzen Paul (2002) ldquoThe Geology of Mankindrdquo In Nature 415 23 DOI 101038415023aCua Antonio S (Ed) (2003) Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy London RoutledgeCurtius Ernst Robert (1948) Europaumlische Literatur und lateinisches Mittelalter Bern FranckeCurtius Ernst Robert (2013) European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages Willard R Trask

(Ed) Princeton NJ Oxford Princeton University PressDrsquoIorio Paolo (2015) ldquoOn the Scholarly Use of the Internet A Conceptual Modelrdquo In Andrea

Bozzi (Ed) Digital Texts Translations Lexicons in a Multi-modular Web ApplicationMethods and Samples Florence Olschki 1ndash25

Dal Pra Mario (1951) Logica teorica e logica pratica nella storiografia filosofica MilanBocca

Dal Pra Mario (1996) Storia della filosofia e della storiografia filosofica Scritti scelti MariaAssunta Del Torre (Ed) Milan Angeli

Dallmayr Fred (2013) ldquoAfterword The Return of Philosophical Anthropologyrdquo In AnantaJumar GiriJohn Clammer (Eds) Philosophy and Anthropology Border Crossing andTransformations New York Anthem Press 357ndash364

Daniels Stephen (2012) ldquoArguments for Humanistic Geographyrdquo In Derek GregoryNoelCastree (Eds) Human Geography Los Angeles Sage vol 2 165ndash178

Darnton Robert (2009) The Case for Books Past Present and Future New York PublicAffairs

Davey George (2013) The Philosophy of Eating Break the Trance Des Moines Io CornDavis Natalie Z (2011) ldquoDecentering History Local Stories and Cultural Crossings in a

Global Worldrdquo In History and Theory 50(2) 188ndash202Dawson StevenIwasawa Tomoko (Eds) (2000) Intercultural Philosophy Bowling Green

Oh Philosophy Documentation CenterDe Fina AnnaTseng Amelia (2017) ldquoNarrative in the Study of Migrantsrdquo In Suresh

Canagarajah (Ed) The Routledge Handbook of Migration and Language LondonRoutledge 381ndash397

De Jong Franziska (2019) ldquoCLARINmdashInfrastructural Support for Impact through the Study ofLanguage as Social and Cultural Datardquo In Bente MaegaardRiccardo PozzoAlbertoMelloniMatthew Woollard (Eds) Stay Tuned to the Future Impact of ResearchInfrastructures for Social Sciences and Humanities Florence Olschki 121ndash129

Demantowski MarkoPallaske Christoph (Eds) (2015) Geschichte lernen im digitalenWandel Berlin Boston De Gruyter DOI 1015159783486858662

Dervin Fred (2012) ldquoCultural Identity Representation and Otherrdquo In Jane Jackson (Ed) TheRoutledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication London Routledge181ndash194

Descartes Reneacute (1993) Meditations on First Philosophy Donald A Cress (Ed) IndianapolisIn Hackett

Dewind JoshKasinitz Philip (2010) ldquoEverything Old Is New Again Processes and Theoriesof Immigrant Incorporationrdquo In Steven Vertovec (Ed) Migration London Routledgevol 5 18ndash31

Di Cesare Donatella (2017) Stranieri residenti Per una filosofia della migrazione TurinBollati-Boringhieri

References 185

Diagne Souleymane Bachir (2018) ldquoDecolonizing the History of Philosophyrdquo In MatthiasKaufmannRichard RottenburgReinhold Sackmann (Eds) Anton Wilhelm Amo LecturesHalle Martin-Luther-Universitaumlt 13ndash32

Diagne Souleymane Bachir (2019) ldquoPortrait of the Philosopher as Translatorrdquo In MichaelaOttThomas Weber (Eds) Situated in Translations Cultural Communities and MediaPractices Bielefeld Transkript 15ndash21

Diagne Souleymane BachirAmselle Jean-Loup (2020) In Search of Africa(s) Universalismand Decolonial Thought Cambridge Polity

Dias JoanaPartidaacuterio Maria (2019) ldquoMind the Gap The Potential Transformative Capacity ofSocial Innovationrdquo In Sustainability 11(16) 4465 DOI 103390su11164465

Diels HermannKranz Walther (1934ndash1937) Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker griechisch unddeutsch 3 vols Berlin Weidmann

Diemer Alwin (Ed) (1981) Philosophy in the Present Situation of Africa Wiesbaden SteinerDiemer AlwinHountondji Paulin J (Eds) (1985) Africa and the Problem of Its Identity

FrankfurtMain LangDietz Guumlnther (2007) ldquoKeyword Cultural Diversity A Guide through the Debaterdquo In

Zeitschrift fuumlr Erziehungswissenschaft 50(10) 7ndash30Dilthey Wilhelm (1883) Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften Leipzig Duncker amp Humblot

httpswwwdeutschestextarchivdebookshowdilthey_geisteswissenschaften_1883visited on 6 May 2021

Dilthey Wilhelm (1903) Weltanschauungslehre Abhandlungen zur Philosophie derPhilosophie Bernhard Groethuysen (Ed) Stuttgart Teubner

Dilthey Wilhelm (GS) (1914ndash2006) Gesammelte Schriften 28 vols Stuttgart GoumlttingenTeubner Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht

Dilthey Wilhelm (SW) (1989ndash2019) Selected Works Rudolf A Makkreel and Frithjof Rodi(Eds) 6 vols Princeton NJ Princeton University Press

Diminescu Dana (2008) ldquoThe Connected Migrant An Epistemological Manifestordquo In SocialScience Information 47(4) 565ndash579 DOI 1011770539018408096447

Diminescu DanaLoveluck Benjamin (2014) ldquoTraces of Dispersion Online Media andDiasporic Identitiesrdquo In Crossings Journal of Migration amp Culture 5(1) 23ndash39 DOI101386cjmc5123_1

Dobson Andrew (2010) ldquoThick Cosmopolitanismrdquo In Gerard DelantyDavid Inglis (Eds)Cosmopolitanism London Routledge vol 3 267ndash287

Dottin Paul A (2019) ldquoSino-African Philosophy A Re-constructive Engagementrdquo ComparativePhilosophy 10 38ndash66 DOI 10319792151ndash6014(2019)100107

Durrheim KevinMukadder OkuyanTawli Michelle SGarciacutea-Saacutenchez EfraiacutenPereiraAdriennePortice Jennie SGur TamaraWiener-Blotner OriKiel Tina F (2018) ldquoHowRacism Discourse Can Mobilize Right-wing Populism The Construction of Identity andAlliance in Reactions to UKIPrsquos Brexit Breaking Point Campaignrdquo In Journal ofCommunity amp Applied Social Psychology 28(6) 385ndash405 DOI 101002casp2347

Eco Umberto (1993) La ricerca della lingua perfetta nella cultura europea Rome BariLaterza

Edmond JenniferFischer FrankRomary LaurentTasovac Toma (2020) ldquoSpringing the Floorfor a Different Kind of Dance Building DARIAH as a Twenty-First Century ResearchInfrastructure for the Arts and Humanitiesrdquo In Jennifer Edmond (Ed) Digital Technology

186 References

and the Practices of Humanities Research Cambridge Open Book Publishers 207ndash234DOI 1011647OBP0192

Edwards Ruth WJumper-Thurman PamelaPlested Barbara AOetting Eugene RSwansonLouis (2000) ldquoCommunity Readiness Research to Practicerdquo In Journal of CommunityPsychology 28(3) 291ndash307 DOI 101002(SICI)1520ndash6629(200005)283lt291AID-JCOP5gt30CO2ndash9

Elberfeld Rolf (2009) ldquoGlobale Wege der Philosophie im 20 Jahrhundert Die Weltkongressefuumlr Philosophie 1900ndash2008rdquo In Allgemeine Zeitschrift fuumlr Philosophie 34(1) 149ndash169

Elberfeld Rolf (Ed) (2017) Philosophiegeschichtsschreibung in globaler PerspektiveHamburg Meiner

Eleta IreneGolbeck Jennifer (2012) ldquoA Study of Multilingual Social Tagging of Art ImagesCultural Bridges and Diversityrdquo In Proc ACM 2012 Conf Comput Support Coop WorkCSCW 12 695ndash704

Engelsing Rolf (1974) Der Buumlrger als Leser Lesergeschichte in Deutschland 1500ndash 1800Stuttgart Metzler

Entrikin J Nicholas (1976) ldquoContemporary Humanism in Geographyrdquo In Annals Associationof American Geographers 66 615ndash632

Erdal Marta BEzzati Rojan T (2016) ldquoWhere Are You from Or When Did You Comerdquo Ethnicand Racial Studies 38(7) 1202ndash1217

Erdal Marta BOeppen Ceri (2018) ldquoForced to Leaverdquo Journal of Ethnic and MigrationStudies 44(6) 991ndash998 DOI 1010801369183X20171384149

Erdmann Benno (1893) Abhandlungen zur Philosophie und ihrer Geschichte HalleNiemeyer

ESFRI (European Strategy Forum Research Infrastructures) (2018) Strategy Report ResearchInfrastructures Roadmap 2018 Brussels Science and Technology Facilities Councilhttproadmap2018esfrieumedia1066esfri-roadmap-2018pdf visited 6 May 2021

Esposito FulvioRusso MargheritaSargolini MassimoSartori LauraVirgili Vania (Eds)(2017) Building Back Better Idee e percorsi per la costruzione di comunita resilientiRome Carocci

Eacutetiemble Reneacute (1988) LrsquoEurope chinoise Vol 1 De lrsquoEmpire romain agrave Leibniz ParisGallimard

Etzkowitz HenryLeydesdorff Loet (2000) ldquoThe Dynamics of Innovation From NationalSystem and lsquoMode 2rsquo to a Triple Helix of University-industry-government Relationsrdquo InResearch Policy 29 109ndash123

EUR (2014) Horizon 2020 Work Programme 2014ndash2015 httpseceuropaeuresearchparticipantsdatarefh2020wp2014_2015mainh2020-wp1415-societies_enpdf visited on6 May 2021

EUR (2015) Bridge over Troubled Waters The Link between European Historical Heritage andthe Future of European Integration Insights from Social Sciences and HumanitiesResearch on Reflective Societies Luxembourg Publication Office of the European UnionDOI 102777534076

EUR (2016a) Expert Advisory Group Recommendations on 2018ndash2020 Work-ProgrammeHorizon 2020 Societal Challenge 6 Europe in a Changing World Inclusive Innovativeand Reflective Societies httpseceuropaeuprogrammeshorizon2020siteshorizon2020filesSC6_EAG_report_2018ndash2020pdf

References 187

EUR (2016b) Open Science Open Innovation Open to the World A Vision for EuropeLuxembourg Publication Office of the European Union DOI 102777061652

EUR (2019) Integration of Social Sciences and Humanities in Horizon 2020 ParticipantsBudget and Disciplines Monitoring Report on Projects Funded in 2014 under theSocietal Challenges and Industrial Leadership Priorities Luxembourg Publication Officeof the European Union DOI 102777756427

EUR (2020) Horizon 2020 Work Programme 2018ndash2020 httpseceuropaeuresearchparticipantsdatarefh2020wp2018ndash2020mainh2020-wp1820-societies_enpdf visited on6 May 2021

EUR (2021) Horizon Europe Strategic Plan 2021ndash2024 Luxembourg Publication Office of theEuropean Union DOI 1027777083753

European Agenda for Culture (2014) Report on the Role of Public Arts and CulturalInstitutions in the Promotion of Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Dialogue BrusselsDirectorate-General Education and Culture httpseceuropaeuassetseacculturelibraryreports201405-omc-diversity-dialogue_enpdf visited on 6 May 2021

Evans Jill (2018) On Language Equality in the Digital Age (2018(2018(INI)) Current Obstaclesto Achieving Language Equality in the Digital Age in Europe httpswwweuroparleuropaeudoceodocumentA-8-2018-0228_ENhtml visited on 6 May 2021

Fan Bingqing 樊炳清 (1926) Zhexue cidian 哲學辭典 (Dictionary of Philosophy) BeijingBusiness Press 商务印书馆

Felder Franziska (2018) ldquoThe Value of Inclusionrdquo In Journal of Education 52(1) 54ndash70Feng Youlan 馮友蘭 (1983) A History of Chinese Philosophy Derk Bodde (Ed) 7th ed

Princeton NJ Princeton University PressFerrara Alessandro (1998) Reflective Authenticity Rethinking the Project of Modernity

London RoutledgeFerraris Maurizio (2014) Introduction to New Realism London BloomsburyFilippetti Andrea (2011) ldquoInnovation Modes and Design as a Source of Innovation A Firm-level

Analysisrdquo In European Journal of Innovation Management 14(1) 5ndash26 DOI 10110814601061111104670html

Fiormonte DomenicoBergonzi MauroFiorentino FrancescoFortini LauraFracassa UgoLucantoni MicheleMarraffa MassimoNumerico Teresa (2014) ldquoThe New HumanitiesProject Report from Inter-disciplinarityrdquo In Humanities 14(3) 415ndash441 DOI 103390h3030415

Fishkin James S (1992) The Dialogue of Justice Towards a Self-Reflective Society NewHaven Conn Yale University Press

Flanagan Owen (2017) The Geography of Morals Varieties of Moral Possibility OxfordOxford University Press

Floridi Luciano (2014) ldquoOpen Data Data Protection and Group Privacyrdquo In Philosophy ampTechnology 27(1ndash3) DOI 101007s13347-014-0157ndash8

Floridi Luciano (2019) The Logic of Information Oxford Oxford University PressForay Dominique (2006) The Economics of Knowledge Cambridge Mass MIT PressForay Dominique (2012) ldquoThe Fragility of Experiential Knowledgerdquo In Richard ArenaAgnegraves

FestreacuteNathalie Lazaric (Eds) Handbook of Knowledge and Economics CheltenhamElgar 267ndash284 DOI 104337978178100102800019

188 References

Forbush EricWelles Brooke F (2016) ldquoSocial Use and Adaptation among Chinese StudentsBeginning to Study in the United Statesrdquo In International Journal of InterculturalRelations 50(Jan) 1ndash12 DOI 101016jijintrel201510007

Fornet-Betancourt Rauacutel (2001) Transformacioacuten intercultural de la filosofiacutea Paris Descleacutee deBrouwer

Foust Matthew A (2017) Confucianism and American Philosophy Albany NY SUNY PressFrawley William (1984) Translation Literary Linguistic and Philosophical Perspectives

Wilmington Del University of Delaware PressFreedman Paul (Ed) (2007) The History of Taste Oakland Cal University of California

PressFricker Miranda (2007) Epistemic Injustice Power and the Ethics of Knowing Oxford New

York Oxford University PressGadamer Hans-Georg (1970) ldquoBegriffsgeschichte als Philosophierdquo In Archiv fuumlr

Begriffsgeschichte 14 137ndash151Gadamer Hans-Georg (1975) Truth and Method Garrett BardenJohn Cumming (Eds) New

York ContinuumGadamer Hans-Georg (1993) ldquoEuropa und die Oikoumenerdquo In Hans-Georg Gadamer Europa

und die Philosophie Hans-Helmuth Gander (Ed) FrankfurtMain Klostermann 67ndash86Galluzzi Paolo (1979) Momentum Studi galileiani Rome Ateneo amp BizzarriGardner SheenaMartin-Jones Marilyn (Eds) (2012) Multilingualism Discourse and

Ethnography London RoutledgeGarin Eugenio (1959) La filosofia come sapere storico Bari LaterzaGatta Timon (2020) ldquoThe Translation of Western Philosophical Terms in Chinese The Case

Studies of lsquoLogicrsquo lsquoMetaphysicsrsquo and lsquoAestheticsrsquordquo In Marina Miranda (Ed) Dal MedioallrsquoEstremo Oriente Vol 2 Studi del dottorato di ricerca in Civiltagrave dellrsquoAsia e dellrsquoAfricaRome Carocci 193ndash219

Gatta Timon (2021) Lo sviluppo del lessico filosofico nel cinese moderno Florence OlschkiGeertz Clifford (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures Selected Essays New York Basic

BooksGeertz Clifford (2000) Available Light Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics

Princeton NJ Princeton University PressGerhardt Volker (2007) ldquoErschlieszligung und Sicherung des kulturellen Erbes Zur Aktualitaumlt

des Forschungsprogramms der Akademienrdquo In Anette Sell (Ed) Editionen Wandel undWirkung Tuumlbingen Niemeyer 3ndash9

Gibbons MichaelLimoges CamilleNowotny HelgaSchwartzman SimonScott PeterTrowMartin (1994) The New Production of Knowledge The Dynamics of Science and Researchin Contemporary Societies Thousand Oaks Cal Sage

Giddens Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity Self and Society in the Late ModernAge Cambridge Polity

Gingras Yves (2017) Science and Religion An Impossible Dialogue London PolityGiri Ananta KumarClammer John (Eds) (2013) Philosophy and Anthropology Border

Crossing and Transformations New York Anthem PressGlick Schiller NinaSalazar Noel P (2013) ldquoRegimes of Mobility across the Globerdquo In

Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39(2) 183ndash200Godin Benoicirct (2007) National Innovation Systems The System Approach in Historical

Perspective Montreal Centre Urbanisation Culture Socieacuteteacute

References 189

Godin Benoicirct (2009) The Making of Science Technology and Innovation Policy ConceptualFrameworks and Narratives 1945ndash2005 Montreal Centre Urbanisation Culture Socieacuteteacute

Godin Benoicirct (2015) Innovation Contested The Idea of Innovation over the CenturiesLondon Routledge

Godin BenoicirctGingras Yves (2000) ldquoWhat Is Scientific and Technological Culture and How IsIt Measured A Multidimensional Modelrdquo In Public Understanding of Science 9 43ndash58

Goethe Johann Wolfgang (1819) West-oestlicher Diwan Stuttgart Cotta httpswwwdeutschestextarchivdebookshowgoethe_divan_1819 visited 6 May 2021

Gomez-Estern Maciacuteas (2013) ldquoNarratives of Migrationrdquo In Culture Psychology 19(3)348ndash368

Gordon Lewis R (2011) ldquoShifting the Geography of Reason in an Age of DisciplinaryDecadencerdquo In Transmodernity Journal of Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1(2) 95ndash102

Gottschall Jonathan (2008) Literature Science and a New Humanities Basingstoke NewYork Palgrave Macmillan

Graeffe Xavier (2008) ldquoEuropean Cultural Systems in Turmoilrdquo In Helmut AnheierYudhishthir Ray Isar (Eds) The Cultural Economy Los Angeles Sage 163ndash171

Grafton Anthony (2006) ldquoThe History of Ideas Precept and Practice 1950ndash2000 andbeyondrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas 67 1ndash32

Granet Marcel (1968) La Penseacutee Chinoise Paris Albin MichelGrant Carl AChapman Thandeka K (Eds) (2008) History of Multicultural Education Vol 1

Conceptual Frameworks and Curricular Issues London RoutledgeGregory DerekCastree Noel (Eds) (2012) Human Geography Los Angeles SageGregory Tullio (1999) Sapor mundi Scritti sulla civiltagrave dei sapori Rome Il Sole 24 oreGregory Tullio (2006) Origini della terminologia filosofica moderna Linee di ricerca

Florence OlschkiGregory Tullio (2012) ldquoTranslatio Studiorumrdquo In Marco Sgarbi (Ed) Translatio Studiorum

Ancient Medieval and Modern Bearers of Intellectual History Leiden Brill 1ndash21Gregory Tullio (2016) Translatio linguarum Traduzioni e storia della cultura Florence

OlschkiGregory Tullio (2017) ldquoLe plaisir drsquoune chasse sans gibier Faire lrsquoHistoire des philosophies

Construction et deacuteconstructionrdquo In Hansmichael HoheneggerRiccardo Pozzo (Eds) Lesrelations de la philosophie avec son histoire Florence Olschki 19ndash43

Gregory Tullio (2021) Lrsquoeros gastronomico Elogio dellrsquoidentitaria cucina tradizionale controlrsquoanonima cucina creativa Rome Bari Laterza

Gregory TullioLamarra AntonioPasini EnricoPozzo Riccardo (Eds) (1967ndash2021) LessicoIntellettuale Europeo 129 vols Florence Olschki

Grim PatrickRescher Nicholas (Eds) (2012) Reflexivity From Paradox to ConsciousnessHeusenstamm Ontos

Guaraldo Olivia (2018) ldquoPublic Happiness Revisiting an Arendtian Hypothesisrdquo InPhilosophy Today 62(2) 397ndash418

Gueroult Martial (1954) ldquoLe problegraveme de la leacutegitimiteacute de lrsquohistoire de la philosophierdquo InArchivio di Filosofia 1 39ndash64

Gueroult Martial (1979) Philosophie de lrsquohistoire de la philosophie Paris Aubier MontaigneGupta Akhil (2003) ldquoThe Song of the Nonaligned World Transnational Identities and

Reinscription of Space in Late Capitalismrdquo In Setha M LowDenise Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga

190 References

(Eds) The Anthropology of Space and Time Locating Culture Oxford Blackwell321ndash336

Gupta AkhilFerguson James (2011) ldquoBeyond lsquoCulturersquo Space Identity and the Politics ofDifferencerdquo In Gerd BaumannSteven Vertovec (Eds) Multiculturalism LondonRoutledge vol 4 131ndash150

Gupta BinaMohanty Jitendra Nath (Eds) (1996) Philosophical Questions East and WestLanham Md Rowman and Littlefield

Guzman Garcia Melissa (2018) ldquoSpiritual Citizenship Immigrant Religious Participation andthe Management of Deportabilityrdquo In International Migration Review 1ndash26 DOI101111imre12306

Habermas Juumlrgen (1958) ldquoAnthropologierdquo In Alwin DiemerIvo Frenzel (Eds) Fischer-Lexikon Philosophie FrankfurtMain Fischer 18ndash35

Habermas Juumlrgen (1968) Erkenntnis und Interesse FrankfurtMain SuhrkampHabermas Juumlrgen (1971) Knowledge and Human Interests Jeremy J Shapiro (Ed) Boston

Beacon PressHabermas Juumlrgen (1973) ldquoWahrheitstheorienrdquo In Helmut Fahrenbach (Ed) Wirklichkeit und

Reflexion Walter Schulz zum 60 Geburtstag Pfullingen Neske 211ndash265Habermas Juumlrgen (1981) Theorie des kommunicativen Handelns Vol 1 Handlungsrationalitaumlt

und gesellschaftliche Rationalisierung FrankfurtMain SuhrkampHabermas Juumlrgen (1984) The Theory of Communicative Action Vol 1 Reason and

Rationalization of Society Thomas McCarthy (Ed) Boston Beacon PressHabermas Juumlrgen (1985) Der philosophische Diskurs der Moderne Zwoumllf Vorlesungen

FrankfurtMain SuhrkampHabermas Juumlrgen (1987) The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity Twelve Lectures

Frederick G Lawrence (Ed) Cambridge Mass MIT PressHabermas Juumlrgen (1991) Staatsbuumlrgerschaft und nationale Identitaumlt FrankfurtMain ErkerHabermas Juumlrgen (1992) Faktizitaumlt und Geltung Beitraumlge zur Diskurstheorie des Rechts und

des demokratischen Rechtsstaates FrankfurtMain SuhrkampHabermas Juumlrgen (1994) Citizenship and National Identityrdquo In Bart van Steenbergen (Ed)

The Condition of Citizenship Los Angeles Sage 20ndash35 DOI 1041359781446250600n3

Habermas Juumlrgen (1996) Between Facts and Norms Contributions to a Discourse Theory ofLaw and Democracy William Rehg (Ed) Cambridge Mass MIT Press

Habermas Juumlrgen (1998) The Inclusion of the Other Studies in Political Theory CambridgeMass MIT Press

Habermas Juumlrgen (2001) Die Zukunft der menschlichen Natur Auf dem Weg zu einerliberalen Eugenik FrankfurtMain Suhrkamp

Habermas Juumlrgen (2003) The Future of Human Nature Hella BeisterWilliam Rehg (Eds)Cambridge Mass MIT Press

Habermas Juumlrgen (2008) Between Naturalism and Religion Philosophical EssaysCambridge Polity

Hagengruber RuthHutton Sarah (2019) ldquoIntroduction Women Philosophers in Early ModernPhilosophyrdquo In British Journal for the History of Philosophy 27(4) 673ndash673 DOI1010800960878820191610861

Halfwassen Jens (2010) ldquoDie Unverwuumlstlichkeit der Metaphysikrdquo In PhilosophischeRundschau 57(2) 97ndash124

References 191

Hall David LAmes Roger T (1998) ldquoChinese Philosophyrdquo In Edward Craig (Ed) RoutledgeEncyclopedia of Philosophy London Routledge DOI 1043249780415249126-G001ndash1

Hall Edward T (1966) The Hidden Dimension New York DoubledayHamburger Max (1956) ldquoAristotle and Confucius A Study in Comparative Philosophyrdquo In

Philosophie 31 324ndash357Hannerz Ulf (1996) Transnational Connections Cultures Peoples Places London RoutledgeHarris Roxy (1998) Introduction to Integrational Linguistics Oxford PergamonHarris Roxy (2003) ldquoLanguage and New Ethnicities Multilingual Youth and Diasporardquo In

Kingrsquos College London Working Papers in Urban Language and Literacy 22 1ndash8Harrison Victoria SBergqvist AnnaKemp Gary (Eds) (2016) Philosophy and Museums

Essays on the Philosophy of Museums Cambridge New York Cambridge UniversityPress

Hartung Gerald (2003) Das Maszlig des Menschen Aporien der philosophischen Anthropologieund ihre Aufloumlsung in der Kulturphilosophie Ernst Cassirers Weilerswist Velbruumlck

Hartung GeraldPluder Valentin (Eds) (2015) From Hegel to Windelband Historiography ofPhilosophy in the 19th Century Berlin Boston De Gruyter

Hatim Basil (2010) ldquoArgumentative Style across Cultures Linguistic Form as the Realizationof Rhetorical Functionrdquo In Deborah A Cai (Ed) Intercultural Communication LosAngeles Sage vol 3 135ndash142

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1812ndash1813) Wissenschaft der Logik 2 vols NuumlrnbergSchrug httpswwwdeutschestextarchivdebookshowhegel_logik0101_1812 visited in6 May 2021

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1993) Vorlesungen uumlber die Geschichte der PhilosophieTeil 1 Einleitung in die Geschichte der Philosophie Orientalische Philosophie WalterJaeschke (Ed) Hamburg Meiner

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1995) Lectures on the History of Philosophy Elizabeth SHaldane (Ed) Lincoln Neb University of Nebraska Press

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (2016) Vorlesungen uumlber die Geschichte der PhilosophieNachschriften zu den Kollegien der Jahre 1819 und 182021 In Gesammelte WerkeVol 301 Klaus Grotsch (Ed) Hamburg Meiner

Heidegger Martin (1985) Gesamtausgabe Vol 12 Unterweg zur Sprache Friedrich-Wilhelmvon Hermann (Ed) FrankfurtMain Klostermann

Helbing Dirk (2015) The Automation of Society Is Next How to Survive the Digital RevolutionScotts Valley Cal CreateSpace

Held David (1999) ldquoPeople on the Move Globalization and Migrationrdquo In David HeldAnthony Mc GrewDavid Goldblatt (Eds) Global Transformations Politics Economicsand Culture Redwood City Cal Stanford University Press 283ndash326

Herder Johann Gottfried (1772) Abhandlung uumlber den Ursprung der Sprache Berlin Voszlighttpswwwdeutschestextarchivdebookviewherder_abhandlung_1772p=5 visited on6 May 2021

Herder Johann Gottfried (1877ndash1913) Herders sammtliche Werke Bernhard SuphanJakobBalde et al (Eds) 33 vols Leipzig Weidmann

Herder Johann Gottfried (2002) ldquoTreatise on the Origin of Languagerdquo In Johann GottfriedHerder Philosophical Writings Michael N Forster (Ed) Cambridge New YorkCambridge University Press 65ndash164

Heubel Fabian (2016) Chinesische Gegenwartsphilosophie Zur Einfuumlhrung Hamburg Junius

192 References

Heubel Fabian (2021) Was ist chinesische Philosophie Kritische Perspektiven HamburgMeiner

Hicks DianaWouters PaulWaltman Ludode Rijcke SarahRafols Ismael (2015)ldquoBibliometrics The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metricsrdquo In Nature 520(7548)429ndash431 DOI 101038520429a

Hidalgo CeacutesarHausmann Ricardo (2009) ldquoThe Building Blocks of Economic Complexityrdquo InProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America106(26) 10570ndash10575

Hinske Norbert (1970) ldquoVerschiedenheit und Einheit der transzendentalen Philosophie ZumExempel fuumlr ein Verhaumlltnis von Problem- und Begriffsgeschichterdquo In Archiv fuumlrBegriffsgeschichte 14 41ndash66

Hinske Norbert (1999) Kant-Index Vol 5 Stellenindex und Konkordanz zur Wiener LogikStuttgart-Bad Cannstatt Frommann-Holzboog

Hinske Norbert (Ed) (1982ndash2020) Kant-Index 54 vols Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt FrommannndashHolzboog

Hirsch ED Jr (2008) ldquoCultural Literacyrdquo In Carl A GrantThandeka K Chapman (Eds)History of Multicultural Education Vol 1 Conceptual Frameworks and Curricular IssuesLondon Routledge 340ndash347

Hoerder Dirk (2002) Cultures in Contact World Migrations in the Second MillenniumDurham NC Duke University Press

Hohenegger Hansmichael (2020) ldquoPhilologie und Uumlbersetzung Technische Ausdruumlcke inKants philosophischer Spracherdquo In Gisela SchluumlterHansmichael Hohenegger (Eds)Kants Schriften in Uumlbersetzungen Hamburg Meiner 337ndash366 DOI 1028937978-3-7873-3858-0

Hohenegger HansmichaelPozzo Riccardo (Eds)(2017) Relations de la philosophie avec sonhistoire Florence Olschki

Holgate Stephen TPalotie AarnoPrainsack Barbara (Eds) (2012) Personalised Medicinefor the European Citizen Towards more Precise Medicine for the Diagnosis Treatmentand Prevention of Disease Forward Look Report Strasbourg IREG

Holt Douglas BCameron Douglas (2012) ldquoCultural Innovation Triumph of a BetterIdeologyrdquo In Market Leader Quarter 1 24ndash27

Holzhey Helmut (Ed) (1983ndash2020) Ueberwegs Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie 14vols Basel Schwabe

Hornberger Nancy H (2010) ldquoMultilingual Language Policies and the Continua of BiliteracyAn Ecological Approachrdquo In Li Wei (Ed) Bilingualism and Multilingualism LondonRoutledge vol 3 430ndash451

Horowitz Marianne (Ed) (2004ndash2005) New Dictionary of the History of Ideas 6 vols NewYork Scribnerrsquos

Hotson Howard (2007) Commonplace Learning Ramism and Its German Ramifications1543ndash1630 Oxford New York Oxford University Press

Hountondji Paulin J (1983) African Philosophy Myth and Reality Bloomington Ind IndianaUniversity Press

Hutton Sarah (2014) ldquoIntellectual History and the History of Philosophyrdquo In History ofEuropean Ideas 40 925ndash937

Ivanhoe Philip J (2016) Three Streams Confucian Reflections on Learning and the MoralHeart-Mind in China Korea and Japan Oxford New York Oxford University Press

References 193

Jackson PaulMavi Reza KSuseno YulianiStanding Craig (2018) ldquoUniversity-industryCollaboration with the Triple Helix of Innovation The Importance of Mutualityrdquo InScience and Public Policy 45(4) 553ndash564 DOI 101093scipolscx083

Jasanoff Sheila (2004) ldquoScience and Citizenship A New Synergyrdquo In Science and PublicPolicy 31(2) 90ndash94 DOI 103152147154304781780064

Jaspers Karl (1949) Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte Zuumlrich ArtemisJaspers Karl (2014) The Origin and Goal of History Michael Bullock (Ed) London

RoutledgeJoumlstingmeier BerndBoeddrich Hans-Juumlrgen (Eds) (2005) Cross-cultural Innovation Results

of the 8th European Conference on Creativity and Innovation Berlin SpringerJun Xue 薛军 (2016) ldquoDialogare con la cultura romana attraverso il diritto romano pubblicordquo

In Index Quaderni camerti di studi romanistici International Survey of Roman Law 44508ndash511

Kaase Max (2013) ldquoResearch Infrastructures in the Social Sciences The Long and WindingRoadrdquo In Brian KleinerIsabelle RenschlerBoris WernliPeter FaragoDominique Joye(Eds) Understanding Research Infrastructures in the Social Sciences Berlin Seismo19ndash30

Kagame Alexis (1956) La philosophie bantou-rwandaise de lrsquoecirctre Brussels AcademieRoyale

Kang Shi-Nik (2014) ldquoThink Different From Socio-biology to Bio-humanitiesrdquo In 3rd WorldHumanities Forum Humanities in the Era of Transformative Science and TechnologySeoul NRF 405ndash422

Kant Immanuel (1764) Beobachtungen uumlber das Gefuumlhl des Schoumlnen und ErhabenenKoumlnigsberg Kanter httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekantverzeichnisse-gesamthtml visited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (1770) De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiisKoumlnigsberg Stanno regiae aulicae et academicae typographiae httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekantverzeichnisse-gesamthtml visited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (1790) Kritik der Urteilskraft Berlin Lagarde httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekantverzeichnisse-gesamthtml visited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (1793) Zum ewigen Frieden Koumlnigsberg Nicolovius httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekantverzeichnisse-gesamthtml visited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (1796ndash1798) Immanuelis Kantii Opera ad philosophiam criticam FriedrichGottlob Born (Ed) 8 vols Leipzig Schwikert

Kant Immanuel (1797) Metaphysik der Sitten Koumlnigsberg Nicolovius httpskorporazimuni-duisburg-essendekantverzeichnisse-gesamthtml visited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (AA) (1900ff) Gesammelte Schriften Koumlniglich Preuszligische [later BBAW]Akademie der Wissenschaften (Ed) Berlin Reimer [later De Gruyter]

Kant Immanuel (1929) Critique of Pure Reason Norman Kemp Smith (Ed) LondonMacmillan httpstrangebeautifulcomother-textskant-first-critique-kemp-smithpdfvisited on 6 May 2021

Kant Immanuel (1956) Kritik der reinen Vernunft Raymund Schmidt (Ed) Hamburg MeinerKant Immanuel (CE) (1992ndash2020) Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant Paul

GuyerAllen B Wood (Eds) 16 vols Cambridge New York Cambridge University PressKant Immanuel (1998) Critique of Pure Reason Paul Guyer (Ed) Cambridge New York

Cambridge University Press

194 References

Kant Immanuel (NAA) (2021 ff) Gesammelte Schriften Abteilung 1mdashNeuedition Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Ed) 9 vols Berlin Boston DeGruyter

Kaplan David M (Ed) (2012) The Philosophy of Food Oakland Cal University of CaliforniaPress

Karl Jacqueline (2007) ldquoImmanuel Kant Der Author der mit der Feder in der Hand denktrdquoIn Anette Sell (Ed) Editionen Wandel und Wirkung Tuumlbingen Niemeyer 128ndash144

Kastoriano Riva (2018) ldquoMulticulturalism and Interculturalism Redefining Nationhood andSolidarityrdquo In Comparative Migration Studies 6 17 DOI 101186s40878-018-0082ndash6

Kato Yasushi 加藤泰史Schoumlnrich Gerhard (Eds) (2020) Kantrsquos Concept of Dignity BerlinBoston De Gruyter

Kelley Donald R (1990a) ldquoWhat Is Happening to the History of Ideasrdquo Journal of the Historyof Ideas 51 3ndash25

Kelley Donald R (Ed) (1990b) The History of Ideas Canons and Variations Rochester NYUniversity of Rochester Press

Kelley Donald R (2002) The Descent of Ideas The History of Intellectual History BurlingtonVt Ashgate

Kelley Donald R (2005) ldquoIntellectual History in a Global Agerdquo In Journal of the History ofIdeas 68(2) 155ndash167

Kenny Anthony (1996) ldquoHistory of Philosophy Historical and Rational Reconstructionrdquo InActa Philosophical Fennica 61 67ndash81

Kerber Hannes (2016) ldquoDer Begriff der Problemgeschichte und das Problem derBegriffsgeschichte Gadamers vergessene Kritik am Historismus Nicolai Hartmannsrdquo InInternational Yearbook of Hermeneutics 15 294ndash314

Kerrou Mohammed (2016) ldquoSphegravere publiquerdquo In Dionigi AlberaMaryline CrivelloMohammed Tozy (Eds) Dictionnaire de la Meacutediterraneacutee Arles Actes Sud 1398ndash1407

Kim Gi-Bong (2014) ldquoWhy the Humanities are Required in the Speeding Era of Science andTechnologyrdquo In 3rd World Humanities Forum Humanities in the Era of TransformativeScience and Technology Seoul NRF 393ndash404

Kim Sung-Moon (2016) Public Reason Confucianism Democratic Perfectionism andConstitutionalism in East Asia Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press

Kimmerle Heinz (1991) Philosophie in Afrikamdashafrikanische Philosophie Annaumlherungen aneinen interkulturellen Philosophiebegriff FrankfurtMain Campus

Kimmerle HeinzMall Ram Adhar (Eds) (1993ndash2012) Studies in Intercultural PhilosophyStudien zur interkulturellen Philosophie 19 vols Amsterdam Rodopi

Kircher Athanasius (1986) China illustrata Charles D Van Tuyl (Ed) Muskagee Oh sdhttpsdocumentslibrarymaastrichtuniversitynlopen4f9ecf51-b4a7ndash404c-a91e-10f0a55391a8 visited on 6 May 2021

Kittel Harald et al (2004ndash2011) UumlbersetzungmdashTranslationmdashTraduction Ein internationalesHandbuch zur UumlbersetzungsforschungmdashAn International Encyclopaedia of TranslationStudiesmdashEncyclopeacutedie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction 3 vols BerlinBoston De Gruyter

Klein Kerwin Lee (2011) From History to Theory Berkeley Cal University of California PressKleingeld Pauline (2011) Kant and Cosmopolitanism The Philosophical Ideal of World

Citizenship Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press

References 195

Kline Stephen JRosenberg Nathan (1986) ldquoAn Overview of Innovationrdquo In Ralph LandauNathan Rosenberg (Eds) The Positive Sum Strategy Washington DC National AcademyPress 275ndash305

Knuuttila SimoNiilinuoto Ilkka (Eds) (1996) Methods of Philosophy and the History ofPhilosophy Helsinki Societas Philosophica Fennica

Koefoed Oleg (2017) ldquoCultural Heritage and Social Innovation A Memory of the Futurerdquo InCartaditalia 1 417ndash444

Koumlgler Hans-Herbert (2010) ldquoConstructing a Cosmopolitan Public Sphere HermeneuticCapabilities and Universal Valuesrdquo In Gerard DelantyDavid Inglis (Eds)Cosmopolitanism London Routledge vol 4 72ndash96

Koselleck ReinhartBrunner OttoConze Werner (Eds) (1972ndash2004) GeschichtlicheGrundbegriffe Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland 9 volsStuttgart Klett-Cotta

Kramsch ClaireUryu Michiko (2011) ldquoIntercultural Contact Hybridity and Third Spacerdquo InJane Jackson (Ed) The Routledge Handbook of Language and InterculturalCommunication London Routledge 211ndash225

Kuhn Jonas (2020) ldquoComputational Text Analysis within the Humanitiesrdquo In Niels ReiterAxel PichlerJonas Kuhn (Eds) Reflektierte algorithmische Textanalyse Berlin BostonDe Gruyter 61ndash106

Kuhn Thomas (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Chicago University of ChicagoPress

Kurtz Joachim (2011) The Discovery of Chinese Logic Genealogy of a Twentieth-CenturyDiscourse Leiden Brill

Kymlicka Will (2011) ldquoIndividual Rights and Collective Rightsrdquo In Gerd BaumannStevenVertovec (Eds) Multiculturalism London Routledge vol 1 327ndash345

Labov William (2001) Principles of Linguistic Change Social Factors Oxford BlackwellLange Johann Joachim (1734) Verbesserte und Erleichterte Lateinische Grammatica Halle

Waisenhaus httpsdigitallb-oldenburgdevd18contenttitleinfo766576 visited on 6May 2021

Laeligrke Mogens (2013) ldquoThe Anthropological Analogy and the Constitution of HistoricalPerspectivismrdquo In Mogens LaeligrkeJustin ES SmithEric Schliesser (Eds) Philosophyand Its History Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy Oxford NewYork Oxford University Press 7ndash29

Laeligrke MogensSmith Justin ESSchliesser Eric (Eds) (2013) Philosophy and Its HistoryAims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy Oxford New York OxfordUniversity Press

Lau Kwok-Ying (2016) Phenomenology and Intercultural Understanding Toward a NewCultural Flesh Berlin Springer

Lave JeanWenger Etienne (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate Peripheral ParticipationCambridge New York Cambridge University Press

Le Goff Jacques (1987) ldquoPeut-on encore parler drsquoune histoire des ideacutees aujourdrsquohuirdquo InMassimo L Bianchi (Ed) Storia delle idee Problemi e prospettive Rome Ateneo ampBizzarri 69ndash85

Lee Lin (2016) ldquoIntercultural Dialogue in Theory and Practice A Reviewrdquo In Journal ofMulticultural Discourse 11(2) 236ndash242 DOI 1010801744714320161156686

196 References

Lehmann KaiSchetsche Michael (Eds) (2015) Die Google-Gesellschaft Vom digitalenWandel des Wissens Bielefeld Transcript DOI 10143619783839407806

Lehtola Ville VStaringhle Pirjo (2014) ldquoSocietal Innovation at the Interface of the State andCivil Societyrdquo In Innovation The European Journal of Social Science Research 27(2)152ndash174 DOI 101080135116102014863995

Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm (1666) De arte combinatoria Leipzig Fick httpsdigitalslub-dresdendewerkansichtdlf1635091 visited on 6 May 2021

Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm (2002) Discours sur la theacuteologie naturelle des Chinois LiWenchaoHans Poser (Eds) FrankfurtMain Klostermann httpsfrwikisourceorgwikiDiscours_sur_la_thC3A9ologie_naturelle_des_Chinois visited on 6 May 2021

Leonardi Claudio (2012) ldquoTranslatio Textuumrdquo In Marco Sgarbi (Ed) Translatio StudiorumAncient Medieval and Modern Bearers of Intellectual History Leiden Brill 67ndash72

Levine Joseph M (2005) ldquoIntellectual History as Historyrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas68(2) 189ndash200

Leacutevi-Strauss Claude (1977) Lrsquoidentiteacute Paris GrassetLeacutevy Pierre (2002) Cyberdeacutemocratie Paris JacobLey David (2011) ldquoPost-multiculturalimrdquo In Gerd BaumannSteven Vertovec (Eds)

Multiculturalism London Routledge vol 4 58ndash74Leydesdorff LoetEtzkowitz Henry (1998) ldquoThe Triple Helix as a Model for Innovation

Studiesrdquo In Science and Public Policy 25(3) 195ndash203Li Qiuling 李秋零 (Ed) (2003ndash2019) Kangde zhuzuo quanji 康德著作全集 Di yi jie 第一节

(The Complete Works of Immanuel Kant Section 1) 9 vols Beijing China Renmin Press中国人民大学出版社

Li Tieying 李铁映 (2016) ldquoPhilosophy The Holy Flame of Spiritrdquo In Yearbook for Eastern andWestern Philosophy 1 1ndash5

Li Wei 李嵬 (Ed) (2010) Bilingualism and Multilingualism London RoutledgeLi Wenchao (1999) Buddhistisch philosophieren Muumlnster WaxmannLi Wenchao (2000) Die christliche China-Missson im 17 Jahrhundert Verstaumlndnis

Unverstaumlndnis Miszligverstaumlndnis Eine geistesgeschichtliche Studie zum ChristentumStuttgart Steiner

Li Wenchao (Ed) (2014) Einheit der Vernunft und Vielfalt der Sprachen Beitraumlge zu LeibnizrsquoSprachforschung und Zeichentheorie Stuttgart Steiner

Li Wenchao 李文超 (2015) ldquoLexicalisation in Japanese Chinese and German A Focus onScalarityrdquo In Theory and Practice in Language Studies 5(2) 318ndash329 DOI 1017507tpls050211

Liburdi Annarita (2000) Per una storia del Lessico Intellettuale Europeo Rome LessicoIntellettuale Europeo

Liburdi Annarita (2007) Il Lessico Intellettuale Europeo dal 2001 al 2006 Rome LessicoIntellettuale Europeo

Liisberg Sune PedersenOluffa EstherDalsgaringrd Anne Line (Eds) (2015) Anthropology andPhilosophy Dialogues on Trust and Hope New York Berghan

Longo Mario (2003) ldquoIn margine al concetto di lsquostoria generalersquo della filosofiardquo In Rivista distoria della filosofia 58(2) 161ndash181

Lovejoy Arthur O (1948) Essays on the History of Ideas Baltimore The Johns HopkinsPress

References 197

Lovejoy Arthur O (1990a) ldquoReflections on the History of Ideasrdquo In Donald R Kelley (Ed)The History of Ideas Canons and Variations Rochester NY University of RochesterPress 1ndash21

Lovejoy Arthur O (1990b) ldquoReply to Professor Spitzerrdquo In Donald R Kelley (Ed) TheHistory of Ideas Canons and Variations Rochester NY University of Rochester Press45ndash46

Low Setha MLawrence-Zuacutentildeiga Denise (2003) ldquoLocating Culturerdquo In Setha M LowDeniseLawrence-Zuacutentildeiga (Eds) The Anthropology of Space and Time Locating Culture OxfordBlackwell 13ndash59

Luft Sebastian (2015) The Space of Culture Towards a Neo-Kantian Philosophy of CultureOxford New York Oxford University Press

Luhmann Niklas (1991) Soziologie des Risikos Berlin New York De GruyterLuhmann Niklas (2002) Risk A Sociological Theory New Brunswick NJ TransactionLundvall Bengt-Aringke (1998) ldquoInnovation as an Interactive Process From User-producer

Interaction to the National System of Innovationrdquo In Giovanni DosiChristopherFreemanGerald SilverbergLuc Soete (Eds) Technical Change and Economic TheoryLondon Pinter 349ndash370

Ma Mung Emmanuel (2012) ldquoContinuiteacute temporelle contiguiumlteacute spatiale et creation drsquounmonde-propre Le cas de la diaspora chinoiserdquo In LrsquoEspace geacuteographique 41(4)352ndash368

Mabe Jacob Emmanuel (2005) Muumlndliche und schriftliche Formen philosophischen Denkensin Afrika Grundzuumlge einer Konvergenzphilosophie FrankfurtMain Lang

Macfie Alexander L (Ed) (2003) Eastern Influences on Western Philosophy A ReaderEdinburgh Edinburgh University Press

Maegaard BentePozzo RiccardoMelloni AlbertoWoollard Matthew (Eds) (2019) StayTuned to the Future Impact of Research Infrastructures for Social Sciences andHumanities Florence Olschki

Maffi Luisa (2007) ldquoBiocultural Diversity for Sustainabilityrdquo In Jules PrettyAndrew S BallTed BentonJulia S GuivantDavid R LeeDavid OrrMax J PfefferHugh Ward (Eds) TheSage Handbook for Environment and Society Los Angeles Sage 267ndash277

Magris Claudio (2016) ldquoIl campanello drsquoallarme che dobbiamo ascoltarerdquo In Corriere dellaSera 25 April 2016 26

Makkreel Rudolf A (2015) Orientation and Judgment in Hermeneutics Chicago University ofChicago Press

Makkreel Rudolf A (2020) ldquoMetaphysics and the Hermeneutical Relevance of WorldviewsrdquoIn Review of Metaphysics 74(2) 321ndash344

Malebranche Nicolas de (1708) Entretien drsquoun philosophe chreacutetien et drsquoun philosophechinois sur lrsquoexistence et la nature de Dieu Paris David httpsgallicabnffrark12148bpt6k9619459btexteImage visited on 6 May 2021

Malebranche Nicolas de (1980) Dialogue between a Christian Philosopher and a ChinesePhilosopher on the Existence and Nature of God Dominick A Iorio (Ed) WashingtonDC Catholic University of America Press

Malinowski Bronisław (1944) A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays HuntingtonCairns (Ed) Chapel Hill NC University of North Carolina Press

Mall Ram Adhar (1995) Philosophie im Vergleich der Kulturen Interkulturelle PhilosophiemdashEine neue Orientierung Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft

198 References

Mall Ram Adhar (2000) Intercultural Philosophy Lanham Md Rowman amp LittlefieldMandelbaum Maurice (1965) ldquoThe History of Ideas Intellectual History and the History of

Philosophyrdquo In History and Theory Special Issue 5 33ndash66Martin Gottfried (1967) Allgemeiner Kantindex zu Kants gesammelten Schriften Dieter

Krallmann (Ed) Berlin De GruyterMartinich Aloysius H (2003) ldquoPhilosophical History of Philosophyrdquo In Journal of the History

of Philosophy 41(3) 405ndash407Masini Federico (1993) The Formation of Modern Chinese Lexicon and Its Evolution toward a

National Language The Period from 1840ndash1898 Berkeley Cal Project on LinguisticAnalysis

Masini Federico (2009) ldquoLa riforma della linguardquo In Guido SamaraniMaurizio Scarpari(Eds) La Cina Vol 3 Verso la modernita Turin Einaudi 621ndash662

Masini Federico (Ed) (1996) Western Humanistic Culture Presented to China by JesuitMissionaries (XVIIndashXVIII Centuries) Rome Institutum Historicum SI

Massey Doreen (2012) ldquoPhilosophy and Politics of Spatiality Some Considerationsrdquo InDerek GregoryNoel Castree (Eds) Human Geography Los Angeles Sage vol 3149ndash163

Massey Douglas SArango JoaquiacutenGraeme HugoKouaouci AliPellegrino AdelaTaylor JEdward (1998) Worlds in Motion International Migration at the End of the MillenniumOxford Clarendon Press

Mauranen Anna (2007) ldquoUniversal Tendencies in Translationrdquo In Margaret RogersGunillaM Anderman (Eds) Incorporating Corpora The Linguist and the Translator ClevedonMultilingual Matters 32ndash48

Maynard DianaLepori Benedetto (2017) ldquoOntologies as Bridges between Data Sources andUser Queries The KNOWMAK Project Experiencerdquo In Emanuela Reale (Ed) OpenIndicators Innovation Participation and Actor-based STI Indicators Paris ScienceTechnology and Innovation Indicators 1ndash7

Mazzucato Mariana (2013) The Entrepreneurial State Debunking Public vs Private SectorMyths London Anthem Press

Mazzucato Mariana (2018) Mission-oriented Research amp Innovation in the European Union AProblem-solving Approach to Fuel Innovation-led Growth Luxembourg Publication Officeof the European Union DOI 10277736546

McEnery TonyXiao Richard (2007) ldquoParallel and Comparable Corpora What Is HappeningrdquoIn Margaret RogersGunilla M Anderman (Eds) Incorporating Corpora The Linguistand the Translator Clevedon Multilingual Matters 18ndash31

Megill Allan (2005) ldquoGlobalization and the History of Ideasrdquo In Journal of the History ofIdeas 68(2) 179ndash187

Meier Georg Friedrich (1755a) Metaphysik Halle Gebauer httpswwwdeutsche-digitale-bibliothekde visited on 6 May 2021

Meier Georg Friedrich (1755b) Betrachtungen uumlber die Schrancken der menschlichenErkentniszlig Halle Hemmerde httpswwwdeutsche-digitale-bibliothekde visited on 6May 2021

Meier Georg Friedrich (1770) ldquoVon dem Ursprunge der menschlichen Erkenntniszligrdquo In GeorgFriedrich Meier Untersuchungen verschiedener Materien aus der Weltweisheit HalleHemmerde vol 3 3ndash68 httpswwwdeutsche-digitale-bibliothekde visited on 6 May2021

References 199

Mejlgaard NielsBloch Carter (2012) ldquoScience in Society in Europerdquo In Science and PublicPolicy 39(6) 695ndash700

Mejlgaard NielsBloch CarterBargmann Madsen Emil (2018) ldquoResponsible Research andInnovation in Europe A Cross-country Comparative Analysisrdquo In Science and PublicPolicy 46(2) 198ndash209 DOI 101093scipolscy048

Mejlgaard NielsBloch CarterDegn LiseNielsen MathiasRavn Tine (2012) ldquoLocatingScience in Society across Europe Clusters and Consequencesrdquo In Science and PublicPolicy 39(6) 741ndash750

Melloni Alberto (2014) Rapporto sullrsquoanalfabetismo religioso in Italia Bologna Il MulinoMendoza Joseacute Jorge (2017) The Moral and Political Philosophy of Immigration Liberty

Security and Equality Lanham Md LexingtonMercer Christia (2019) ldquoThe Contextualist Revolution in Early Modern Philosophyrdquo In

Journal of the History of Philosophy 57(3) 529ndash548 DOI 101353hph20190057Merritt Melissa (2018) Kant on Reflection and Virtue Cambridge New York Cambridge

University PressMerton Robert K (1936) ldquoThe Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Actionrdquo In

American Sociological Review 1(6) 894ndash904 DOI 1023072084615Metha Vikas (Ed) (2015) Public Spaces Critical Concepts in Built Environment Vol 1

Contextualizing and Theorizing Public Space New York RoutledgeMeyer John W (1998) ldquoWorld Society and the Nation-Staterdquo In American Journal of

Sociology 103(1) 144ndash181Meyer John W (2005) Weltkultur Wie die westlichen Prinzipien die Welt durchdringen

Georg Kruumlcken (Ed) FrankfurtMain SuhrkampMeyers Diana T (Ed) (2014) Poverty Agency and Human Rights Oxford New York Oxford

University PressMickiewicz Paulina (2016) ldquoAccess and Its Limits The Contemporary Library as a Public

Spacerdquo In Space and Culture International Journal of Space Studies 19(3) 237ndash250Miller David (2016) Strangers in Our Midst Cambridge Mass Harvard University PressMIBACT (Ministero per i Beni e le Attivitagrave Culturali e per il Turismo) (2015) Culture as an

Instrument of Dialogue among Peoples httpswwwbeniculturaliitmibacmultimediaMiBACdocuments1441188687687_DICHIARAZIONE_DEI_MINISTRI_DELLA_CULTURA_5_DF_INGL_definitivapdf visited on 6 May 2021

Moore Charles A (1944) PhilosophymdashEast and West Princeton NJ Princeton UniversityPress

Moore Margaret (2015) A Political Theory of Territory Oxford New York Oxford UniversityPress

Moretti Franco (2013) Distant Reading London VersoMorettini MicaelaSbrollini AgneseMarcantoni IlariaBurattini Luca (2020) ldquoCOVID-19 in

Italy Datasets of the Italian Civil Protection Departmentrdquo Data in Brief 2020 (105526)DOI 101016jdib2020105526

Morozov EvgenyBria Francesca (2018) Rethinking the Smart City Democratizing UrbanTechnology New York Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung

Mou Zongsan 牟宗三 (2014) ldquoEhu zhi hui Zhongguo wenhua fazhan zhong de da zonghe yuzhongxi chuantong de chonghui 鵝湖之會mdash中國文化發展中的大綜合與中西傳統的重回(The Encounter at the Goose Lake The Great Synthesis in the Development of Chinese

200 References

Culture and the Merging of Chinese and Western Traditions)rdquo In Jason Clower (Ed)Late Works of Mou Zongsan Leiden Brill 70ndash87

Moulaert FrankMehmood AbiMacCallum DianaLeubolt Bernhard (Eds) (2017) SocialInnovation as a Trigger for Transformations Luxembourg Publication Office of theEuropean Union

Moyn SamuelSartori Andrew (Eds) (2013) Global Intellectual History New York ColumbiaUniversity Press

Muumlller GerhardPozzo Riccardo (1988) ldquoCharles Bonnet Bonnet critico di Kant Due Cahiersginevrini del 1788rdquo In Rivista di storia della filosofia 43(1) 131ndash164

Mungello David (1998) ldquoEuropean Responses to a Non-European Culture Chinardquo In DanielGarberMichael Ayers (Eds) The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century PhilosophyCambridge New York Cambridge University Press vol 1 87ndash100

Myrdal Gretty MKarjalainen Lea R (Eds) (2004) Migration and Transcultural IdentitiesStanding Committee for Humanities Forward Look Report Strasbourg IREG

Nagl Ludwig (2014) ldquoRe-reading Traditional Chinese Texts The Axial Age Debate VariousForms of Enlightenment and Pluralism-sensible (Neo‐)Pragmatic Philosophies ofReligionrdquo In Tu Weiming (Ed) Songshan Forum on Chinese and World Civilizations2014 Academic Forum Collected Papers Beijing Institute for Advanced Studies atPeking University 164ndash180

Nail Thomas (2015) The Figure of the Migrant Redwood City Cal Stanford University PressNail Thomas (2016) Theory of the Border Oxford New York Oxford University PressNakamura Hajime 中村元 (1986) A Comparative History of Ideas 2nd edition London New

York KPINational Endowment for the Arts (2014) Measuring Cultural Engagement A Quest for New

Terms Tools and Techniques httpswwwartsgovsitesdefaultfilesmeasuring-cultural-engagementpdf visited on 6 May 2021

Nelson Eric (2017) Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century GermanThought London Bloomsbury

Nelson Richard RRosenberg Nathan (1993) ldquoTechnical Innovation and National SystemsrdquoIn Richard R Nelson (Ed) National Innovation Systems A Comparative AnalysisOxford New York Oxford University Press 3ndash21

Ni Peimin 倪培民 (2017) Understanding the Analects of Confucius A New Translation ofLunyu with Annotations Albany NY State University of New York Press

Nida-Ruumlmelin Julian (2006) Demokratie und Wahrheit Stuttgart BeckNida-Ruumlmelin Julian (2017) Uumlber Grenzen Denken Hamburg Koumlrber-StiftungNietzsche Online (NO) (2011) Christoph Schirmer (Ed) Berlin Boston De Gruyter DOI

httpsdoiorg101515nietzscheOberg Kalervo (2010) ldquoCultural Shock Adjusting to New Cultural Environmentsrdquo In Deborah

A Cai (Ed) Intercultural Communication Los Angeles Sage vol 4 41ndash52Odjik Jan (2016) ldquoIntroduction Linguistic Research Using CLARINrdquo In Lingua 178 1ndash4 DOI

201604003OECD (2015) Frascati Manual Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and

Experimental Development 4th edition Paris OECDOECD (2018) Oslo Manual The Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities

Proposed Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data 4th edition ParisOECD

References 201

OED (Oxford English Dictionary) (1989) The Oxford English Dictionary John A Simpson andEdmund SC Weiner (Eds) 20 vols Oxford Clarendon Press

Ōhashi Ryōsuke 大橋良介 (2015) ldquoEineDie Andere Metaphysik im interculturellenDenkhorizontrdquo In Markus GabrielWolfram HogrebeAndreas Speer (Eds) Das neueBeduumlrfnis der MetaphysikmdashThe New Desire for Metaphysics Berlin Boston De Gruyter225ndash234

Ott MichaelaWeber Thomas (Eds) (2029) Situated in Translations Cultural Communitiesand Media Practices Bielefeld Transkript

Pagliacci FrancescoRusso Margherita (2019a) ldquoMulti-hazard Exposure and Vulnerability inItalian Municipalitiesrdquo In Kamila BorsekovaPeter Nijkamp (Eds) Resilience and UrbanDisasters Cheltenham Elgar 175ndash198 DOI 104337978178897010500017

Pagliacci FrancescoRusso Margherita (2019b) ldquoSocioeconomic Effects of an EarthquakeDoes Spatial Heterogeneity Matterrdquo In Regional Studies 53(4) 490ndash502 DOI 1010800034340420181462483

Palmquist Stephen R (1995) A Complete Index to Kemp Smithrsquos Translation of ImmanuelKantrsquos Critique of Pure Reason Oxford Oxford University Computing Services

Palmquist Stephen R (Ed) (2010) Cultivating Personhood Kant and Asian PhilosophyBerlin Boston De Gruyter

Panikkar Raimon (1988) ldquoWhat is Comparative Philosophy Comparingrdquo In Gerald J LarsonEliot Deutsch (Eds) Interpreting across Boundaries Princeton NJ Princeton UniversityPress 116ndash136

Panikkar Raimon (1996) ldquoPhilosophy What Are We Asking for A Cross-cultural ReflectionrdquoIn Acta Philosophical Fennica 61 161ndash164

Parekh Serena (2008) Hannah Arendt and the Challenge of Modernity London RoutledgeParekh Serena (2017) Refugees and the Ethics of Forced Displacement London RoutledgePasquali Giorgio (1988) Storia della tradizione e critica del testo Florence Le LetterePavlenko Aneta (2010) ldquoBilingualism and Thoughtrdquo In Li Wei (Ed) Bilingualism and

Multilingualism London Routledge vol 2 362ndash391Penz PeterDrydyk JayBose Pablo S (2011) Displacement by Development Cambridge

New York Cambridge University PressPevnik Richard (2011) Immigration and the Constraints of Justice Between Open Borders

and Absolute Sovereignty Cambridge New York Cambridge University PressPiaia Gregorio (2020) ldquolsquoFare filosofiarsquo e lsquofare storia della filosofiarsquordquo In Siacutentesis Revista de

filosofiacutea 3 9ndash28 DOI 10156910718ndash5448Vol3Iss1a309Pichler AxelBlessing AndreacuteReiter NilsSchoumlnfeld Mirco (2020) ldquoAlgorithmische

Mikrolektuumlre philosophischer Texterdquo In Nils ReiterAxel PichlerJonas Kuhn (Eds)Reflektierte algorithmische Textanalyse Berlin Boston De Gruyter 327ndash372

Piovani Pietro (2000) Filosofia e storia delle idee Fulvio Tessitore (Ed) Rome Edizioni diStoria e Letteratura

Pirni Alberto (2018) La sfida della convivenza Per unrsquoetica interculturale Pisa ETSPlato (1925) Phaedrus Harold N Fowler (Ed) Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press

httpswwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdoc=Plat+Phaedrus visited on 6 May 2021Plato (1998) Timaeus Benjamin Jowett (Ed) Salt Lake City Ut Project Gutenberg https

wwwgutenbergorgfiles15721572-h1572-hhtm visited on 6 May 2021Plato (2011) The Cratylus of Plato A Commentary Francesco Ademollo (Ed) Cambridge New

York Cambridge University Press

202 References

[Plato] (2013) Epinomis Francesco AronadioMarco TulliFederico M Petrucci (Eds) NaplesBibliopolis

Plato 柏拉图 (2017) Sugeladi de shenbian 苏格拉底的申辩 (Apology of Socrates) Wu Fei 吴飞 (Ed) Beijing Huaxia chubanshe 华夏出版社

Plato (2020) The Apology of Socrates Benjamin JowettMiriam CarlisleThomas E JenkinsGregory NagySoo-Young Kim (Eds) Washington DC Center for Hellenic Studieshttpschsharvardeduprimary-sourceplato-the-apology-of-socrates-sb visited 6 May2021

Plotinus (2017) The Enneads Stephen MackennaBS Page (Eds) London Faber httpclassicsmiteduPlotinusenneadshtml visited on 6 May 2021

Ponzanesi SandraKoen Leurs (2014) ldquoOn Digital Crossings in Europerdquo In CrossingsJournal of Migration and Culture 5(1) 3ndash22 DOI 101386cjmc513_1

Portes AlejandroZhou Min 周敏 (2010) ldquoThe New Second Generation SegmentedAssimilation and Its Variantsrdquo In Steven Vertovec (Ed) Migration London Routledgevol 5 191ndash213

Pozzo Riccardo (2010) ldquoImitatio oder Repraesentatio Aristotelische Mimesis in denLiteraturen Europasrdquo In Archiv fuumlr Begriffsgeschichte Sonderheft 8 125ndash130

Pozzo Riccardo (2012) Adversus Ramistas Kontroversen uumlber die Natur der Logik am Endeder Renaissance Basel Schwabe

Pozzo Riccardo (2014) ldquoNietzsche Online A Critical Appraisalrdquo In Lexicon Philosophicum 2337ndash341 httplexiconcnritindexphpLPissueview28 visited on 6 May 2021

Pozzo Riccardo (2016) ldquoCorpora that Talk to Each Otherrdquo In Suwanna Satha-AnandKanitSirichanLowell Skar (Eds) Proceedings of the International Symposium Philosophiesin Dialogue Bridging the Great Philosophical Divides 26ndash28 March 2015 BangkokChulalongkorn University Press 235ndash245

Pozzo Riccardo (2018) ldquoZhuzhi yanjiang Dongxi fang zhexue Chuangxin fansi yu baorongZhanghanzhou主旨演讲东西方哲学创新反思与包容章含舟 (Keynote addressEast-West Philosophy Innovation Reflection and Inclusion)rdquo In Li Nian 李念 (Ed) Zaizheli Zhongguo zhexue yu Shijie Xiangyu 24wei Shijie Zhexuejia Fangtanlu 在这里中国哲学与世界相遇 24位世界哲学家访谈录 (Interviews of 24 Philosophers All Over theWorld Chinese Edition) Beijing China Renmin Press中国人民大学出版社 369ndash378

Pozzo Riccardo (2019) ldquoEpistemological Challenges of Engaging Humanities-led Cross-disciplinary Migration Research Issuesrdquo in Briefs on Methodological Ethical andEpistemological Issues 11 1ndash8 httpsmigrationresearchcomstorageappuploadspublic5d9b5a4565d9b5a45677a7185931078pdf visited on 6 May 2021

Pozzo Riccardo (2020) ldquoBlick nach vorn Kant-Uumlbersetzungen und Korporardquo In GiselaSchluumlterHansmichael Hohenegger (Eds) Kants Schriften in Uumlbersetzungen HamburgMeiner 323ndash334 DOI 101038520429a

Pozzo RiccardoBoubtane EkrameDrsquoAlbis HippolyteGreco Tonegutti RaffaellaParavatiClaudio (2022a) ldquoA Future Agenda for Migration Studiesrdquo in Peter Scholten (Ed)Introduction to Migration Studies An Interactive Guide to the Literatures on Migrationand Migration-related Diversities Cham Springer forthcoming

Pozzo RiccardoFilippetti AndreaPaolucci MarioVirgili Vania (2020) ldquoWhat Does CulturalInnovation Stand for Dimensions Processes Outcomes of a New Innovation CategoryrdquoIn Science and Public Policy 47(3) 425ndash433 DOI 101093scipolscaa023

References 203

Pozzo RiccardoGatta TimonHohenegger HansmichaelKuhn JonasPichler AxelTurchiMarcoVan Genabith Joseph (2022b) ldquoAligning Kantrsquos Work and its Translationrdquo InDarja FišerAndreas Witt (Eds) Ten Years CLARIN ERIC New York Berlin De Gruyterforthcoming

Pozzo RiccardoSgarbi Marco (Eds) (2010) Eine Typologie der Formen derBegriffsgeschichte Archiv fuumlr Begriffsgeschichte Sonderheft 7 Hamburg Meiner

Pozzo RiccardoSgarbi Marco (Eds) (2011) Begriffs- Ideen und Problemgeschichte im21 Jahrhundert Wiesbaden Harrassowitz

Pozzo RiccardoVirgili Vania (2016) ldquoGoverning Cultural Diversity Common Goods SharedExperiences Spaces for Exchangerdquo In Economia della cultura 26(1) 41ndash47 DOI10144684035

Pozzo RiccardoVirgili Vania (2017) ldquoSocial and Cultural Innovation ResearchInfrastructures Tackling Migrationrdquo In Diogenes International Journal of HumanSciences 64 DOI 1011770392192117739822

Pozzo RiccardoVirgili Vania (2020) ldquoCommunity Readiness for Local COVID-19Managementrdquo In Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics 5(6002200) 1ndash11 DOI103389frma2020602200

Prahalad Coimbatore KVenkatram Ramaswamy (2000) ldquoCo-opting CustomerCompetenciesrdquo In Harvard Business Review 78(1) 79ndash87

Prahalad Coimbatore KVenkatram Ramaswamy (2004) ldquoCo-creation Experiences The NextPractices in Value Creationrdquo In Journal of Interactive Marketing 18(3) 1ndash14

Presbitero Alfred (2016) ldquoCultural Intelligence (CQ) in Virtual Cross-Cultural InteractionsGeneralizability of Measure and Links to Personality Dimension and Task PerformancerdquoIn International Journal of Intercultural Relations 50(1) 29ndash38

Quintarelli Stefano (2019) ldquoIntermediazione digitale e nuovi conflittirdquo In Paradoxa 13(2)73ndash84

Quintilian (1920) De institutione oratoria Harold E Butler (Ed) Cambridge Mass HarvardUniversity Press httpwwwperseustuftseduhoppertextdoc=Perseus3Atext3 A20070100603Abook3D1 visited 6 May 2021

Radcliffe Sarah A (1994) ldquo(Representing) Post-Colonial Women Authority Difference andFeminismrdquo In Area 26 25ndash32

Raffaetagrave RobertaBaldassar LorettaHarris Anita (2015) ldquoChinese Immigrant Youth Identitiesand Belonging in Prato Italy Exploring the Intersection between Migration and YouthStudiesrdquo In Identities Global Studies in Culture and Power 23(4) 422ndash437 DOI1010801070289X20151024128

Raini Emanuele (2015) ldquoLa traduzione dalle lingue europee al cinese Lrsquointroduzione deidiritti stranierirdquo In Roma e America Diritto romano comune 36 211ndash222

Ravitch Diane (2008) ldquoMulticulturalismrdquo In Carl A GrantThandeka K Chapman (Eds)History of Multicultural Education Vol 1 Conceptual Frameworks and Curricular IssuesLondon Routledge 301ndash314

Reale EmanuelaAvramov DraganaCanhial KubraDovona ClaireFlecha RamonHolmPaulLarkin CharlesLepori BenedettoMosoni-Fried JudithOliver EstherPrimeriEmiliaPuigvert LidiaScharnhorst AndreaSchubert AndraacutesSoler MartaSooacutesSaacutendorSordeacute TeresaTravis CharlesVan Horik Reneacute (2017) ldquoA Review of Literature onEvaluating the Scientific Social and Political Impact of Social Sciences and HumanitiesResearchrdquo In Research Evaluation 27(4) 298ndash308 DOI 101093resevalrvx025

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Reinhardt Karoline (2019) Migration und Weltbuumlrgerrecht Zur Aktualitaumlt eines Theoriestuumlcksder politischen Philosophie Kants Freiburg Alber

Reynolds TracyZontini Elisabetta (2016) ldquoTransnational and Diasporic Youth IdentitiesExploring Conceptual Themes and Future Research Agendasrdquo In Identities GlobalStudies in Culture and Power 23(4) 379ndash391 DOI 1010801070289X20151024129

Rheinberger Hans-JoumlrgHagner MichaelWahring-Schmidt Bettina (Eds) (1997) Raumlume desWissens Repraumlsentation Codierung Spur Berlin Akademie

Ridge Mia (Ed) (2014) Crowdsourcing our Cultural Heritage London RoutledgeRitter JoachimGrunder Karlfried (Eds) (1971ndash2006) Historisches Woumlrterbuch der

Philosophie 13 vols Basel SchwabeRizzi AndreaLang BirgitRym Anthony (2019) What is Translation History Basingstoke

New York Palgrave MacmillanRobins Kevin (Ed) (2006) The Challenge of Transcultural Diversities Cultural Policy and

Cultural Diversity Strasbourg Council of EuropeRomary LaurentMertens MikeBaillot Anne (2016) ldquoData Fluidity in DARIAHmdashPushing the

Agenda Forwardrdquo In Bibliothek Forschung und Praxis 39(3) 350ndash357Romele Alberto (2020) Digital Hermeneutics Philosophical Investigations in New Media and

Technologies London RoutledgeRoncaglia Gino (2018) Lrsquoetagrave della frammentazione Cultura del libro e scuola digitale Rome

Bari LaterzaRorty Richard (1992) ldquoThe Historiography of Philosophy Four Genresrdquo In Richard Rorty

Jeremy B SchneewindQuentin Skinner (Eds) Philosophy in History Cambridge NewYork Cambridge University Press 49ndash75

Rosales Joseacute MariacuteaLoacutepez Rosario (Eds) (2019) Interdisciplinarity and MethodologicalPluralism The Practice of Intellectual History and Conceptual History London Taylor ampFrancis

Rose Gillian (2012) ldquoSituating Knowledge Positionality Reflexivity and Other Tacticsrdquo InDerek GregoryNoel Castree (Eds) Human Geography Los Angeles Sage vol 1237ndash256

Rosemont Henry Jr (1974) ldquoOn Representing Abstractions in Archaic Chineserdquo PhilosophyEast and West 24(1) 71ndash88

Roser AndreasMohrs Thomas (1992) Kant-Konkordanz zu den Werken Immanuel Kants 10vols Hildesheim Olms

Ruiu Maria L (2020) ldquoMismanagement of COVID-19 Lessons Learned from Italyrdquo In Journalof Risk Research 23(7ndash8) 1007ndash1020 DOI 1010801366987720201758755

Runia Eelco (2006) ldquoPresencerdquo In History and Theory 6 DOI 101111j1468ndash2303200600346x

Russo MargheritaScagliarini Simone (2017) ldquoInterventi normativi per lrsquoemergenza Percheacuteserve una legge nazionalerdquo In Fulvio EspositoMargherita RussoMassimo SargoliniLaura SartoriVania Virgili (Eds) Building Back Better Idee e percorsi per la costruzionedi comunita resilienti Rome Carocci 154ndash161

Saalmann Gernot (2013) ldquoClifford Geertz The Philosophical Transformation ofAnthropologyrdquo In Ananta Jumar GiriJohn Clammer (Eds) Philosophy and AnthropologyBorder Crossing and Transformations New York Anthem Press 217ndash229

Sack Robert D (1986) Human Territoriality Cambridge New York Cambridge UniversityPress

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Salvatori Franco (2010) ldquoItaliani nel mondo Geografie di una diasporardquo In AlessandroNicosaNicola Prencipe (Eds) Museo Nazionale dellrsquoemigrazione italiana RomeGangemi 254ndash269

Sandars Thomas Collett (1853) The Institutes of Justinian London LongmanSantinello GiovanniPiaia Gregorio (Eds) (1981ndash2004) Storia delle storie generali della

filosofia 5 vols Padua AntenoreSantinello GiovanniPiaia Gregorio (Eds) (1993) Models of the History of Philosophy Vol 1

From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the Historia Philosophica Constance W Blackwell(Ed) Berlin Springer

Santinello GiovanniPiaia Gregorio (Eds) (2011) Models of the History of Philosophy Vol 2From Cartesian Age to Brucker Constance W BlackwellGregorio Piaia (Eds) BerlinSpringer

Scanlon Thomas M (2018) Why Does Inequality Matter Oxford New York Oxford UniversityPress

Scarantino Luca Maria (Ed) (2013) Universalism in a Multicultural World Diogenes 60(1)Los Angeles Sage

Scazzieri RobertoSimili Raffaella (Eds) (2008) The Migration of Ideas Sagamore BeachCal Science History Publications

Schaumlfer ValeacuterieSerres Alexander (2016) Histories of the Internet and the Web BernInfoclio DOI 1013098infoclioch-lb-0006

Schipani Sandro (Ed) (1991ndash2001) Corporis Iuris Civilis Fragmenta Selecta 罗马法与现代民法 Luoma fa yu xiandai minfa 9 vols Rome Beijing Sapienza-Consiglio Nazionale delleRicerche Zhongguo Zhengfa Daxue 中国政法大学

Schipani Sandro (Ed) (2001ndash2021) Corporis Iuris Civilis Fragmenta Digesta 罗马法与现代民法 Luoma fa yu xiandai minfa 20 vols Rome Beijing Sapienza-Consiglio Nazionaledelle Ricerche Zhongguo Zhengfa Daxue 中国政法大学

Schluumlter GiselaHohenegger Hansmichael (Eds) (2020) Kants Schriften in UumlbersetzungenArchiv fuumlr Begriffsgeschichte Sonderheft 15 Hamburg Meiner

Schmalz Tad (2012) ldquoJHP and the History of Philosophy Todayrdquo In Journal of the History ofPhilosophy 50(4) 477ndash482

Schneewind Jerome B (2005) ldquoGlobalization and the History of Philosophyrdquo In Journal ofthe History of Ideas 68(2) 169ndash178

Schneider Ulrich Johannes (1996) ldquoIntellectual History and the History of Philosophyrdquo InIntellectual News 1 8ndash30

Schneider Ulrich Johannes (2005) ldquoIntellectual History in a Global Age The InternationalDictionary of Intellectual Historiansrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas 68(2) 143ndash154

Schogimen Takashi (2016) ldquoDialogue Eurocentrism and Comparative Political Theory AView from Cross-cultural Intellectual Historyrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas 77(2)323ndash345

Schroumlder Peter (2017) Trust in Early Modern International Political Thought 1598ndash1713Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press

Seghezzi Francesco (2019) ldquoIl lavoro tra reddito e senso nella transizione digitalerdquo InParadoxa 13(2) 99ndash111

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Seidel Roman (2014) Kant in Teheran Anfaumlnge Ansaumltze und Kontexte der Kantrezeption inIran Berlin Boston De Gruyter

Selcer Daniel (2007) ldquoThe Uninterrupted Ocean Leibniz and the Encyclopedic ImaginationrdquoIn Representations 98(1) 25ndash50 DOI 101525rep200798125

Sen Avery (2014) ldquoTotally Radical From Transformative Research to TransformativeInnovationrdquo In Science and Public Policy 41(3) 344ndash358

Sensen Oliver (2011) Kant on Human Dignity Berlin Boston De GruyterSgarbi Marco (2010) ldquoUmriszlig der Theorie der Problemgeschichterdquo In Riccardo PozzoMarco

Sgarbi (Eds) Eine Typologie der Formen der Begriffsgeschichte Archiv fuumlrBegriffsgeschichte Sonderheft 7 185ndash199 Hamburg Meiner

Sgarbi Marco (Ed) (2012) Translatio Studiorum Ancient Medieval and Modern Bearers ofIntellectual History Leiden Brill

Sgarbi Marco (2014) The Italian Mind Vernacular Logic in Renaissance Italy (1540ndash 1551)Leiden Brill

Shanghai Times 上海辞晤士报 (2010) Jinxiandai Hanyu ciyuan cidian 近现代汉语新词词源词典 (Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese) Shanghai Shanghai Times Press 上海辞书出版社

Sheffer Gabi (2013) ldquoIntegration Impact of Diaspora-Homeland Relationsrdquo In DiasporaStudies 6(1) 13ndash30

Shell Susan M (2002) ldquoKant as Propagator Reflections on Observations on the Feeling ofthe Beautiful and Sublimerdquo In Eighteenth-Century Studies 35(3) 455ndash468

Siljak Ana (2001) ldquoBetween East and West Hegel and the Origins of the Russian DilemmardquoIn Journal of the History of Ideas 62(2) 335ndash358

Silver HilaryScott AlanKazepov Yury (2010) ldquoParticipation in Urban Contention andDeliberationrdquo In International Journal of Urban amp Regional Research 34 453ndash477

Sim May (2015) ldquoFrom Metaphysics to Ethics East and Westrdquo In Review of Metaphysics68(3) 615ndash637

Singer PeterMason Jim (2007) The Ethics of What We Eat Why Our Food Choices MatterEmmaus Pa Rodale Books

Smirnov Andrey V (2018) Epistemology of Translation Moscow Russian Academy ofSciences

Speroni Sperone (2001) Dialogo delle lingue Mario Pozzi (Ed) Paris Belles Lettres httpwwwousiaitcontentSezioniTestiSperoniDialogoLinguepdf visited on 6 May 2021

Spitzer Leo (1990) ldquoDiscussion Geistesgeschichte versus History of Ideas as applied toHitlerismrdquo In Donald R Kelley (Ed) The History of Ideas Canons and VariationsRochester NY University of Rochester Press 32ndash44

Steinberg PhilipPeters Kimberley (2015) ldquoWet Ontologies Fluid Spaces Giving Depth toVolume through Oceanic Thinkingrdquo In Society and Space 33(2) 247ndash264

Stekeler-Weithofer Pirmin (2006) Philosophiegeschichte Berlin Boston De GruyterSweet William (Ed) (2009) Migrating Texts and Traditions Ottawa University of Ottawa

PressSweet William (2011) ldquoIntercultural Philosophy and the Phenomenon of Migrating Texts and

Traditionsrdquo In Hans Lenk (Ed) Intercultural and Comparative Philosophy Berlin LIT39ndash58

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Shun Kwong-Loi (2016) Methodological Reflections on the Study of Chinese Thoughtrdquo InSoor-Hon Tan (Ed) The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Chinese PhilosophyMethodologies London Bloomsbury 57ndash84 DOI 1050409781474295024ch-002

Tapper Helena (2010) ldquoThe Potential Risks of the Local in the Global Information SocietyrdquoIn Paul JamesJohn Tulloch (Eds) Globalization and Culture Los Angeles Sage vol 1235ndash244

Tapscott DonWilliams Anthony (2006) Wikinomics How Mass Collaboration ChangesEverything London Atlantic Books

Taraborrelli Angela (2015) Contemporary Cosmopolitanism London BloomsburyTaylor Charles M (1985) ldquoThe Concept of a Personrdquo In Charles M Taylor Philosophical

Papers Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press 1 97ndash114Taylor Charles M (1994) Multiculturalism Examining the Politics of Recognition Princeton

NJ Princeton University PressTaylor Charles M (2011) ldquoThe Politics of Recognitionrdquo In Gerd BaumannSteven Vertovec

(Eds) Multiculturalism London Routledge vol 2 93ndash124Tempel Placide (1949) La Philosophie bantou Paris Preacutesence AfricaineTen Dyke Elizabeth A (1999) ldquoHistorical Anthropologyrdquo In Kelly Boyd (Ed) Encyclopedia of

Historians and Historical Writing Chicago Fitzroy Dearborn 37ndash40Tennemann Wilhelm Gottlieb (1798ndash1819) Geschichte der Philosophie 12 vols Leipzig

BarthTennemann Wilhelm Gottlieb (1812) Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie Leipzig

BarthTennemann Wilhelm Gottlieb (1832) Manual of the History of Philosophy Arthur Johnson

(Ed) Oxford TalboysTerdiman Richard (1993) Present Past Modernity and the Memory Crisis Ithaca NY

Cornell University PressTessitore Fulvio (1990) Storiografia e storia della cultura Bologna Il MulinoThompson Paul MKaplan David M (Eds) (2014) The Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural

Ethics Berlin SpringerTonelli Giorgio (1974) ldquoLeibniz on Innate Ideas and the Early Reactions to the Publication of

the Nouveaux Essais (1765)rdquo In Journal of the History of Philosophy 12(4) 437ndash454Tonner Paul (2016) ldquoMuseums Ethics and Truth Why Museumsrsquo Collecting Policies Must

Face up to the Problem of Testimonyrdquo In Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 79159ndash177

Toral AntonioWay Andy (2015) ldquoMachine-assisted Translation of Literary Text A CaseStudyrdquo In Translation Spaces 4(2) 240ndash267 DOI 101075ts4204tor

Toral AntonioWay Andy (2018) ldquoWhat Level of Quality Can Neural Machine TranslationAttain on Literary Textrdquo csCL 15 Jan 2018 DOI httparxiv-export-lblibrarycornelledupdf180104962

Tortarolo Edoardo (1996) ldquoIntellectual History and Historiographyrdquo Intellectual News 1 18Towse Ruth (Ed) (2011) A Handbook of Cultural Economics London ElgarToynbee Arnold (1934ndash1961) A Study of History 12 vols Oxford Oxford University PressTsien Tsuen-Hsuin 錢存訓 (1954) ldquoWestern Impact on China Through Translationrdquo In The Far

Eastern Quarterly 13(3) 305ndash327Tu Weiming 杜維明 (1985) Confucian Thought Selfhood as Creative Transformation Albany

NY SUNY Press

208 References

Tu Weiming 杜維明 (2010) The Global Significance of Concrete Humanity Essays on theConfucian Discourse in Cultural China New Delhi New Delhi Centre for Studies inCivilizations

Tu Weiming 杜維明 (2015) ldquoSpiritual Humanism An Emerging Global Discourserdquo InSuwanna Satha-AnandLowell Skar (Eds) Philosophies in Dialogue Bridging the GreatPhilosophical Divide Bangkok Chulalongkorn University Press 3ndash9

Tu Weiming 杜維明 (2018) Spiritual Humanism Self Community Earth and Heaven Beijing24th WCP

Tu Xiaofei 涂笑非 (2007) ldquoDare to Compare The Comparative Philosophy of Mou ZongsanrdquoIn Kritike 1(29) 24ndash35

Tuan Yifu 段義孚 (1976) ldquoHumanistic Geographyrdquo In Annals Association of AmericanGeographers 66 266ndash276

Tuschling BurkhardMotroshilowa Nelly (Eds) (1994ndash2018) Immanuel Kant WerkeZweisprachige deutsch-russische Ausgabe 7 vols Moscow RAS Institute of Philosophy

UNESCO (2001) Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity httpportalunescoorgenevphp-URL_ID=13179ampURL_DO=DO_TOPICampURL_SECTION=201html visited on 6 May 2021

UNESCO (2005) Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of CulturalExpressions httpsenunescoorgcreativityconventiontexts visited on 6 May 2021

Van Norden Bryan W (2017) Taking Back Philosophy A Multicultural Manifesto New YorkColumbia University Press

Van Tongeren PaulSchank GerdSiemens Herman (Eds) (2004) Nietzsche-WoumlrterbuchBerlin New York De Gruyter

Vertovec Steven (2010) ldquoSuper-Diversity and Its Implicationsrdquo In Steven Vertovec (Ed)Anthropology of Migration and Multiculturalism New Directions London Routledge65ndash95

Vico Giambattista (2003) Scienza nuova Paolo CristofoliniManuela Sanna (Eds) RomeEdizioni di Storia e Letteratura

Von Braun JoachimZamagni StefanoSanchez Sorondo Marcelo (2020) ldquoThe Moment toSee the Poorrdquo In Science 368(6488) DOI 101126scienceabc2255

Von Hippel Eric (1998) The Sources of Innovation Oxford New York Oxford University PressWalzer Michael H (1994) Thick and Thin Moral Arguments at Home and Abroad South

Bend Ind Notre Dame University PressWang Lin 王琳Han Zhen 韩震 (Eds) (2015ndash2020) Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and

Culture 6 and 5 vols Beijing Singapore Foreign Language Teaching and ResearchPress 外语教学与研究出版社 Palgrave Macmillan

Wang Robin R (2005) ldquoZhou Dunyirsquos Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate Explained (Taijitushuo) A Construction of the Confucian Metaphysicsrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas66(3) 307ndash323 DOI 101353jhi20050047

Wang Robin R (2012) Yinyang The Way of Heaven and Earth in Chinese Thought andCulture Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press

Wang Yueqing 王月清Bap Qinggang 暴庆刚Guan Guoxing 管国兴 (Eds) (2020) History ofChinese Philosophy through Its Key Terms Xiang Shuchen 项舒晨 (Ed) SingaporeSpringer

Wang Zhenmin 王振民 (2006) ldquoThe Roman Law Tradition and Its Future Development inChinardquo In Law China 1 72ndash78 DOI 101007s11463ndash005ndash0005-y

References 209

Weber Max (1978) Economy and Society An Outline of Interpretative Sociology EphraimFischoffGuenther RothClaus Wittich (Eds) Berkeley University of California Press

Weber Max (1980) Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Grundriss der verstehenden SoziologieJochen Winckelmann (Ed) Tuumlbingen Mohr httpwwwzenoorgnid2001143905Xvisited on 6 May 2021

Wellman Christopher HCole Philipp (2012) Debating the Ethics of Immigration OxfordNew York Oxford University Press

Wen Haiming 温海明 (2012) Chinese Philosophy Cambridge New York Cambridge UniversityPress

Westseijn Thijs (2007) ldquoSpinoza sinicus An Asian Paragraph in the History of the RadicalEnlightenmentrdquo In Journal of the History of Ideas 68(4) 537ndash561

White Hayden (2014) The Practical Past Evanston Ill Northwestern University PressWhorf Benjamin L (1956) Language Thought and Reality John B Carroll (Ed) New York

WileyWiener Philip P (Ed) (1973ndash1980) Dictionary of Ideas Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas 5

vols New York ScribnerrsquosWillaschek MarcusStolzenberg JuumlrgenMohr GeorgBacin Stefano (Eds) (2015) Kant-

Lexikon 3 vols Berlin Boston De GruyterWilliams Bernard (2009) Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline Princeton NJ Princeton

University PressWilliamson Timothy (1998) The Philosophy of Philosophy London WileyWimmer Franz Martin (1990) Interkulturelle Philosophie Geschichte und Theorie Wien

PassagenWimmer Franz Martin (2015) ldquoHow Are Histories of Non-Western Philosophies Relevant to

Intercultural Philosophyrdquo Confluence Online Journal of World Philosophies 1(2)125ndash132 151ndash161

Winkelman Michael (2010) ldquoCultural Shock and Adaptationrdquo In Deborah A Cai (Ed)Intercultural Communication Los Angeles Sage vol 4 61ndash74

Wolff Christian (1720) Vernuumlnfftige Gedancken von Gott der Welt und der Seele desMenschen auch allen Dingen uumlberhaupt Leipzig Renger httpdigitalebibliothekuni-halledevd18contenttitleinfo5074868 visited on 6 May 2021

Wolff Christian (1985) Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica Michael Albrecht (Ed)Hamburg Meiner

Wozniak ThomasNemitz JuumlrgenRohwedder Uwe (Eds) (2015) Wikipedia undGeschichtswissenschaft Berlin Boston De Gruyter

Wyatt Sally (2003) ldquoNon-users Also Matter The Construction of Users and Non-users of theInternetrdquo In Nelly OudshoornTrevor Pinch (Eds) How Users Matter The Co-construction of Users and Technology Cambridge Mass MIT Press 67ndash79

Xiao RichardHe Lianzhen 何莲珍Ming Yue 名月 (2010) ldquoIn Pursuit of the Third Code Usingthe ZJU Corpus of Translational Chinese in Translation Studiesrdquo In UCCTS 2010 UsingCorpora in Contrastive and Translation Studies 182ndash214

Xiao RichardMing Yue 名月 (2009) ldquoUsing Corpora in Translation Studies The State of theArtrdquo In Paul Baker (Ed) Contemporary Approaches to Corpus Linguistics LondonContinuum 237ndash262

Xie Yu 谢宇Gough Margaret (2011) ldquoEthnic Enclaves and the Earnings of Immigrantsrdquo InDemography 48 1293ndash1315

210 References

Yahya AdnanSahli Ali (2014) ldquoArabic Text Categorization Based on Arabic Wikipediardquo InACM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing 13(1) article no 4

Yang Guorong 杨国荣 (2013) On Human Action and Practical Wisdom Paul J DrsquoAmbrosioSarah Flavel (Eds) Leiden Brill

Yang Guorong 杨国荣 (2019) Philosophical Horizons Metaphysical Investigation in ChinesePhilosophy Paul J DrsquoAmbrosioDaniel SarafinasSharon SmallAdy Van den StockStefano Gandolfo (Eds) Leiden Brill

Yi Zhuang 庄毅 (2014) ldquoEfficient Personalized Probabilistic Retrieval of Chinese CalligraphicManuscript Images in Mobile Cloud Environmentrdquo In ACM Transactions on AsianLanguage Information Processing 13(4) article no 18

Yousefi Hamid RezaFischer KlausMall Ram AdharReinhardt Jan DBrau Ina (Eds)(2005ndash2017) Interkulturelle Bibliothek 136 vol Nordhausen Bautz

Yusa Michiko (Ed) (2017) The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Contemporary JapanesePhilosophy London Bloomsbury

Zamagni Stefano (2019) ldquoIntroduzione Transizione digitale e mondo del lavorordquo InParadoxa 13(2) 7ndash15

Zanettin Federico (2014) ldquoCorpora in Translationrdquo In Juliane House (Ed) Translation AMulti-disciplinary Approach Basingstoke New York Palgrave Macmillan 178ndash199

Zhang Feng 张锋 (2010) ldquoThe Tianxia System World Order in a Chinese Utopiardquo In ChinaHeritage Quarterly 21(3) httpswwwglobalasiaorgv4no4bookthe-tianxia-system-world-order-in-a-chinese-utopia_zhang-feng visited on 6 May 2021

Zhang Wei 张维 (2006) Heidegger Rorty and the Eastern Thinkers A Hermeneutics of Cross-cultural Understanding Albany NY SUNY

Zhang Zai 張載 (1963) Ximing 西铭 (Western Inscription) In Chan Wing-Tsit 陳榮捷 (Ed) ASource Book in Chinese Philosophy Princeton NJ Princeton University Press 497

Zhao Dunhua 赵敦华 (Ed) (2007) Dialogues of Philosophies Religions and Civilizations inthe Era of Globalization Washington DC Council for Research in Values andPhilosophy

Zhao Tingyang 赵汀阳 (2009) ldquoA Political World Philosophy in Terms of All-under-heaven(Tian-xia)rdquo In Diogenes 56(1) 5ndash18 DOI 1011770392192109102149

Zhao Tingyang 赵汀阳 (2019) Redefining a Philosophy for World Governance LondonPalgrave Macmillan DOI 101007978-981-13-5971-2_1

Zhou Min 周敏 (2010) ldquoSegmented Assimilation Issues Controversies and Recent Researchon the New Second Generationrdquo In Steven Vertovec (Ed) Migration LondonRoutledge vol 5 214ndash245

Žic-Fuchs Milena (2014) ldquoResearch Infrastructures in the Humanities The Challenges ofVisibility and Impactrdquo In Adrian DuşaDietrich NelleGuumlnter StockGert Wagner (Eds)Facing the Future European Research Infrastructures for the Humanities and SocialSciences Berlin Scivero 121ndash133

Zonta Mauro (2018) ldquoPrefazionerdquo In Mauro ZontaPierpaolo Grezzi (Eds) Terminologiafilosofica tra Oriente e Occidente Florence Olschki 9ndash11

Zuchtriegel Gabriel (2017) Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece CambridgeNew York Cambridge University Press

References 211

Index of Subjects

access 2ndash5 8 14 22 29 34 38 60 6272 76 79 83 87ndash88 93ndash95 102ndash104 106 111ndash112 114ndash115 121 123ndash126 128ndash132 136ndash137 143 148ndash150155 161 171 200

ndash open access 3ndash4 87 101ndash102 104 107111 113 121 128 130 132ndash133

African thought and culture 7 18 39 41 5264 162 179 186 189 193 208

agenda 46 52 59ndash63 73 81 86ndash88 9497 99 135 179 188 203 205

agro-food 47ndash48 174all under heaven tianxia天下 142 146 209

211anthropology 5 27 35 42ndash43 52 55

58ndash59 146 160 174 176 179 185189 191ndash192 196ndash198 205 208ndash209

ndash anthropology of space and place 43 176179 191 198

ndash historical anthropology 42ndash43Anthropocene 35appropriationism 44Arabic 6 41 44 127ndash129 136 143ndash144

155 157 171 182architecture 143 161art 6 42 106 108 156 158ndash art history 158ndash digital arts 113 131ndash132ndash digital rights management 4 108 113 155augmented reality 108 167 174

beauty 105bilingualism 136ndash139 143ndash144 149 153

155ndash156 172 193 197 202ndash L1 and L2 138ndash139biodiversity 48 115 171 173 174 182ndash biocultural diversity 173 198book 2 21ndash22 36 125 127 132ndash135 155ndash

156 158border 17 21 29 39 46ndash52 54ndash55 58

76 172 201ndash202boundary 21 51 53ndash54 57 71 95 104

134 159ndash160 172 202

budget 63 89 184 188Bulgarian 127

category 6 14 34 43 57ndash58 61 122 128139 141ndash142 182 203 210

change 1 20 28 35 39 52 57ndash58 78 8288 94 97 108 117 164 176 184

ndash institutional change 111ndash paradigm change 7 168ndash societal change 17 84 106 115 180ndash systemic change 15Chinese putonghua普通话 Mandarin v

3ndash4 15 18 20 25 35 44ndash45 124127 129 140ndash141 144 150ndash152 154ndash156 160 182 197 199 205 207 211

Chinese thought and culture v 3 4ndash811ndash12 15 17ndash18 20 25ndash28 35 3744ndash45 56ndash57 59 98 124 127 129139ndash144 147 151ndash156 159ndash160 172176 179ndash180 182ndash183 185 188ndash189192ndash193 195ndash201 203ndash205 207ndash209 211

city urb 53 55 58 79ndash80 87 91 93 114117ndash118 140 173ndash174 176 184 200202 207

citizen 1 6 10 13 15ndash18 28ndash29 46ndash4850ndash55 58 69 76 83 85ndash90 93 9598 100 103 107 109 113 117 137 158162ndash163 165 167ndash168 191 193ndash195

co-creation 1 75ndash76 86ndash87 89 93ndash9496ndash98 105ndash106 109 111ndash114 116158 161 204

colonialism 6 19 27ndash28 43 49 53 147186 204 211

common good 1 105 113 115 158 166169 204

community shequn社群 2 7 9 11 15ndash1619ndash20 26 28 39 43 47ndash48 52ndash5355ndash56 58ndash59 63 69 77 79ndash8083ndash85 90ndash95 101ndash102 104ndash105114ndash116 118 123 129ndash134 138ndash139162 166ndash167 171ndash172 186ndash187 202204 209


ndash community of practice 2 59 83 90 9395 101 114ndash115 132 171 186

compact 63ndash65competencies 19 20 22 87 92 98ndash99

114 160ndash161 166 171ndash172 204contextualism 25 31 44 181 200corpus 4 21ndash22 28ndash29 35 45 59 89

119 121ndash124 127ndash135 137 141ndash143147ndash156 158 172 180 185 199 203206 210ndash211

ndash alignment 22 121ndash122 124 129 141ndash143 147ndash155 204

ndash concordances 126 149ndash parallel corpora 121ndash122 144 149ndash150

153ndash154 199cosmopolitanism 17 19 26 48ndash50 57 172

181 186 195ndash196 208creativity 9 84 78 80 88 98 105 117

143 162 194 209Croatian 127culture 5ndash8 11 15 17ndash18 20 26 28ndash29

35 39ndash43 45 54ndash55 57 59 69 7579ndash80 86 97ndash98 105ndash108 115ndash118126 129 132 136 141ndash147 159ndash160162ndash169 172ndash176 179 182ndash183 186188ndash192 198ndash205 208ndash209

ndash interculturalism interculturality 2228ndash29 38ndash41 46 59 127 139ndash140158 160ndash161 163ndash168 171ndash172 176183ndash185 188ndash189 192 195ndash196 199201ndash202 204 207 210

ndash multiculturalism 18 20 25 29 40 5679 137 139 161 166 175 180 190ndash191 193 195ndash197 204 206 208ndash209

customer 87 135 204ndash prosumer 86Czech 127

Danish 127dao道 6 12 27data 4 8 15 43 47 61 76 83ndash84 86

90ndash91 93ndash95 102ndash106 108ndash109111ndash116 121ndash135 137 143 149ndash150154ndash155 157ndash158 161 167 172 174185 187ndash188 199ndash201 205

ndash metadata 108112ndash114 121 123 126ndash127 129ndash130 161

democracy 64ndash65 80 168 176 191design 22 61 74 80ndash82 86 94ndash95 99ndash

100 104 114ndash115 122 137 153 168171 188

dialogue 5 9 12 22 29 46 62 76 88 96104 127 142 158 160ndash161 163 165ndash168 171ndash172 175ndash176 184 188ndash189196ndash198 200 203 206 209 211

ndash dialogical culture 1 5 7ndash9 168ndash169ndash grammar of dialogue 168diaspora huaqiao华侨 14 16 20 25

28ndash29 56ndash57 59 172 186 192 198205ndash207

dignity 103 142 164ndash165 168 176 184195 207

disaster risk reduction 11 91diversity 2ndash3 6 9 11 17ndash20 22 25

28ndash29 31 35 36 42 46 48 52 5659ndash62 64 75ndash76 78 80 88ndash89 9597 101 107 110 112 114ndash118 126 132134 136ndash138 142ndash143 150ndash151 158ndash160 153ndash168 171ndash175 182 186ndash188198 293ndash205 209

ndash cultural diversity 6 11 17ndash19 22 42 4676 80 107 117 158 164ndash167 172ndash173 186 188 204ndash205 209

ndash religious diversity 64 143 151

Earth diqiu地球 26 35 49 53 140 209ecology 47 116 173 193edition 11ndash12 37 124 127 133 142 145

148 151 161 180 189 194ndash195education 69 75ndash76 78ndash81 83ndash85

87ndash88 91 93 97 103 111 114 116ndash118 132 134 136 139 161ndash162 168173 176 184 188 190 193 204

ndash multicultural education 190 193 204economics 14 13 60 98 108 116 172

174 176 182ndash183 188 192 208emergency 55 89ndash90 93 98encyclopedia 129 134 140 156 161engagement 16 59ndash60 84 86ndash88

91ndash94 106 114 117 158 163 186 201ndash public engagement 86 88 94 163ndash engineering 63 101 103 155ndash local partnership 74 81 95


environment 9 48 54 75 80 83 91 92103 115 174 198 200

ndash climate change 11 47ndash48 60 75ndash76174ndash175

English 1 4 25 41 44 127 134 136ndash137139 141 144ndash146 156 176 202

Estonian 127ethnocentrism 11 17eurocentrism 57 206European thought and culture 3ndash4 7

13ndash14 20 26 28ndash29 38 44 51 6163ndash64 69 73ndash76 78ndash89 102 104112 117 122 132 145 147 156 159162ndash165 167 172 174 179 182

exclusion 14 17 50 61 75 93ndash94 112 117184

exile 14 159 181experiential knowledge 83ndash86 111 198expression 39 56ndash57 85 134ndash136 146

164ndash167 209externalism 31 44

Farsi 129Finnish 127framework program 73ndash75 88 116 179form of life 43 168French 1 44 123ndash124 127 134 144 156ndash

157

gender 43 47 83 86ndash87 89 118 162165 174 176 183ndash184

geography 5 17 19 35 43 52ndash58 61 90107 117 147 159ndash162 171ndash172 180185 188 190 198ndash199 205 209

ndash geography of philosophy 117ndash humanistic geography 35 185 187 209German 3ndash4 41 44 122ndash124 127 144ndash

147 151ndash152 155 157 197governance 17 46 61ndash62 69 78ndash79 87

102 158 165 173 204 211ndash government 3 10 17 52 60 62 64 76

84 87 90 95 99ndash100 107 116 161187

ndash ministries 62 97 116 168ndash municipalities 87 90ndash91 95 202ndash public administration 90ndash91 95 98 103

105 109 114 163

Greek 6 9 25 44 122ndash123 127ndash128 139143ndash145 147 154 156 160 182

growth 47ndash48 52 65 74ndash75 80 98 101107 118 174ndash175 199

happiness 69 190heaven tian天 26 142 146 209 211health 47ndash48 65 83 90ndash91 96ndash97 102ndash

103 106 115ndash116 118 135 176Hebrew 6 44 129 136 144Hindi 149history 5 7 20 51 56 59 83 147 160

162 172 174ndash176 184 193ndash201ndash cultural history 31 34ndash35 42 105 133ndash intellectual history 29ndash37 45 135 142ndash natural history 77ndash public history 43humanity renlei人类 26 51 64 145ndash146

165 184 208ndash human rights 16 50 54ndash55 59 76 164ndash

166 181 184 200ndash humanism 26 35 168 171 175ndash177 184

187 209humanities 1ndash5 28ndash29 35 46 69 73ndash76

80ndash83 97 104 108 111 113 122 126129ndash132 135ndash137 140 157ndash158 162ndash163 179 182ndash183 185ndash188 190 194ndash196 198 201 203 201

ndash digital humanities 4 28 130 135Hungarian 127

ICT 47 95 102 114ndash115 127 132ndash computational concept modeling 45 122ndash

123ndash computational history of ideas 45 181ndash computational social science 82 103 110ndash digital arts 113 131ndash132ndash digital humanities 4 28 130 135ndash digital rights management 4 108 113 155identity 14ndash15 20ndash21 28ndash29 40 51

54ndash55 57 63ndash64 72 79ndash80 87 107ndash108 110 117ndash118 135 160 162ndash163172 175 180 183ndash186 189ndash191 197201 204ndash205

ndash cultural identity 20 55 63 189 191ndash diasporic identity 14 28 186 205ndash transnational identity 57

214 Index of Subjects

impact 10 14 41 47 48 57 61 81ndash83 9092 97 99 102 108ndash111 114ndash115 118125 132 138 151 155 171 173ndash174185 198 204 207ndash208 211

inclusion 1 4 11ndash12 14ndash15 18 21 52 5573ndash80 82ndash83 93 95 97ndash98 105112 115ndash118 165 174 176 187ndash188191 203

industry 47 57 75 80 82 88 95 105116ndash118 139 163 187ndash188 194

ndash creative industry 80 105ndash cultural industry 80ndash enterprises 52 62 98 109inequality 44 52 59 83 95 116ndash118 123

163 206innovation 1 4 7ndash8 10ndash11 14ndash15 21 29

43 45ndash47 55ndash56 59 61ndash62 73ndash8587ndash89 91ndash118 123 126 129 132 137143 161ndash164 173ndash176 179ndash183 186ndash190 193ndash194 196ndash201 203ndash204 207209

ndash business innovation 98ndash100ndash chain model of innovation 100ndash cultural innovation 1 10 14 21 45 47

83 93 95 96ndash118 129 132 161 163173 183 193ndash194 203

ndash heritage-led innovation 97 106ndash108ndash linear model of innovation 99ndash open innovation 89 100 195 113 174

183 188ndash social innovation 1 10 47 75 97ndash98

100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201

ndash technological innovation 47 98ndash99 108176

ndash triple helix 100 187 194 107integration 13ndash14 17ndash18 26 29 35 45

47ndash48 52 55 57 59ndash61 63 65 7274 80ndash81 83 86 89 92 94 102 107110ndash111 115 117 137 162ndash163 171187 207

ndash integrational linguistics 137 192internalism 31 44intellect zhixing知性 152Irish 127Italian 1 25 44 127ndash128 134 139 144

Japanese 129justice 9 18 118 188 202ndash epistemic injustice 54 85 89

Korean 129

labor 52 61 71 99 116ndash117 138 176ndash workplace 99 116 159language 11 16 18ndash19 21 34 37ndash39

41ndash42 44 56 76 98 104 110 112121ndash123 126ndash127 129ndash131 134ndash140142ndash157 159ndash167 171ndash172 185 188192 193 196ndash197 199 209ndash211

ndash alphabet 19ndash20 22 121ndash122 129 145ndash146 159ndash160

ndash annotation 4 122ndash123 126 130ndash131141 148 155

ndash character hanzi汉字 22 121ndash dictionary vocabulary 11 22 36 45 150

153 155 171 181ndash183 188 193 202207 210

ndash lexicography 11 25 38 44 121ndash123125ndash126 128ndash129 131 137ndash138 141143 145 150ndash153 155 161 182 185197 199 203

ndash thesaurus 22 128Latin 6 11 25 37ndash38 41 44 49 122ndash123

127ndash128 134 136 139 143ndash145 147ndash150 154 156ndash157 159ndash160 162 184ndash185

Latvian 127law 15 19 36 59 70 77ndash78 84 141 160

175library 1ndash2 43 80 86 101 103 111 125

127ndash128 155 158ndash159 161 166 169184 195 200 208

life sciences 47life-long learning 116 176lifeworld 77linguistics 5 11 14 18 35 40 44 46 56

121ndash126 128ndash129 131 135ndash138 140ndash141 143 145ndash146 149ndash152 154ndash155159 173 180 189 192 196 199 201210

ndash integrational linguistics 137 192Lithuanian 127


Maltese 127market 52 80ndash81 85 88 98ndash100 102

112 136 165 176 204mathematics 4 63 122 164media 13ndash15 21 28 43 48 75 79ndash80

83 91 111 132ndash133 136 157 163167ndash168 176 186 202 205

migration 13ndash17 19ndash21 29 46ndash65 7698 114ndash115 138 159 165 167 174179 183ndash187 189ndash193 195 199ndash206210ndash211

ndash digital migration studies 61ndash migration drivers 60ndash migration flows 15 19 48 61 76mimesis 134 203mobility 13 29 46 48 50ndash51 54 56 61

167 174 189movement dong动 26 58 77multiethnicity 58multilingualism 28 41 44 121 123 127

136ndash140 143ndash145 149ndash150 172 176180 187 189 192ndash193 197 199 202

museum 1 43 93ndash94 103 108ndash109 162166 168 192 208

myth 14 42 57 159 172 193

narrative 1 3 6 11 13ndash19 21 28ndash30 4651 53ndash55 72ndash73 80 114 118 133ndash134 138 156 161 174ndash175 181 185190

nation-state 14 21 49 53 55 57ndash58 6093 106 136 142 164 173 197 199ndash200

nature ziran自然 9 17 20 26 56 71 165173 191

Neo-Greek 127 129network 16 28 40 43 47 57 59 81 87

95 101ndash102 104 108ndash109 123 131137 148ndash149 172 184

ocean qamus سوماق 70 171ndash173 207ontology 35 153 171

peace 47 64ndash65 83 118 142 147 167ndash168

phenomenology 12 34ndash35 42 54ndash56 77171 196

phenomenon xianxiang現象 152philosophy 4ndash12 16 18ndash20 39 43 51

62 64 71ndash72 77 86 89 136 146 155164 174ndash176 180ndash211

ndash aesthetics meixue美学 9 18 50 58 108152 189

ndash computational history of ideas 45 181ndash computational concept modeling 45 122ndash

123ndash ethics lunli伦理 9 19ndash20 26 46 55 87

89 113 174 180 183 189 202 206ndash208 210

ndash history of concepts 44 144 146 150 205ndash history of ideas 31 34ndash36 42 45 125ndash

126 150 158 159 181 190 193 195197ndash199 201 206ndash207 209ndash201

ndash history of philosophy 1 3ndash6 15ndash46 5153 80 96 118 121 123 126 133ndash134140 142ndash143 159 173 176 181 182186 191ndash193 196 100 200 206 208

ndash history of problems 18 42 143ndash intercultural philosophy 28 38 40ndash42

185 195 199 207 210ndash logic luoji逻辑 mingxue名学 6 9 20

40 77 86 148 152 181 188ndash189 196207

ndash metaphysics xing er shang xue形而上学xuanxue玄学 9 12ndash13 20 26 4248ndash50 71 152 155ndash156 160 175ndash176189 191 194 198ndash199 202 207 209211

ndash philosophical anthropology 42ndash43ndash philosophy of language 155ndash philosophy of law 175ndash philosophy of migration 15ndash16 46 49

51ndash52ndash philosophy of religion 175physics 19ndash20 91 103place 35 43 46 49 52ndash53 59 79 86

93ndash94 158 163 192ndash anthropology of space and place 43 176

179 191 198ndash displacement 14 46 55 60 63ndash64 181

202plurality 16 28 59 134 136 159ndash161 167

201 205pluriversum 22 35


policy 2ndash3 13ndash14 16ndash17 47 51ndash53 5860ndash63 69ndash70 78 80 83 86 9196ndash99 101ndash104 110 117ndash118 132137 167 171ndash173 176 182 187 190193ndash194 197 200 203 205 207ndash208

ndash research policy 3 70 81 102 104 130132 162ndash163 179 211

ndash policymaker 51ndash52 61ndash63 69 9197ndash99 107 114 116 161ndash162 167 171173

Polish 127politics 9 14 36 46 48 53ndash54 61 78

105 174 176 180 191ndash192 199 206208

portal 86Portuguese 44 127 144poverty 76 83 95 200preparedness 89 91 93proxemics 43

race 11 17ndash18 50 63 110 162 186readiness 21 83ndash96 187 204reading v 2 4 21 28 32 44 125 133 147

149 154 156ndash157 160 200ndash201ndash close reading 21 147ndash distant reading 4 21 147 200reflection 1ndash6 10ndash11 14ndash16 19ndash21 25

30 37 40 43 47 51 53 61ndash62 64 6769ndash83 94ndash95 97 101 105ndash107 109115 117ndash118 123ndash125 129 148 159161 163 165 173ndash174 181 187ndash191193 196 198 200 202 203 205 207

ndash reflective society 2ndash4 6 21 25 67 7073ndash82 163 165 174 188

refugee 47 50ndash55 61 63ndash64 103 159180 184 202

religion 6ndash7 9 11 16 18ndash19 25 39ndash4042 47 50 54 58 62ndash64 71 77ndash7982 104 115 141 143 151 165ndash168175ndash176 180ndash181 183 189 191 200ndash201 211

ndash interreligious dialogue 62 104ndash innovation in religion 82 115research 4 7 10ndash11 13ndash17 21 30 36

43ndash44 46ndash47 53 59ndash64 69ndash7073ndash76 79ndash85 87ndash91 93ndash109 111ndash113 115ndash117 121ndash124 129ndash132 135ndash

138 140 154 158 163 167 171 174180 182ndash183 185ndash189 193ndash194197ndash201 204ndash205 207 209 211

ndash academy 16 81 99 179ndash national research council 46 99 125ndash research funding 4 10 13 60ndash63

74ndash75 81 86 99 104 111 117 179ndash research infrastructure 1 14 91 97 99

101ndash105 109 112ndash114 116 118 121128ndash132 137 142 155 158 161 182185ndash187 194 198 204 211


ndash university 16 62 99ndash100 194 157 194Roman Law luoma fa罗马法 141 184 194

204 209Romanian 127RRI 83ndash85 87ndash88 94 112 180 200Russian 44 127 129 144 151 155

Sanskrit 129science 4ndash5 9ndash10 13 19 32ndash33 36 47

62ndash63 69 74ndash76 78 80ndash89 91ndash104 107ndash117 126 130 132 141 145151 158 161 163 167 169 174 176179ndash180 182ndash190 193ndash200 203ndash204 207 209 211

ndash science center 1 87 93ndash94 158 161 169ndash science and technology studies 10 69

83 98 101ndash scientific culture 97 106ndash108ndash scientist 69 83 100 102 104 107ndash108

127SDG 65 79 83 95118 173self ziwo自我 9 17 20 26 72 172 189

209semantics 36 44 121ndash123 126 128 130

145 152 154 172ndash neosemy neology 38 143 145shared experience 1 14 25 28 94 98

106ndash107 112 158 166 169 204Slovak 127Slovene 127society 2ndash4 6 10ndash11 14 21 25 39ndash40

47 51ndash52 57 59 67 69ndash71 73ndash8183ndash84 86ndash89 92 94ndash97 100ndash112114ndash117 132 134 138 141 158 160ndash


161 163 165ndash166 174ndash176 179ndash180184 188ndash189 191ndash192 197ndash198 200207ndash209

ndash computational social science 82 103 110ndash inclusive society 1 4 14 52 73ndash79 82

117 165 187ndash social innovation 1 10 47 75 97ndash98

100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201

ndash social percolation 110sociology 3 29 39 69 174 176 180ndash181

184 200 209sovereignty 15 21 49 51 53 57 142 179

202space 1 32 34ndash35 46 57ndash58 125 136

157 167 171 190ndash191 196 207ndash anthropology of space and place 43 176

179 191 198ndash public space 1 79 103 158 161ndash163

169 200ndash space of exchange 1 16 112 158 161ndash

162 166 204Spanish 44 127 144spirit jingshen精神 9 20 26 31 34 54

146 175ndash177 191 197 209ndash spiritual humanism jingshen renwenzhuyi

精神人文主义 9 26 175ndash176 209SRL xii 92SSH 2 4 47 63 74ndash75 80ndash82 97 102ndash

103 108 117 125 127 129ndash131 135141 155 182

stakeholder 15 52 62 84 86 88 90ndash9295 110 112ndash114 174

state of nature 17STEM 63 81 127 132stillness jing静 26sustainability 3 11 85 111 130 161 186

198Swedish 127

Tamil 149technology 1 4 9ndash10 21 28 47 51 59

63 69 76 79 83 92 94ndash95 97ndash102104ndash105 108ndash109 111ndash112 114ndash115117 122 127 129ndash132 137 139 157161 163 167 176 180ndash181 183 186187ndash188 190 194 199ndash201 205 210

ndash key enabling technology 4 108ndash science and technology studies 10 69

83 98 101territory 46 54ndash55 57 83 91 101 121

133 172 200ndash deterritorialization 15 51text 4 25ndash26 121ndash121 131 133 136 141ndash

143 145 147ndash150 152ndash156 158 180196 202 204 208 210

ndash centrality of text 35 129 136 147 158ndash literary text wenyawen文言文 156ndash paratext 25 37 153ndash polygraphy 148ndash149ndash Urtext 123ndash124 148theology 36 104 167 175 197transcendental xianyan先验 153translatio studiorum 136 143 158ndash159

190 197 207translation 6 11ndash12 21ndash22 25 38 41

44ndash45 123ndash124 126 129 134 136ndash138 140ndash158 160 162 164 166 168171 180 184 189 201ndash202 204ndash205207ndash208 210ndash211

ndash third code 150ndash154 210ndash Translationese 140 151TRL xii 92Turkish 129

union 62 116unity of heaven and the human being tianren-

heyi天人合一 26 146user 11 28 43 54 61ndash62 86 90 95 101ndash

102 106 109ndash110 130 135 151 155167 172 185 189

ndash user data 113ndash115

Vietnamese 149vulnerability 17 53 62 90ndash92 202website 8 86 123

water 48 83 101 173ndash174well-being 8 10Western grammar in contemporary Chinese

xiandai Hanyu ouhua yufa现代汉语欧化语法 151

Western thought and culture 3 5ndash7 911ndash12 17ndash18 20ndash21 25ndash27 34 36


38ndash39 52 92 133 139 141 143 147152 155 159ndash160 163 172 175 182ndash183 189 190ndash191 197ndash201 203 205207ndash208 210ndash211

xenophobia 14 46 64 163

yinyang阴阳 19 208


Index of Names

Abraham 175Acostamadiedo Eduardo 52 179Aesop 156Adam 160Ademollo Francesco 147 179 211Agamben Giorgio 51 179Agazzi Evandro 8ndash9 179Agier Michel 53 179Alagoa Egbiegberi J 39 179Alan of Lille 156Albera Dionigi 195Alcofribas Nasier 179Alexander von Humboldt Foundation viAlighieri Dante 134ALLEA 81 179Alquieacute Ferdinand 31ndash32 179Amatayakul Supakwadee 8Amato Fabio 15 179Ambrosini Maurizio 16 54 179Ames Roger T 18 139 179 192Amin Ash 58 179Amo Anton Wilhelm 186Amselle Jean-Loup 7 186Analects Lunyu论语 25 156 184 201Anderman Gunilla M 199Antinucci Francesco 174 179Appadurai Arjun 15 46 53 57ndash58 179Arachi Alessandra 93 180Arango Joaquiacuten 52 199Archer Margaret S 69ndash70 180Archibugi Daniele v 87 98 180Arendt Hannah 51 54 180ndash181 190 202Aristotle 9 12 44 56 128 134 139 143

147ndash148 154 156ndash157 180 192 203Avramov Dragana 109 204Ayers Michael 201

Bacin Stefano 124 210Bacon Francis 10 180Baillot Anne 132 205Baker Mona 121 180 210Baker Paul 210Baldassar Loretta 25 204

Balde Jakob 192Ball Andrew S 198Bambach Charles 69 180Bap Qinggang暴庆刚 45 209Barabantseva Elena 20 180Bargmann Madsen Emil 88 200Basnage de Beauval Jacques 27 180Battaglia Fiorella vBattistoni Francesca 109 180Baudelaire Charles 181Bauman Zygmunt 171ndash172 180Baumann Gerd 1 180 191 196ndash197 208Bayle Pierre 26 34Baynham Mika 107 138 180ndash181Becchetti Leonardo 90 181Beck Leslie J 182Beck Ulrich 76 181Beister Hella 191Belaval Yvon 182Bellows Andrew J 174 181Beacutenabou Roland JM 115 181Benhahib Seyla 57 181Benjamin Walter 10 18 21 181Benton Ted 198Benveniste Eacutemile 36 181Berger Stefan 159 181Bergonzi Mauro 157 188Bergqvist Anna 108 192Bergson Henri 34Berlin Declaration on Open Access 3Bernhard of Cluny 156Berque Augustin 35 56 181Berti Enrico 33 181Betti Arianna 4 45 123 181Bevir Mark 25 122 181Bianchi Massimo L 196Bianco Giuseppe v 9 181Bijker Wiebke E 101 181Billington James H 127Birmingham Peg 54 181Blackwell Constance W 206Blair Ann 4 181Blair John 139 182


Blessing Andreacute 45 202Bloch Carter 88 200Blondel Maurice 10Boumldeker Hans-Erich 42 182Boeddrich Hans-Juumlrgen 98 194Boethius 6 44 143Bonaccorsi Andrea v 98 109 182Bonacina Giovanni v 39 55 147 182Boni Tanella 7Bontems Vincent K 10 98 182Book of Changes Yijing易经 27Borghero Carlo 30 182Borghini Andrea 174 182Borgman Christine L 103 11 182Borsekova Kamila 202Bose Pablo S 46 202Boubtane Ekrame v 59 203Bourdieu Pierre 4 6 194Bowker Geoffrey C 103 11 182Boyd Kelly 208Bozzi Andrea 122 143 182 185Brague Reacutemi 171 182Brau Ina 41 211Braun Lucien 39 182Bredekamp Horst 36 182Bria Francesca 114 200Brown Lesley 180Bruch Jean-Louis 182Brucker Jakob 33 182 206Brunner Fernand 33 182Brunner Otto 182Bruno Giordano 19 34 147Brunschwig Leacuteon 10Buck Guenther 41 183Buddha 6 12 20 27 58 197 201Burattini Luca 90 200Busa Roberto 125Butler Clark 41 183Butler Harold E 204Butler Judith 8 20 183 204

Cacciatore Giuseppe 35 168 183Cadeddu Maria Eugenia 25 46 183Cai Deborah A 139 165ndash166 183 192 201

210Cameron Douglas 98 202Campagnac Ernst T 184

Campbell David FJ 100 183Canagarajah Suresh 185Canhial Kubra 109 204Canullo Carla 137 140 183Carayannis Elias 100 183Carens Joseph A 15 46 48 183Carlisle Miriam 203Carnap Rudolf 10Cassin Barbara 36 45 134 144 146 182ndash

183Cassirer Ernst 42 70 183 192Castaner Xavier 108 183Castelvetro Ludovico 134Castles Steven 17 183Castree Noel 34 185 190 199 205Cesana Andreas 136 183Chalmers Melissa K 103 111 182Chan Wing-Sit陳榮捷 26 183Chapman Thandeka K 139 165 190 193

204Chen Lai陈来 12 183Cheng Anne 8 9 183Chesbrough Herbert W 100 183Chiesi Antonio M 47 183Ching Julia 27 183Choi Jeong-Woo 129 183Christian David 35 184Chronicles of Zuo Zuozhuan左转 156Cicero 6 44 134 143Ciliberto Michele 126 184Clammer John 42 185 189 205CLARIN ERIC xi 104 129ndash131 133 135 137

142 144 149ndash150 155ndash156 185 201204

Clarke Simon 76 184Claverini Corrado v 35 184Clover Jason 201Colangelo Lara 141 184Cole Philipp 15 46 184 210Coletto Mauro 167 184Colli Giorgio 124Collingwood Robert G 30 184Collins Randall 39ndash40 184Comenius Johann Amos 21 184Confucius Kongzi孔子 1 5ndash6 12 20

25ndash27 139 146 160 183ndash184 189192ndash193 195 201 208ndash209

Index of Names 221

Congregation for Catholic Education 168184

Congreve Richard 180Conrad Sebastian 18 184Conte Rosaria 110 184Convention on the Protection and Promotion

of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions164

Conze Werner 196Conzo Gianluigi 90 181Conzo Pierluigi 90 181Copernicus Nicolaus 44Corbin Henry 10Costa Silvia 4 75Coste Pierre 157Council of Europe 69 89 165 184 205Council of the European Union 73ndash76 81

84 114Cousins Jill 115 184COVID-19 11 16 83ndash84 90ndash91 93 95

173 181 200 204ndash205Craig Edward 192Cress Donald A 185Crick Francis 39Cristaldi Flavia 25 184Crivello Maryline 195Croce Benedetto 8 30 185Crutzen Paul 35 185Curtius Ernst Robert 37 44 156 159 185

DrsquoAlbis Hippolyte v 59 203DrsquoAmbrosio Paul J 211DrsquoAncona Cristina 143DrsquoAnna Giuseppe 168 183DrsquoIorio Paolo 153 155 185 198Da Graccedila Carvalho Maria 4 75Dal Pra Mario v 29ndash30 36 185Daley Beth 115 184Dallmayr Fred 43 185Dalsgaringrd Anne Line 42 197Daniels Stephen 35 185DARIAH ERIC xi 1 104 110ndash113 129ndash133

142 158 186 205Darnton Robert 133 185Davey George 174 185Davis Natalie Z 19 185Dawson Steven 41 185

De Baets Antoon 159 181De Broglie Louis 10De Fina Anna 14 46 138 181 185De Haas Hein 17 183De Jong Franziska 135 185De La Rameeacute Pierre 34De Luca Deborah 47 183De Mauro Tullio 125De Rijcke Sarah 109 193De Valk Helga 52 179Degn Tine 88 200Delanty Gerald 181DellrsquoAgnese Elena 15 179Demantowski Marko 3 185Demosthenes 134Denni Mario 180Dervin Fred 20 185Descartes Reneacute 9ndash11 126 156ndash157 185Deutsch Eliot 202Dewind Josh 17 185Di Cesare Donatella 15ndash17 46 49 51

53ndash54 185Diagne Souleymane Bachir 7 22 27 28

142 159 186Dias Joana 98 186Diels Hermann xi 186Diemer Alwin 41 198Dietz Guumlnther 166 186Dilthey Wilhelm xi 1 69ndash71 148 180 186Diminescu Dana 28ndash29 58ndash59 167 172

186Dionisius Cato 156Discourses of the States Guoyu国语 156Dobson Andrew 20 186Doctrine of the Mean Zhongyong中庸 156Dosi Giovanni 198Dottin Paul A 39 186Dougherty Jude P vDovona Claire 109 204Drydyk Jay 46 202DTA-CAB xi 149Duguid Paul 4 181Dupont-Roc Roselyne 134 180Durrheim Kevin 110 186Dutens Louis 12DWDS xi 149

222 Index of Names

E-RIHS xi 104EAC 46 98 161 166ndash167 172 188ECHO 127ndash128Eco Umberto 136 140 186Edmond Jennifer 102 113 186Edwards Paul N 103 11 182Edwards Ruth W 84 187Ehler Christian 4 75EHRI xi 104Eichmann Adolf 51Elberfeld Rolf 38 187Eleta Irene 112 187Eltsin Boris 9Enfield William 182Enriques Federigo 8Entrikin J Nicholas 35 187Erdal Marta B 51 53 187Erdmann Benno 33 187Ernst Germana 179ESFRI 97 102ndash104 129 135 187Esmaeili Mohammad Javad vEsposito Fulvio 93 187 205Eacutetiemble Reneacute 26 187Etzkowitz Henry 100 187 197EUR 4 14 20ndash21 74ndash75 79ndash82 89 95

106 114 116ndash117 165 174 187ndash188European Commission 13 73ndash76 87 93

117 180European Parliament 3 73ndash76 93 114Europeana 127Evans Jill 137 188Ezzati Rojan T 51 187

Fahrenbach Helmut 191Fan Bingqing樊炳清 152 155 188Faro Framework Convention on the Value of

Cultural Heritage 69 174Faszligmann Heinz 81Fattori Marta vFelder Franziska 161 188Feng Youlan馮友蘭 27 188Ferguson James 53 191Fermi Enrico 100Ferrara Alessandro 76 188Ferraris Maurizio 8 13 188Fichte Johann Gottlieb 144

Filippetti Andrea v 93 95 97 99ndash100105 110 114 116 180 188 203

Fiorentino Francesco 157 188Fiormonte Domenico 157 188Fischer Frank 102 113 186Fischer Klaus 41 211Fishkin James S 6 76 78 188FISP 7ndash9 133 179Flanagan Owen 18 188Flavel Sarah 211Flecha Ramon 109 204Floridi Luciano 4 95 188Fondazione Bruno Kessler 110 115Foray Dominique 83ndash86 111 188Forbush Eric 28 189Fornet-Betancourt Rauacutel 41 189Forster Michael N 192Fortini Laura 157 188Foust Matthew A 27 189Fowler Harold N 202Fracassa Ugo 157 188Franck James 10Franzel Ivo 191Frawley William 152 189Freeman Christopher 198Frege Gottlob 8Freud Sigmund 144 158Fricker Miranda 89 111 189

Gabriel Markus 202Gadamer Hans-Georg v 41 144ndash146 189

195Gaiseric 159Galilei Galileo 126 189Galluzzi Paolo 126 189Garber Daniel 201Garciacutea-Saacutenchez Efraiacuten 110 186Gardner Sheena 44 123 180 189Garin Eugenio 30ndash32 126 184 189Gatta Timon v 11 141 150 152ndash153 155

189 204Gentile Giovanni 9Gentili Alberico 19 147Geoghegan-Quinn Maacuteire 76Gerhardt Volker 148 189Gertz Clifford 42 160 189 205Giacon Carlo 9

Index of Names 223

Giannotti Fosca 167Gibbons Michael 100 189Giddens Anthony 72ndash73 76 181 189Gigon Olof 148Gill Francis 180Gingras Yves v 10 107 189ndash190Ginsburgh Victor A 183Giri Ananta Kumar 42 185 189 205Glick Schiller Nina 54 189Godin Benoicirct 10 98 100 107 189ndash190Goeing Anja-Silvia 4 181Goethe Johann Wolfgang von 147 190Golbeck Jennifer 112 187Gomez-Estern Maciacuteas 46 190Gonseth Ferdinand 10Gordon Lewis R 43 53 190Gottschall Jonathan 157 190Gough Margaret 17 210Gouhier Henri 10Graeffe Xavier 107 117 190Graeme Hugo 52 199Grafton Anthony 4 31 181 190Granet Marcel 151 190Grant Carl A 139 165 190 193 204Great Learning Daxue大学 156Grecchi Luca 181Greco Tonegutti Raffaella v 59 203Gregory Derek 34 185 190 199 205Gregory Tullio v 6 33ndash34 37ndash38 44ndash46

123 125ndash126 136 140 142ndash143 145158ndash160 172 174 185 190 199 203205

Grim Patrick 70 190Groenewold George 52 179Grotius Hugo 34Grunder Karlfried 36 45 205Gualtierus Anglicus 156Guan Guoxing管国兴 45 209Guaraldo Olivia 54 190Gueroult Martial 31ndash34 39 182 190Guivant Julia S 198Gupta Akhil 21 43 53 57 190ndash191Gupta Bina 18 191Gur Tamara 110 186Guyer Paul 145ndash146 151 194Guzman Garcia Melissa 54 191

Habermas Juumlrgen 43 51 76ndash78 175 191Hagengruber Ruth 29 191Hagner Michael 36 182 205Halfwassen Jens 175 191Hall David 139 192Hall Edward T 43 192Halliwell Stephen 134Hamburger Max 136 141 192Han Zhen韩震 45 129 209Hannerz Ulf 56 192Harms Peter W 39 179Harris Anita 25 204Harrison Victoria 108 192Hart Michael 125Hartmann Nicolai 195Hartung Gerald 42 192Haslanger Sally 8Hatim Basil 41 182Hausmann Ricardo 99 193He Liangzehn何莲珍 152 210Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 12 31 33

36 38 76ndash78 137 144 147 192 207Heidegger Martin 7 12 18 36 38ndash39 144

192 211Helbing Dirk 86 192Held David 52 192HERA xi 162ndash164 179Heraclitus 6 13Herder Johann Gottfried von 70 192Hermes Trismegistus 27Heubel Fabian 12 57 192ndash193Hicks Diana 109 193Hidalgo Ceacutesar 99 193Hiller Anne viHinske Norbert 42 123 147ndash148 193Hintikka Jaakko 9Hitler Adolf 158Hoerder Dirk 52 193Hogrebe Wolfram 202Hohenegger Hansmichael v 31 129 149ndash

151 153 190 193 203ndash204 206Holgate Stephen T 106 193Holm Paul 109 204Holt Douglas B 98 202Holzhey Helmut 44 193Homer 6

224 Index of Names

Horizon 2020 vi 4 63 73ndash76 79ndash81 8895 97 111 116ndash117 187ndash188

Horizon Europe 73ndash76 79ndash82 95 116ndash117 174

Hornberger Nancy H 138 193Horowitz Marianne 36 193Hotson Howard 37 193Hountondji Paulin 7 39 41 186 193Hughes Thomas P 101 181Humboldt Wilhelm von 148Hutton Sarah 29ndash30 191 193

İhsanoğlu Ekmeleddin 39ILC-CNR xi 125ILIESI-CNR xi 15 45 125ndash127 129 159

190 197Inglis David 181ISTI-CNR xi 147ITTIG-CNR xi 125Ivanohe Philip J 27 193Iwasawa Tomoko 41 185

Jackson Jane 185 196Jackson Pau 168 194Jackson Steven J 103 11 182James Paul 208Jasanoff Sheila 87 184Jenkins Thomas 203Jiang Yi江怡 7John Duns Scotus 34Joumlstingmeier Bernd 98 194Jowett Benjamin 202ndash203Jumper-Thurman Pamela 84 187Jun Xue薛军 141ndash142 194Juncker Jean-Claude 117Justinian 141 150 206

Kaase Max 109 194igraveKabbalah הלבק 140Kagame Alexis 39 194Kant Immanuel康德 v vii ix xi 1 4

10ndash12 33 44 46 48ndash51 57 64 7076ndash77 123ndash124 126 129 142 144ndash149 151ndash157 159 164 166 181 193ndash195 198ndash207 209ndash210

Kaplan David M 174 195 208Karjalainen Lea M 21 172 201

Karl Jacqueline 148 195Kasinitz Philip 17 185Kastoriano Riva 29 195Kato Yasushi加藤泰史 164ndash165 195Kaufmann Matthias 186Kazepov Yury 16 217Kelley Donald R 27 30ndash31 34ndash35 37 41

195 198 207Kemp Gary 108 192Kenny Anthony 33 195Kerber Hannes 42 195Kerrou Mohammed 79 198Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Cul-

ture 16 45 129 209Kiel Tina F 110 186Kim Gi-Bong 35 195Kim Hei-Sook 7Kim Soo-Young 203Kim Sung-Moon 26 195Kimmerle Heinz 41 195Kingdon John 60Kircher Athanasius v 19ndash20 140 195Kittel Harald 137 195Klein Kerwin L 18 195Kleingeld Pauline 50 57 195Kline Stephen J 100 196Klossowski Pierre 181Knuuttila Simo 31 196Koefoed Oleg 106 196Koen Leurs 29 203Koumlgler Hans-Herbert 72 196Koselleck Reinhart 36 144 196Kouaouci Ali 52 199Kramsch Claire 139 196Kranz Walther xi 186Kuhn Jonas v 35 45 122 124 150 196

202 204Kuhn Thomas 34 83 196Kurtz Joachim 152 196Kymlicka Will 57 137 196

Labov William 138 196Laeligrke Mogens 31 42 196Lallot Jacques 36 134 180ndash181Lamarra Antonio 45 126 159 190Lang Birgit 142 205Laozi老子 5

Index of Names 225

Larkin Paul 109 204Larson Gerald J 202Lash Scott 76Lau Kwok-Ying 64 196Lave Jean 113 196Lavelle Louis 10Lawrence-Zuacutentildeiga Denise 43 47 53 190

198Lawrence Frederick G 191Le Goff Jacques 37 196Lee David R 198Lehmann Kai 3 197Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm von 12ndash13 27

33 122 126 140 144 147 157 171 187197 207ndash208

Leonardi Claudio 159 197Lepore Ernest 7Lepori Benedetto 109 204Lessico Intellettuale Europeo v 16 38 45

123 125 159 189ndash190 197Lessing Gotthold Ephraim 34Leubolt Bernhard 97 106 201Leacutevi-Strauss Claude 20 197Leacutevi Pierre 28 197Levine Joseph M 35 37 197Ley David 57 197Leydesdorff Loet 100 187 197Li Nian李念 203Li Qiuling李秋零 151ndash152 197Li Tieying李铁映 142 197Li Wei李嵬 137 139 193 197 202Li Wenchao李文超 140 197Li Wenchao 20 27 144 197Liburdi Annarita 125 197Liisberg Sune Pedersen 42 197Limoges Camille 100 189Liu Zhe刘哲 7Locke John 157Lombardi Vallauri Luigi 125Longo Mario 39 197Loacutepez Rosario 45 205Lovejoy Arthur O 25 31 197ndash198Loveluck Benjamin 28 186Low Setha M 43 47 53 190 198Lucantoni Michele 157 188Luft Sebastian 42 198Luhmann Niklas 78 198

Lundvall Bengt-Aringke 100 198Luther Martin 44Lyotard Jean-Franccedilois 39

Ma Mung Emmanuel 56 198Mabe Jacob 41 198MacCallum Diana 97 106 201Macfie Alexander L 26 198Macor Laura vMadeira Anne-Virgine 53 179Maegaard Bente 104 109 185 198Maffi Luisa 173 198Magris Claudio 64 198Makkreel Rudolf A 71ndash72 139 186 198Malebranche Nicolas de 27 198Malinowski Bronisław 145 160 198Mall Ram Adhar 28 39ndash41 160 162 167ndash

168 195 198ndash199 211Mandelbaum Maurice 30 199Mann Thomas 158Marcantoni Ilaria 90 200Marcel Gabriel 10Maritain Jean 10Marraffa Massimo 157 188Marras Cristina 25 183Marsilius Ficinus 25 154Martin-Jones Marilyn 44 123 180 189Martin Gottfried 123 199Martinich Aloysius H 33 199Marx Karl 12 144 158Masini Federico 27 151ndash152 199Mason Jim 174 207Massey Doreen 107 199Massey Douglas 52 199Matthew of Vendocircme 156Mauranen Anna 152 207Mavi Reza K 168 194Mazzucato Mariana 101 199McCarthy Thomas 191McCormack Jerusha H 139 182McEnery Tony 151 199Megill Allan 35 199Mehmood Abi 97 106 201Meier Georg Friedrich 12ndash13 199Meister Eckhart 44Mejilgaard Niels 88 200

226 Index of Names

Melloni Alberto 104 109 176 185 198200

Mencius孟子 156Mendoza Joseacute Jorge 17 55 200Mercer Christia 25 31 44 200Merritt Melissa 70 200Mersenne Marin 34Mertens Mike 132 205Merton Robert K 109 200Metha Vikas 163 200Meyer John W 43 200Meyers Diana T 16 54 200MIBACT 160 200Mickiewicz Paulina 161 200Miller David 17 48 200Miller Joseph C 39 179Miller Mark J 17 183Ming Yue名月 152 154 210MMG-MPG vi xiMohanty Jitendra Nath 18 191Mohr Georg 124 210Mohrs Thomas 123 205Montaigne Michel de 34Montinari Mazzino 124Moore Charles A 44 200Moore Margaret 46 54 200Moran Dermot 7Moretti Franco 4 136 147 157 200Morettini Micaela 90 200Morozov Evgeny 114 200Moses 27 63 172Mosoni-Fried Judith 109 204Motroshilowa Nelly 151 209Mou Zongsan牟宗三 12 159 200ndash201 209Moulaert Frank 97 106 201Moyn Samuel 18 201Mukadder Okuyan 110 186Muumlller Gerhard 124 157 201Mungello David 26 201Myrdal Gretty M 21 172 201

Nagl Ludwig 26 201Nagy Gregory 203Nail Thomas 46 53ndash54 59 201Nakamura Hajime中村元 159 201Nansen Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg 64Naso Paolo 16 54 179

National Endowment for the Arts 93 201Nelson Eric 20 180 201Nelson Richard R 99 201Nemitz Juumlrgen 3 210Newbury David S 179Ni Peimin倪培民 25 184 201Nicosa Alessandro 206Nida-Ruumlmelin Julian 8 17 64 201Nielsen Mathias 88 200Nietzsche Friedrich 124 144 201 203 209Niilinuoto Ilkka 31 196Nijkamp Peter 202Nishida Kitarō西田幾多郎 35Nowotny Helga 100 189Numerico Teresa 157 188

Oberg Kalervo 107 201OECD xi 10 99 105 201OED xi 14 72 84 202Oeppen Ceri 53 187Oetting Eugene R 84 187Ōhashi Ryōsuke大橋良介 35 202Olgiati Francesco 10 31Oliver Esther 109 204Oluffa Esther 42 197OPERAS xi 104 129ndash133 142Orestano Francesco 10Orr David 198Ortwijn Yvette 4 181Ott Michaela 136 186 202Oudshoorn Nelly 210

Paccio Alessandro 134Pagliacci Francesco 90 92 202Pallaske Christoph 3 185Palmquist Stephen 12 145 202Palotie Arno 106 193Panikkar Raimon 72 136 159 202Paolucci Mario v 93 95 97 100 105 110

114 116 184 203Paracelsus 34Paravati Claudio vi 59 179 203Parekh Serena 54ndash55 202Parmenides 6Partidaacuterio Maria 98 186Pasini Enrico 45 126 159 190Pasquali Giorgio 35 147 202

Index of Names 227

Pavlenko Aneta 138ndash139 202Peano Giuseppe 8Pedrini Sabina 109 180Pellegrino Adela 52 199Penz Peter 46 202Pereira Adrienne 110 186Pesce Domenico 134Peters Kimberley 172 207Petrucci Federico M 203Petrus Venerabilis 136Pevnik Richard 15 46 48 202Pfeffer Max J 198Phoroneus 160Piaia Gregorio 5 39 202 206Pichler Axel vi 45 150 196 202 204Pinch Trevor 101 181 210Piovani Pietro 35 202Pirni Alberto 140 202Plato柏拉图 6 12 19 25 27 38 134 139ndash

140 154 157 160 172 179 202ndash203Plested Barbara A 84 187Plotinus 143 203Pluder Valentin 42 192Politics of Metadata Group 112ndash114Ponzanesi Sandra 29 203Pope Francis 55 83 95 173Portes Alejandro 59 203Portice Jennie S 110 186Pozzo Carlo vPozzo Riccardo 7 26 31 37 42 44ndash46

59 83 93 95 97ndash98 100 104ndash106109ndash110 114 116 121 124 126 134144 146 150 157 159 185 190 193198 201 203ndash204 207

Prahalad Coimbatore K 87 98 106 204Prainsack Barbara 106 193Prencipe Nicola 206Pretty Jules 198Primeri Emilia 109 204Puigvert Lidia 109 204Pythagoras 27

Quintarelli Stefano 116 204Quintilian 143 204

Rabelais Franccedilois 156Radcliffe Sarah A 107 204

Raffaetagrave Roberta 25 204Rafols Ismael 109 193Raumlhme Boris vRaini Emanuele 141 204Ramose Mogobe B 7ndash8Ravitch Diane 56 204Ravn Tine 88 200Reale Emanuela 109 199 204REDI xii 91Rehg William 191Reichenbach Hans 10Reinhardt Jan D 41 211Reinhardt Karoline 17 46 48ndash51 205Reiter Nils 45 202Remarque Erich M 158Rescher Nicholas 70 190Research Data Alliance 90RESILIENCE xi 104Reynolds Tracy 25 28 205Rheinberger Hans-Joumlrg 36 182 205Ricci Matteo 140Ridge Mia 112 205Risse Wilhelm vRitter Joachim 36 45 205Rizzi Andrea 142 205Robins Kevin 167 205Rogers Margaret 199Rohwedder Uwe 3 210Romary Laurent 102 113 132 186 205Rome Declaration on RRI 84ndash85 112Romele Alberto 4 205Roncaglia Gino 28 205Rorty Richard 34 39 205 211Rosales Joseacute Mariacutea 45 205Rose Gillian 16 43 107 205Rosemont Henry Jr 152 205Rosenberg Nathan 100 196Roser Andreas 123 205Ross WD 10 180Rottenburg Richard 186Ruiu Maria L 91 205Runia Eelco 29 205Russo Margherita 84 90 92ndash93 187 202

205Rym Anthony 142 205

Saalmann Gernot 42 205

228 Index of Names

Sack Robert D 172 205Sackmann Reinhold 196Sager Alex 46 52ndash53 206Sahli Ali 122 128 211Salazar Noel P 54 189Salustri Francesco 90 181Salvatori Franco 54 206Samarani Guido 199Saacutenchez Sorondo Marcelo 95 209Sandars Thomas Collett 141 206Santinello Giovanni 39 206Sarafinas Daniel 211Sargolini Massimo 93 187 205Sartori Andrew 18 201Sartori Laura 93 187 205Satha-Anand Suwanna 203Savonarola Girolamo 159Sbrollini Agnese 90 200SC6 Europe in a Changing World 4 14 17

74ndash75 78ndash79 97 116 187Scagliarini Simone 84 202Scanlon Thomas M 52 206Scarantino Luca 7 134 206Scarpari Maurizio 199Scazzieri Roberto 21 206Schaumlfer Valeacuterie 4 206Schank Georg 124 209Scharnhorst Andrea v 109 204Schelling Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von 144Schetsche Michael 3 197Schipani Sandro 141 150 206Schirmer Christoph vi 201Schliesser Eric 31 196Schluumlter Gisela 129 151 193 203 206Schmalz Tad 27 206Schmidt Raymund 145 194Schneewind Jerome B 27 205ndash206Schneider Ulrich Johannes 36ndash37 159 206Schogimen Takashi 27 206Schoumlnfeld Mirco 45 202Schoumlnrich Gerhard 164ndash165 195Scholten Peter vi 203Schopenhauer Arthur 34Schroumlder Peter 19 206Schubert Andraacutes 109 204Schwartzman Simon 100 189Scott Alan 16 217

Scott Mary 180Scott Peter 100 189Seghezzi Francesco 116 206Seidel Roman 12 207Selcer Daniel 171 207Sell Anette 189 195Sen Avery 10 207Sensen Oliver 164 207Serres Alexander 4 206Sgarbi Marco v 18 38 42 44 56 122

190 197 204 207Shanghai Times上海辞晤士报 150 152 207Shapiro Jeremy J 191Sheffer Gabi 56 207Shell Susan 11 207Shun Kwong-Loi 37 208Siemens Herman124 209Siljak Ana 38ndash39 207Silver Hilary 16 217Silverberg Gerald 198Sim May 26 207Simili Raffaella 21 206Singer Peter 8 174 207Sirichan Kanit 203Skar Lowell 203Small Sharon 211Smirnov Andrey 8 128 207Smith Justin ES 31 196Smith Norman Kemp 145ndash146 194 196

202SOBIGDATA 167Socrates 25 39 203Soete Luc 198Sohst Rhea R 52 179Soler Marta 109 204Sooacutes Saacutendor 109 204Sordeacute Teresa 109 204Speer Andreas 202Speroni Sperone 37ndash38 207Spielberg Steven 134Spinoza Baruch 26 126 210Spitzer Leo 25 198 207Staringhle Pirlo 106 197Standing Craig 168 194Stavanger Declaration concerning the Future

of Reading 157Stein Ludwig 36

Index of Names 229

Steinberg Philip 172 207Stekeler-Weithofer Pirmin 37 207Stepaniants Marietta 7Stolzenberg Juumlrgen 124 210Strategies of the Warring States Zhanguoce

战国策 156Sun Xiangchen孙向晨 7Suphan Bernhard 192Suseno Yuliani 168 194Swanson Louis 84 187Sweet William 136 159 207

Tapper Helena 57 208Tapscott Don 100 208Taraborrelli Angela v 17 57 172 208Tasovac Toma 102 113 186Taylor Charles M 39 134 137 180 208Taylor J Edward 52 199Tempel Placide 39 208Ten Dyke Elizabeth 43 208Tennemann Wilhelm Gottlieb 33 208Terdiman Richard 15 208Tessitore Fulvio 35 202 208Thompson Paul M 174 208Thoth 18Throsby David 183Ticchi Davide 115 181Tieftrunk Johann Gottfried 157Tjaden Jasper 52 179Toia Patrizia 4 75Tonelli Giorgio 12 208Tonner Paul 109 208Toral Antonio 154 208Tortarolo Edoardo 36 208Towse Ruth 109 208Toynbee Arnold 37 208Tozy Mohammed 195Travis Charles 109 204Treijtel Caspar 4 181Trow Martin 100 189Tseng Amelia 14 46 185Tu Weiming杜維明 v 5ndash8 12 18 20 26

56ndash57 146 168 176ndash177 201 208ndash209

Tuan Yifu段義孚 35 209Tulli Marco 203Tulloch John 208

Turchi Marco vi 150 204Tuschling Burkhard 151 209

UNESCO 76 127 174 209United Nations 50 65 95 118 127Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity

164 209Universal Declaration on Human Rights 55Uryu Michiko 139 196US Centers for Disease Control and Preventi-

on 91

Van den Berg Hein 4 45 123 181Van den Stock Ady 2111Van Genabith Josef vi 150 204Van Horik Reneacute 109 204Van Norden Bryan W 18 209Van Tongeren Paul 124 209Van Tuyl Charles D 195Vansina Jan 179Venkatram Ramaswamy 87 98 106 204Ventura Marco vVertovec Steven vi 1 56 59 165 180 185

191 196ndash197 203 208ndash209 211Vico Giambattista 35 56 126 209Vilnius Declaration Horizons for SSH 80Vindigni Andrea 115 181Virgili Vania vi 93 95 97ndash98 100 105ndash

106 110 114 116 187 203ndash205Virvidakis Stelios 7Von Braun Joachim 95 209Von Hippel Eric 99 209Vorderobermeier Konrad vi

Wagner Michele D 179Wahring-Schmidt Bettina 36 182 205Waltman Ludo 109 193Walzer Michael 48 53 209Wang Bo王博 7Wang Lin王琳 45 129 209Wang Yangming王阳明 5Wang Yanjing王彦晶 7Wang Yueqing王月清 45 209Wang Zhenmin王振民 141 201Wang Robin 19 26ndash27 209Ward Hugh 198Watson James 39

230 Index of Names

Way Andy 154 208WCP xii 7ndash11 20 41 209WDL xii 127Weber Max 77 210Weber Thomas 136 186 202Welles Brooke F 28 189Wellman Christopher H 15 46 210Wen Haiming温海明 9 210Wenger Etienne 113 196Westseijn Thijs 20 26ndash27 210White Hayden 16 210Whorf Benjamin 138 210Wiener-Blotner Ori 110 186Wiener Paul 36 210Willaschek Marcus 124 210William of Moerbeke 154Williams Anthony 100 208Williams Bernard 5 210Williamson Timothy 4ndash5 210Wimmer Franz Martin 41ndash42 210Windelband Wilhelm 8 31 192Winkelman Michael 59 210Wittgenstein Ludwig 12 36 144Wolff Christian von 12ndash13 27 34 210Wood Allen B 151 194Woollard Matthew 104 109 185 198Wouters Paul 109 193Wozniak Thomas 3 201Wu Fei吴飞 203Wu Mi吴宓 35Wu Tianyue吴天岳 v 7

Wyatt Sally 112 210Wynne Martin 155

Xiang Shuchen项舒晨 209Xiao Richard 151ndash152 154 199 210Xie Dikun谢地坤 7Xie Yu谢宇 17 210

Yahya Adnan 122 128 211Yang Guorong杨国荣 12 211Yang Haifeng仰海峰 7Yi Zhuang庄毅 122 211Yousefi Hamid Reza 41 211Yusa Michiko 27 211

Zamagni Stefano 95 116 209 211Zampolli Antonio 125Zanettin Federico 137 153ndash154 156 211Zarathustra Zoroaster 5 27Zhang Feng张锋 142 211Zhang Wei张维 39 211Zhang Zai张载 26 211Zhang Zhidong张之洞 141Zhao Dunhua赵敦华 5 211Zhao Tingyang赵汀阳 142 211Zhou Dunyi周敦頤 27 209Zhou Min周敏 59 210Zhu Xi朱熹 27Žic-Fuchs Milena 109 112 211Zonta Mauro 55 159 211Zontini Elisabetta 25 28 205Zuchtriegel Gabriel 55 147 211

Index of Names 231

9783110709292

9783110709292

Pozzo_FM

print_cont_9783110709292_070905_Pozzo_History_NEU (1)

Riccardo Pozzo

History of Philosophy and the Reflective Society








wwwdegruytercom

Preface







VI Preface

Contents

Abbreviations XI










VIII Contents

Part ThreeCorpora






Forward Look 133



Contents IX



References 179


Index of Names 220

X Contents

Abbreviations








XII Abbreviations

1 Introduction











2 1 Introduction












4 1 Introduction














6 1 Introduction









8 1 Introduction







13 Innovation







10 1 Introduction




13 Innovation 11




12 1 Introduction



14 Narratives



14 Narratives 13












14 1 Introduction






14 Narratives 15




16 1 Introduction










18 1 Introduction




151 Cosmopolitanism







20 1 Introduction



16 Argument Outline









22 1 Introduction


2 Perspectives



21 Apologue









26 2 Perspectives



21 Apologue 27





28 2 Perspectives
















30 2 Perspectives












32 2 Perspectives











34 2 Perspectives









36 2 Perspectives









38 2 Perspectives










40 2 Perspectives










42 2 Perspectives









44 2 Perspectives



3 Migration
















48 3 Migration










50 3 Migration












52 3 Migration









54 3 Migration









35 Diasporas





56 3 Migration






35 Diasporas 57





58 3 Migration












60 3 Migration











62 3 Migration













64 3 Migration











41 Reflectivity







41 Reflectivity 71





















































































































































































































65 Indicators






65 Indicators 109














65 Indicators 111















65 Indicators 113




66 Impact









66 Impact 115






















Part ThreeCorpora












































724 Greek and Latin


725 Arabic




726 Chinese




























74 Forward Look




74 Forward Look 133






74 Forward Look 135






















82 Babel







82 Babel 141




































































































































































10 Conclusion



101 Ocean








172 10 Conclusion










174 10 Conclusion












176 10 Conclusion



References





































180 References




















References 181





















182 References























References 183





















184 References



















References 185




















186 References


















References 187


















188 References






















References 189























190 References






















References 191




















192 References




















References 193





















194 References





















References 195



















196 References





















References 197



















198 References



















References 199





















200 References




















References 201





















202 References
















References 203

















204 References





















References 205





















206 References






















References 207




















NY SUNY Press

208 References





















References 209





















210 References



















References 211

Index of Subjects















134 159ndash160 172 202



change 1 20 28 35 39 52 57ndash58 78 8288 94 97 108 117 164 176 184








common good 1 105 113 115 158 166169 204




















100 104 114ndash115 122 137 153 168171 188




dignity 103 142 164ndash165 168 176 184195 207












environment 9 48 54 75 80 83 91 92103 115 174 198 200





exclusion 14 17 50 61 75 93ndash94 112 117184




157






84 87 90 95 99ndash100 107 116 161187


105 109 114 163























83 93 95 96ndash118 129 132 161 163173 183 193ndash194 203



100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201






Korean 129






153 155 171 181ndash183 188 193 202207 210





175library 1ndash2 43 80 86 101 103 111 125

127ndash128 155 158ndash159 161 166 169184 195 200 208







83 91 111 132ndash133 136 157 163167ndash168 176 186 202 205






myth 14 42 57 159 172 193



nature ziran自然 9 17 20 26 56 71 165173 191











89 113 174 180 183 189 202 206ndash208 210






40 77 86 148 152 181 188ndash189 196207






202plurality 16 28 59 134 136 159ndash161 167







105 174 176 180 191ndash192 199 206208





















127SDG 65 79 83 95118 173self ziwo自我 9 17 20 26 72 172 189

209semantics 36 44 121ndash123 126 128 130








100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201


184 200 209sovereignty 15 21 49 51 53 57 142 179








103 108 117 125 127 129ndash131 135141 155 182



198Swedish 127




83 98 101territory 46 54ndash55 57 83 91 101 121


143 145 147ndash150 152ndash156 158 180196 202 204 208 210







102 106 109ndash110 130 135 151 155167 172 185 189











Index of Names












142 144 149ndash150 155ndash156 185 201204



Index of Names 221













222 Index of Names











Index of Names 223








224 Index of Names















Index of Names 225



33 122 126 140 144 147 157 171 187197 207ndash208






226 Index of Names

Melloni Alberto 104 109 176 185 198200







Index of Names 227










228 Index of Names







Index of Names 229









on 91





230 Index of Names






Index of Names 231

9783110709292

9783110709292

Pozzo_FM









wwwdegruytercom

Preface







VI Preface

Contents

Abbreviations XI










VIII Contents

Part ThreeCorpora






Forward Look 133



Contents IX



References 179


Index of Names 220

X Contents

Abbreviations








XII Abbreviations

1 Introduction











2 1 Introduction












4 1 Introduction














6 1 Introduction









8 1 Introduction







13 Innovation







10 1 Introduction




13 Innovation 11




12 1 Introduction



14 Narratives



14 Narratives 13












14 1 Introduction






14 Narratives 15




16 1 Introduction










18 1 Introduction




151 Cosmopolitanism







20 1 Introduction



16 Argument Outline









22 1 Introduction


2 Perspectives



21 Apologue









26 2 Perspectives



21 Apologue 27





28 2 Perspectives
















30 2 Perspectives












32 2 Perspectives











34 2 Perspectives









36 2 Perspectives









38 2 Perspectives










40 2 Perspectives










42 2 Perspectives









44 2 Perspectives



3 Migration
















48 3 Migration










50 3 Migration












52 3 Migration









54 3 Migration









35 Diasporas





56 3 Migration






35 Diasporas 57





58 3 Migration












60 3 Migration











62 3 Migration













64 3 Migration











41 Reflectivity







41 Reflectivity 71





















































































































































































































65 Indicators






65 Indicators 109














65 Indicators 111















65 Indicators 113




66 Impact









66 Impact 115






















Part ThreeCorpora












































724 Greek and Latin


725 Arabic




726 Chinese




























74 Forward Look




74 Forward Look 133






74 Forward Look 135






















82 Babel







82 Babel 141




































































































































































10 Conclusion



101 Ocean








172 10 Conclusion










174 10 Conclusion












176 10 Conclusion



References





































180 References




















References 181





















182 References























References 183





















184 References



















References 185




















186 References


















References 187


















188 References






















References 189























190 References






















References 191




















192 References




















References 193





















194 References





















References 195



















196 References





















References 197



















198 References



















References 199





















200 References




















References 201





















202 References
















References 203

















204 References





















References 205





















206 References






















References 207




















NY SUNY Press

208 References





















References 209





















210 References



















References 211

Index of Subjects















134 159ndash160 172 202



change 1 20 28 35 39 52 57ndash58 78 8288 94 97 108 117 164 176 184








common good 1 105 113 115 158 166169 204




















100 104 114ndash115 122 137 153 168171 188




dignity 103 142 164ndash165 168 176 184195 207












environment 9 48 54 75 80 83 91 92103 115 174 198 200





exclusion 14 17 50 61 75 93ndash94 112 117184




157






84 87 90 95 99ndash100 107 116 161187


105 109 114 163























83 93 95 96ndash118 129 132 161 163173 183 193ndash194 203



100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201






Korean 129






153 155 171 181ndash183 188 193 202207 210





175library 1ndash2 43 80 86 101 103 111 125

127ndash128 155 158ndash159 161 166 169184 195 200 208







83 91 111 132ndash133 136 157 163167ndash168 176 186 202 205






myth 14 42 57 159 172 193



nature ziran自然 9 17 20 26 56 71 165173 191











89 113 174 180 183 189 202 206ndash208 210






40 77 86 148 152 181 188ndash189 196207






202plurality 16 28 59 134 136 159ndash161 167







105 174 176 180 191ndash192 199 206208





















127SDG 65 79 83 95118 173self ziwo自我 9 17 20 26 72 172 189

209semantics 36 44 121ndash123 126 128 130








100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201


184 200 209sovereignty 15 21 49 51 53 57 142 179








103 108 117 125 127 129ndash131 135141 155 182



198Swedish 127




83 98 101territory 46 54ndash55 57 83 91 101 121


143 145 147ndash150 152ndash156 158 180196 202 204 208 210







102 106 109ndash110 130 135 151 155167 172 185 189











Index of Names












142 144 149ndash150 155ndash156 185 201204



Index of Names 221













222 Index of Names











Index of Names 223








224 Index of Names















Index of Names 225



33 122 126 140 144 147 157 171 187197 207ndash208






226 Index of Names

Melloni Alberto 104 109 176 185 198200







Index of Names 227










228 Index of Names







Index of Names 229









on 91





230 Index of Names






Index of Names 231

9783110709292

9783110709292

Pozzo_FM


Preface







VI Preface

Contents

Abbreviations XI










VIII Contents

Part ThreeCorpora






Forward Look 133



Contents IX



References 179


Index of Names 220

X Contents

Abbreviations








XII Abbreviations

1 Introduction











2 1 Introduction












4 1 Introduction














6 1 Introduction









8 1 Introduction







13 Innovation







10 1 Introduction




13 Innovation 11




12 1 Introduction



14 Narratives



14 Narratives 13












14 1 Introduction






14 Narratives 15




16 1 Introduction










18 1 Introduction




151 Cosmopolitanism







20 1 Introduction



16 Argument Outline









22 1 Introduction


2 Perspectives



21 Apologue









26 2 Perspectives



21 Apologue 27





28 2 Perspectives
















30 2 Perspectives












32 2 Perspectives











34 2 Perspectives









36 2 Perspectives









38 2 Perspectives










40 2 Perspectives










42 2 Perspectives









44 2 Perspectives



3 Migration
















48 3 Migration










50 3 Migration












52 3 Migration









54 3 Migration









35 Diasporas





56 3 Migration






35 Diasporas 57





58 3 Migration












60 3 Migration











62 3 Migration













64 3 Migration











41 Reflectivity







41 Reflectivity 71





















































































































































































































65 Indicators






65 Indicators 109














65 Indicators 111















65 Indicators 113




66 Impact









66 Impact 115






















Part ThreeCorpora












































724 Greek and Latin


725 Arabic




726 Chinese




























74 Forward Look




74 Forward Look 133






74 Forward Look 135






















82 Babel







82 Babel 141




































































































































































10 Conclusion



101 Ocean








172 10 Conclusion










174 10 Conclusion












176 10 Conclusion



References





































180 References




















References 181





















182 References























References 183





















184 References



















References 185




















186 References


















References 187


















188 References






















References 189























190 References






















References 191




















192 References




















References 193





















194 References





















References 195



















196 References





















References 197



















198 References



















References 199





















200 References




















References 201





















202 References
















References 203

















204 References





















References 205





















206 References






















References 207




















NY SUNY Press

208 References





















References 209





















210 References



















References 211

Index of Subjects















134 159ndash160 172 202



change 1 20 28 35 39 52 57ndash58 78 8288 94 97 108 117 164 176 184








common good 1 105 113 115 158 166169 204




















100 104 114ndash115 122 137 153 168171 188




dignity 103 142 164ndash165 168 176 184195 207












environment 9 48 54 75 80 83 91 92103 115 174 198 200





exclusion 14 17 50 61 75 93ndash94 112 117184




157






84 87 90 95 99ndash100 107 116 161187


105 109 114 163























83 93 95 96ndash118 129 132 161 163173 183 193ndash194 203



100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201






Korean 129






153 155 171 181ndash183 188 193 202207 210





175library 1ndash2 43 80 86 101 103 111 125

127ndash128 155 158ndash159 161 166 169184 195 200 208







83 91 111 132ndash133 136 157 163167ndash168 176 186 202 205






myth 14 42 57 159 172 193



nature ziran自然 9 17 20 26 56 71 165173 191











89 113 174 180 183 189 202 206ndash208 210






40 77 86 148 152 181 188ndash189 196207






202plurality 16 28 59 134 136 159ndash161 167







105 174 176 180 191ndash192 199 206208





















127SDG 65 79 83 95118 173self ziwo自我 9 17 20 26 72 172 189

209semantics 36 44 121ndash123 126 128 130








100 105ndash108 115 117ndash118 163 186196 201


184 200 209sovereignty 15 21 49 51 53 57 142 179








103 108 117 125 127 129ndash131 135141 155 182



198Swedish 127




83 98 101territory 46 54ndash55 57 83 91 101 121


143 145 147ndash150 152ndash156 158 180196 202 204 208 210







102 106 109ndash110 130 135 151 155167 172 185 189











Index of Names












142 144 149ndash150 155ndash156 185 201204



Index of Names 221













222 Index of Names











Index of Names 223








224 Index of Names















Index of Names 225



33 122 126 140 144 147 157 171 187197 207ndash208






226 Index of Names

Melloni Alberto 104 109 176 185 198200







Index of Names 227










228 Index of Names







Index of Names 229









on 91





230 Index of Names






Index of Names 231

9783110709292

9783110709292

Pozzo_FM


Riccardo Pozzo - library.oapen.org

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