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Rhythm

Rhythm, a sequence in time repeated, featured indance: an early moving picture demonstrates the

waltz.

Simple [quadr]duple drum pattern, against whichduration is measured in much popular music:

Play.

Compound triple drum pattern: divides threebeats into three. Play Contains repetition on three

levels.

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός—rhythmos, "any regular recurringmotion, symmetry"[1]) generally means a "movement marked by theregulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite ordifferent conditions."[2] This general meaning of regular recurrence orpattern in time can apply to a wide variety of cyclical naturalphenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything frommicroseconds to millions of years.

In the performance arts rhythm is the timing of events on a humanscale; of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or themeter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visualpresentation, as "timed movement through space."[3] and a commonlanguage of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. In recent years,rhythm and meter have become an important area of research amongmusic scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by MauryYeston,[4] Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer,Christopher Hasty,[5] Godfried Toussaint,[6] William Rothstein, andJoel Lester.

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Anthropology

Percussion instruments have clearly defined dynamics that aid the creation andperception of complex rhythms

In his series How Music Works, HowardGoodall presents theories that humanrhythm recalls the regularity with which wewalk and the heartbeat we heard in thewomb. Other research suggests that it doesnot relate to the hearbeat directly, but ratherthe speed of emotional affect, which alsoinfluences heartbeat. London writes thatmusical metre "involves our initialperception as well as subsequentanticipation of a series of beats that weabstract from the rhythm surface of themusic as it unfolds in time" (London 2004,4). The "perception" and "abstraction" ofrhythmic measure is the foundation of

human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into"tick-tock-tick-tock".[7]

Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolutionby the forces of natural selection.[8] Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in thewomb, but only humans have the ability to be engaged (entrained) in a rhythmically coordinated vocalizations andother activities. According to Jordania, development of the sense of rhythm was central for the achievement of thespecific neurological state of the battle trance. This state was crucial for the development of the effective defensesystem of early hominids against major African predators, after hominids descended from the safer tree branches tomore dangerous ground. Rhythmic war cry, rhythmic drumming by shamans, rhythmic drilling of the soldiers, andcontemporary professional combat forces listening to the heavy rhythmic rock music[9] all use the ability of rhythmto unite human individuals into a shared collective identity where group members put the interests of the groupabove their individual interests and safety.Some types of parrots can know rhythm.[10] Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animalsshow no similar appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so that a person'ssense of rhythm cannot be lost (e.g. by stroke).[11] Human rhythmic arts are possibly to some extent rooted incourtship ritual.[12]

The establishment of a basic beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of distinct short-duration pulses and,as subjective perception of loudness is relative to background noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before thenext occurs if it is to be really distinct. For this reason the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lendthemselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layeredpolyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythmsof Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan.For information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm inPersian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul - Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.

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Terminology

Pulse, beat and measure(See main articles; Pulse (music), Beat (music))

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels aboveand multiple levels below.

Most music, dance and oral poetry establishes andmaintains an underlying "metric level", a basic unit oftime that may be audible or implied, the pulse or tactusof the mensural level,[13][14] or beat level, sometimessimply called the beat. This consists of a (repeating)series of identical yet distinct periodic short-durationstimuli perceived as points in time.[15] The "beat" pulseis not necessarily the fastest or the slowest componentof the rhythm but the one that is perceived as basic: ithas a tempo to which listeners entrain as they tap theirfoot or dance to a piece of music (Handel, 1989). It iscurrently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation (see time signature). Faster levelsare division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels (Wittlich 1975, chapt. 3). "Rhythms of recurrence" arisefrom the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats intorepetitive groups (Yeston 1976, 50–52). "Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, willmaintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present" (Lester 1986, 77).

Unit and gesture

Rhythmic units: division level shown above andrhythmic units shown below Play.

A durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on theunderlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. These may beclassified as; metric - even patterns, such as steady eighth notes orpulses - intrametric - confirming patterns, such as dottedeighth-sixteenth note and swing patterns - contrametric -non-confirming, or syncopated patterns and extrametric - irregularpatterns, such as tuplets.

A rhythmic gesture is any durational pattern that, in contrast to therhythmic unit, does not occupy a period of time equivalent to a pulse orpulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described according toits beginning and ending or by the rhythmic units it contains. Beginnings on a strong pulse are thetic, a weak pulse,anacrustic and those beginning after a rest or tied-over note are called initial rest. Endings on a strong pulse arestrong, a weak pulse, weak and those that end on a strong or weak upbeat are upbeat.[16]

Alternation and repetitionRhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements, the dynamics of the strong and weak beat, theplayed beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, the long and short note. As well as perceiving rhythm we must beable to anticipate it. This depends upon repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.The alternation of the strong and weak beat is fundamental to the ancient language of poetry, dance and music. The common poetic term "foot" refers, as in dance, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a similar way musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the "on" and "off" beat. These contrasts naturally facilitate a dual hierarchy of rhythm and depend upon repeating patterns of duration, accent and rest forming a "pulse-group" that corresponds to the poetic foot. Normally such pulse-groups are defined by taking the most accented beat as the

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first and counting the pulses until the next accent (MacPherson 1930, 5; Scholes 1977). A rhythm that accentsanother beat and de-emphasises the down beat as established or assumed from the melody or from a precedingrhythm is called syncopated rhythm.Normally, even the most complex of meters may be broken down into a chain of duple and triple pulses(MacPherson 1930, 5; Scholes 1977) either by addition or division. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structuresbeyond four, in western music, are "simply not natural".[17] Western rhythms are usually arranged with respect to atime signature, partially signifying a meter usually corresponding to measure length and grouped into either two orthree beats, which are called duple meter and triple meter, respectively. If the beats are in consistently even or oddgroups of two, three, or four, it is simple meter, if by admixtures of two and three it is compound meter. In othersystems of music such as Indian classical music rhythms may be grouped into various number of beats. In somemusic styles such as Yakshagana even group rhythms into fractional beats.

Tempo and duration(See main articles; Duration (music), Tempo)

The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a measure of how quickly the beat flows. This is oftenmeasured in 'beats per minute' (bpm): 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second, a frequency of 1 Hz. Arhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a period equivalent to a pulse or several pulses.[18] The duration of anysuch unit is inversely related to its tempo.Musical sound may be analyzed on five different time scales, which Moravscik has arranged in order of increasingduration;[19]:• Supershort: a single cycle of an audible wave, approximately 1/30-1/10,000 second (30-10,000 Hz or more than

1,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived as separate events but as continuous musicalpitch.

• Short: of the order of one second (1 Hz, 60bpm, 10-100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is generally specifiedin the range 40 to 240 beats per minute. A continuous pulse cannot be perceived as a musical beat if it is fasterthan 8-10 per second (8–10 Hz, 480-600 bpm) or slower than 1 per 1.5 – 2 seconds (0.6-0.5 Hz, 40-30 bpm). Toofast a beat becomes a drone, too slow a succession of sounds seems unconnected.[20] This time-frame roughlycorresponds to the human heart rate and to the duration of a single step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.

• Medium: ≥ few seconds, This median durational level "defines rhythm in music"[19] as it allows the definition ofa rhythmic unit, the arrangement of an entire sequence of accented, unaccented and silent or "rest" pulses into thecells of a measure that may give rise to the "briefest intelligible and self-existent musical unit",[21] a motif orfigure. This may be further organized, by repetition and variation, into a definite phrase that may characterise anentire genre of music, dance or poetry and that may be regarded as the fundamental formal unit of music.[22]

• Long: ≥ many seconds or a minute, corresponding to a durational unit that "consists of musicalphrases"—[19]which may make up a melody, a formal section, a poetic stanza or a characteristic sequence ofdance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most elementary levelsof musical form[23]

• Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.Curtis Roads[24] takes a wider view by distinguishing nine time scales, this time in order of decreasing duration. The first two, the infinite and the supramusical, encompass natural periodicities of months, years, decades, centuries, and greater, while the last three, the sample and subsample, which take account of digital and electronic rates "too brief to be properly recorded or perceived", measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally the infinitesimal or infinitely brief, are again in the extra-musical domain. Roads' Macro level, encompassing "overall musical architecture or form" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik's "very long" division while his Meso level, the level of "divisions of form" including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is likewise similar to Moravcsik's "long" category. Roads' Sound object (Schaeffer 1959, 1977): "a basic unit of musical structure" and a

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generalization of note (Xenakis' ministructural time scale); fraction of a second to several seconds, and hisMicrosound (see granular synthesis) down to the threshold of audible perception; thousands to millionths of seconds,are similarly comparable to Moravcsik's "short" and "supershort" levels of duration.

Metric structure(See main articles; Metre (music), Bar (music), Metre (poetry))

Notation of a clave rhythm pattern? Each cell of the grid corresponds to a fixedduration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern,

which may be counted as two bars of four beats in divisive (metrical orsymmetrical) rhythm, each beat divided into two cells. The first bar of the pattern

may also usefully be counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm) as 3+ 3 + 2

The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch inspeech is called prosody: it is a topic inlinguistics and poetics, where it means thenumber of lines in a verse, the number ofsyllables in each line and the arrangement ofthose syllables as long or short, accented orunaccented. Music inherited the term "meteror metre" from the terminology ofpoetry.[25]

The metric structure of music includesmeter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details ordurational patterns of the music are projected (Wittlich 1975, chapt. 3). The terminology of western music isnotoriously imprecise in this area (Scholes 1977). MacPherson (1930, 3) preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmicshape", Imogen Holst (1963, 17) of "measured rhythm".

Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a characteristic tempo and measure. The ImperialSociety of Teachers of Dancing (1983) defines the tango, for example, as to be danced in 2/4 time at approximately66 beats per minute. The basic slow step forwards or backwards, lasting for one beat, is called a "slow", so that a full"right-left" step is equal to one 2/4 measure.[26]

Notation of three measures of a clave pattern preceded by one measure of steadyquarter notes. This pattern is noted in double time relative to the one above, in one

instead of two four-beat measures Four beats followed by three Clave patterns.

The general classifications of metricalrhythm, measured rhythm, and freerhythm may be distinguished.[27] Metricalor divisive rhythm, by far the most commonin Western music calculates each time valueas a multiple or fraction of the beat. Normalaccents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured rhythm (additive rhythm)alsocalculates each time value is a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but the accents do not recur regularlywithin the cycle. Free rhythm is where there is neither (Cooper 1973, 30), such as in Christian chant, which has abasic pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse (Scholes 1977) See Free time(music).

Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such asHonkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric (Karpinski 2000, 19). Senza misura is an Italianmusical term for "without meter", meaning to play without a beat, using time to measure how long it will take to playthe bar (Forney and Machlis 2007, ).

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Composite rhythm

Bach's Sinfonia in F minor BWV 795, mm. 1-3 Play original Play with composite.

A composite rhythm is the durationsand patterns (rhythm) produced byamalgamating all sounding parts of amusical texture. In music of thecommon practice period, the compositerhythm usually confirms the meter,often in metric or even-note patternsidentical to the pulse on a specificmetric level. White defines compositerhythm as, "the resultant overall rhythmic articulation among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture."[28]

Rhythm notationWorldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist intraditional music, from generation to generation.

African musicIn the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji(1927–2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the United States, developed a simple series of spokensounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There arethree basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system isnow used worldwide, particularly by Djembe players.It is noteworthy that the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a subject of particularinterest to outsiders, not insiders. African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the most part, acceptedthe conventions—and limitations—of staff notation, and gone on to produce transcriptions in order to inform andmake possible a higher level of discussion and debate.— Agawu (2003: 52)[29]

John Miller Chernoff 1979 has argued that West African music is based on tension between rhythms. This tensionbetween rhythms is called polyrhythms and is created by the simultaneous sounding of two or more differentrhythms. Often there is a dominant rhythm interacting with an independent competing rhythm, or rhythms. Theseoften oppose or complement each other, and combine freely with the dominant rhythm creating a rich rhythmictexture not limited to any one set meter or tempo.A set of moral values underpins a full musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that meet atdistant cross-rhythmic intervals and call and answer schemes. Values also show up in collective utterances such asproverbs or lineages appear either in phrases that translate as drum talk or in the words of songs. People expectmusicians to stimulate participation of all present, notably by reacting to people dancing the music. Appreciation ofmusicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community values.[30]

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Indian musicIndian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns andphrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performancesbased on her singing these patterns. In Indian Classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern overwhich the whole piece is structured.

Western musicIn the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote morerhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm. At the sametime, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regularbeat, leading eventually to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explainedby a comment of John Cage's where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather thanindividually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise besubsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings.[31] LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regularbeat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell wrotemusic involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Léon Thérémin to invent theRhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote forthe player piano.Use of polyrhythms in American music is generally traced to the influence of black culture through Dixieland andJazz styles. The effect of multiple soloing in these forms, often utilizing cross-rhythms comes directly from theunderlying aesthetics of sub-Saharan African music. These complex rhythmic structures have been widely adopted inmany current forms of western popular music.

Rhythm in linguisticsIn linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation.Languages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed or stress-timed. Speakers ofsyllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in contrast,speakers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags betweenstressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adjusted to accommodate thestress timing.Narmour[32] describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive (sameduration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated withclosure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended andrepetitive. Richard Middleton[33] points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept oftransformation.

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Sources[1] ῥυθμός (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=r(uqmo/ s), Henry George Liddell, Robert

Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus project[2] The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. II. Oxford University Press. 1971. p. 2537.[3] "Art, Design, and Visual Thinking" (http:/ / char. txa. cornell. edu/ language/ principl/ rhythm/ rhythm. htm). . Retrieved 2010-03-16.[4] Yeston, Maury (1976). The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01884-3.[5] Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510066-2.[6] Toussaint, Godfried (2013). The Geometry of Musical Rhythm, Chapman & Hall/CRC.[7] Scholes, Percy (1977). "Metre" and "Rhythm", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and

reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6[8] Joseph Jordania. Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Logos, 2011[9][9] Jonathan Pieslak. Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War. Indiana University Press, 2009[10] April 30, 2009. " Parrots have got rhythm, studies find (http:/ / www. world-science. net/ othernews/ 090430_rhythm. htm)",

World-Science.net.[11] Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006), "Musical rhythm, linguistic rhythm, and human evolution", Music Perception (Berkeley, California: University

of California Press) I (24): 99–104, ISSN 0730-7829, "there is not a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or move insynchrony with an auditory beat." as cited in Sacks, Oliver (2007). "Keeping Time: Rhythm and Movement". Musicophilia, Tales of Musicand the Brain. New York • Toronto: Alfred a Knopf. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-1-4000-4081-0. "No doubt many pet lovers will dispute thisnotion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them."

[12] Mithen, Steven (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body. (http:/ / www. epjournal. net/ filestore/ep03375380. pdf). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.. ISBN 0-297-64317-7. .

[13] Berry, Wallace (1976/1986). Structural Functions in Music, p.349. ISBN 0-486-25384-8.[14] (Lerdahl & Jackendoff, 1983). Fitch, W. Tecumseh and Rosenfeld, Andrew J. (2007). "Perception and Production of Syncopated Rhythms",

p.44, Music Perception, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp. 43–58, ISSN 0730-7829.[15] Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, p.213. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice–Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.[16] *Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 3 ISBN 0-13-049346-5.[17] In Discovering Music: Rhythm (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio3/ discoveringmusic/ ram/ cdm0401slat1of4. ram) with Leonard Slatkin at

5:05[18] Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood[19] Moravcsik, Michael J. (2001). Musical Sound: An Introduction to the Physics of Music, p.114. ISBN 978-0-306-46710-3.[20] P. Fraisse, Les Structures Rhythmiques, Erasme Paris 1956, H Woodrow Time Perception in "A Handbook of Experimental Psychology",

ed. S.S. Stevens, Wiley, NY 1951, both quoted at http:/ / www. zeuxilogy. home. ro/ media/ manifesto. pdf ( zeuxilogy.home.ro (http:/ / www.zeuxilogy. home. ro/ ))

[21] Scholes, Percy A., The Oxford Companion to Music Oxford University Press 1977, article; Form[22] Macpherson, Stewart, Form in Music, Joseph Williams, London, 1930[23] MacPherson, Stewart (1930). Form in Music. London: Joseph Williams Ltd., page 3[24] Roads, Curtis (2001). Microsound. MIT. ISBN 0-262-18215-7.[25] Scholes, Percy (1977). "Metre" and "Rhythm", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and

reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6 : Latham, Alison. 2002. "Metre",The Oxford Companion to Music", edited by Alison Latham. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.

[26] The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (1983). Ballroom Dancing, Hodder and Stoughton.[27] Cooper, Paul (1973). Perspectives in Music Theory: An Historical-Analytical Approach. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-06752-2,

page 30[28] White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music, p.136. ISBN .0-13-033233-X.[29] Agawu, Kofi (2003: 52). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York: Routledge.[30] Chernoff, John Miller (1979) African Rhythm and African Sensibility -- Aesthetic and Social Action in African Musical Idioms. Chicago:

The University of Chicago Press[31] Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", p. 257, The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.[32] Narmour (1980), p 147–53. Cited in Winold, Allen (1975).[33] Middleton, Richard (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.

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Further reading• McGaughey, William (2001). Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic Civilization.

Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.• Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." (http:/ / www. hum. uva. nl/ mmm/

abstracts/ mmm-TvM. html) Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227–232.• Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music (http:/ / www. scribd.

com/ doc/ 25227226/ The-Development-of-Rhythmic-Organization-in-Indian-Classical-Music), MA dissertation,School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

• Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: RhythmSource(http:/ / rhythmsource. com/ dev/ books/ ) Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.

• London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. ISBN 0-19-516081-9.• Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection - Music),

Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009.• Toussaint, G. T., “The geometry of musical rhythm,” In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors, Proceedings of

the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198–212.

External links• Melodyhound has a "Query by Tapping" search that allows users to identify music based on rhythm (http:/ /

www. melodyhound. com/ query_by_tapping. 0. html)• Louis Hébert, "A Little Semiotics of Rhythm. Elements of Rhythmology", in Signo (http:/ / www. signosemio.

com/ semiotics-of-rhythm. asp)

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsRhythm  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=535598020  Contributors: -- April, 16@r, 24fan24, A22john6789, AK456, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Ace of Spades, AdSR,Airplaneman, Alansohn, Alatius, Ale jrb, Alex43223, Ali, Allens, Allstarecho, Alsiadita, Altenmann, Andy120, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, Anomalocaris, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, ArielGold,Arjayay, Arnfieldroad, Articrono, Asher196, Aslmlbs, Astrovega, Atavi, Banjolin, Barak Sh, Bdiscoe, Bearcat, BeatlesSpong, Belovedfreak, Bhart22, Blackjays1, Bobo192, Bongwarrior,Briefc4seblues, Brockert, BrokenSphere, Bsadowski1, C45207, CONFIQ, Camembert, CatherineMunro, Civil Engineer III, Closedmouth, Cmurr011, Conversion script, Cremepuff222, Cubanabomba, Cxz111, Cyrius, D6, DCGeist, Daniel Lawrence, Daniel Mietchen, Darth Panda, DarthVader, DavidBarak, DionysosProteus, Dr clave, Duoduoduo, Dúnadan, E. Ripley, EWS23,Eeekster, Eggman183, Eirik, Emanuel, Epbr123, Erik9, Eschaepers, Favonian, Flyaway1111, Fortunato5678, Frankenpuppy, Freddythehat, Garzo, Geoffr, Glenn, Godfried12345,GodfriedToussaint, Gogo Dodo, GraemeL, Graham87, Grendelkhan, Greyengine5, Gurch, HJensen, Habj, Handicapper, Hanii Puppy, Hatmatbbat10, Hbent, Hdt83, Heights, Hirohisat,Hordaland, Hu12, Hveziris, Hyacinth, Hydrogen Iodide, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Iddoanything!, ImperatorExercitus, Intangir, Iridescent, J Lorraine, JMK, JaGa, Jab843, Jangmabi, Jauerback,Javierito92, JeremyA, Jhoveson, Joey-das-WBF, JohnCD, Joie de Vivre, Joshdance, Jotamar, Joyous!, Just plain Bill, KF, KJS77, Katalaveno, Kcferguson, Kerrio, Khazar, Killervogel5,Kwamikagami, Kwiki, LcawteHuggle, Leadtrumpetman, Leibniz, Liffey, Lightmouse, Logictheo, Lprcycle, MBC2011, Macedonian, Macho, MafiaCapo, Malcolm, Mandarax, ManningBartlett,MarcoTolo, Mark91, Marko Kovacic, Matthew Yeager, MatthewVanitas, Maxis ftw, Meaghan, Meisam, Merphant, Michael Hardy, Misty MH, Mixaelus, Mmorse@ca.inter.net, Montrealais,Mother Earth 145, Mpondopondo, MrDKing, MrFizyx, Murphy4709, Musanim, Mushin, Mwmorse, Nahum Reduta, Neobenedict, Neptune5000, Netspin, Nijohfunny, NotAnonymous0, Nrlund,Numuse37, Nurg, ONEder Boy, Octahedron80, OllieFury, OottoO, Philip Trueman, Pigman, Pinethicket, PiracyFundsTerrorism, PleaseStand, Polbrian, Polyclaupticus, Prajwal21, Preferto,Prince Godfather, Prof saxx, Psi36, R'n'B, Rachiibaby1, Radagast83, RagaBhakta, Rainwarrior, RayTomes, Realbach, Red Bowen, Redheylin, Rich Farmbrough, Rigadoun, Rigaudon, Ronhjones,Roux-HG, STACKAGUCCI, Sam, Seahorse321, Semari1, Sietse Snel, Sillstaw, Sjorford, Sluzzelin, Snowboarder616, Snubcube, Sparafucil, SpeedyGonsales, SquidSK, StalkingLaugh, Steeev,Stephen Burnett, Stephen Gilbert, Superbeecat, TShilo12, TUF-KAT, The Anome, The Man in Question, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thegn, Thewayforward, Thiruvalluvanar, Tide rolls,Timsabin, Tlotoxl, Tobias Dammers, TreasuryTag, Triskaideka, Tsemii, Twas Now, Ukexpat, Useight, Vanished User 1004, Vrenator, WadeSimMiser, Waldir, Wayne Slam, Werdan7, Widr,Wimt, Witchwooder, Wmcg, Woohookitty, Zeppelin4life, 499 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Phenakistoscope 3g07690b.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phenakistoscope_3g07690b.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Howcheng, Judithcomm, Julia W, Limonadis, Oldstuff, Origamiemensch, Perey, Selket, Sultan11, Trialsanderrors, 5 anonymous editsImage:Characteristic rock drum pattern.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Characteristic_rock_drum_pattern.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:SreeBotImage:Compound triple drum pattern.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compound_triple_drum_pattern.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:HyacinthImage:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Traditional_indonesian_instruments02.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fir0002,Indon, Opponent, Opus88888Image:Metric levels.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Metric_levels.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: DboltonImage:Rhythmic units.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhythmic_units.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:IsacdaavidImage:Claves-detail.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Claves-detail.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Redheylin (talk) 01:52, 9 May 2011 (UTC)Image:clavepattern.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clavepattern.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex299006Image:Bach, Sinfonia in F minor BWV 795, mm. 1-3a composite rhythm.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bach,_Sinfonia_in_F_minor_BWV_795,_mm._1-3a_composite_rhythm.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Alex299006

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