Rhonda Williams - What else Unions Do?

8/10/2019 Rhonda Williams - What else Unions Do?

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W H A T

L S

D O U N I O N S D O ? : R A C E A N D G E N D E R

I N L O C A L 5

Rhonda M Williams and Peggie R Smith

Mo st analyses of the relationship between job segregation and gender

wage inequality do not examine the race-specific dimensions of oc-

cupational segregation. Using p ersonnel data, we exam ine the imp act

of race-gender occupational segregation on occupational grading and

wa ge setting within a serv ice and m aintenance union . Our em pirical

results show that the job grad ing and w ag e setting proce sses signifi-

cantly favo r white men s jobs and penalize black wom en s jobs.

A s w e a p p r o a c h t h e c lo s e o f t h e t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y , g e n d e r - b a s e d j o b

s e g r e g a t i o n r e m a i n s a d e f in i n g c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f U n i t e d S t a t e s l a b o r m a r -

k e t s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e e x i s t v a r i e d a n d c o n f l ic t in g e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t hi s

p h e n o m e n o n , r e s e a r c h e r s t e n d t o a g r e e th a t t h e o n g o i n g p r e s e n c e o f a

g e n d e r e d d i v i s i o n o f la b o r r e su l t s in g e n d e r w a g e i n e q u a l i t y . E x p l a n a -

t io n s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , s e x - b a s e d j o b s e g r e g a t i o n h a s g e n e r a t e d a h ie r a r-

c h a l d i v i s o n o f l a b o r ch a r a c te r iz e d b y a n o v e r w h e l m i n g p e r c e n t a g e o f

s i n g l e - s e x o c c u p a t i o n s . O f t h e 5 0 3 o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e d i n

t h e 1 9 8 0 c e n s u s , 1 8 7 w e r e e i t h e r 9 0 p e r c e n t f e m a l e o r 9 0 p e r c e n t m a l e ;

l i k e w i s e , a n a d d i t i o n a l 2 7 5 o c c u p a t i o n s w e r e e i t h e r 8 0 p e r c e n t f e m a l e o r

8 0 p e r c e n t m a l e . 1

T h i s a r t i c l e e x p l o r e s r a c e a n d g e n d e r o c c u p a t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n a n d i t s

i m p a c t o n j o b g r a d i n g a n d w a g e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n L o c a l 3 5 , t h e s e r v i c e

a n d m a i n t e n a n ce u n i o n a t Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y ( N e w H a v e n , C o n n e c t i c u t) .

L o c a l 3 5 is le s s w e l l - k n o w n t h a n L o c a l 3 4 , Y a l e s c l e r i c a l a n d t e c h n i c a l

w o r k e r s u n i o n , w h o s e 1 9 8 4 s tr ik e r e c e i v e d n a t io n a l m e d i a c o v e r a g e .

T h e a r ti c le b r i e f l y r e v i e w s t h e l it e ra t u re o n j o b s e g r e g a t i o n a n d p r o p o s e s


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6O The Rev iew of Black Poli tical Eco nom y W inter 1990

white male agency in maintaining a racially-mediated gender division of

labor. It provides an overview of Locals 34 and 35, examines the race/

gender occupational composition of workers in Local 35, and tests sev-

eral hypotheses about 35's job allocation and wage determination pro-

cesses using personnel data compiled by the university. Our primary

finding is that an occupation's race-gender composition determines its

salary grade which, in turn, determines the wage. The final section dis-

cusses the implications of race and gender discrimination in Local 35.

T H E O R E T I C A L R E V I E W

Our reading of sex segregation studies suggests that they suffer from

two important limitations. First, prevailing feminist theories of gender

wage inequality have marginalized the experiences of black, Latino, and

Asian-American women by ignoring the racial divisions among working

women. At best these studies offer a cursory comment or two upon the

severe restraints that occupational segregation imposes upon racial eth-

nic women. At worst, we are regarded as if our experiences were

identical to those of white women. 2 Adding to this weakness, traditional

models of occupational segregation by sex tend to emphasize the actual

division between wo me n' s work and men ' s work without explor-

ing the means and ends of male agency within the working class. With

several notable and recent exceptions, 3 the literature has not considered

male workers as purposeful subjects who discriminate against women to

construct and preserve intraclass male privilege. Hartmann's ground-

breaking discussion of the economic benefits that male workers secure by

extending patriarchal social relations into the labor market demonstrated

the importance of men's role in restricting women to occupational spheres

that offer limited economic rewards. 4 Distancing herself from traditional

theories of prefeminist Marxism, Hartmann argues that working class

men are influential shapers of both the social division of labor and the

gendered wage hierarchy.

While incisive, Hartmann shares the aforementioned limitation: she

disregards the experiences of African-American women and hence fails to

consider how specificially white supremacis t capi tal is t patr iarchy con-

fines many black women to the dirtiest, most back-breaking, unreward-

ing, low-paying, menial, and insecure jobs. Evelyn Nakano Glenn cap-

tures those aspects of racial ethnic women's working patterns that render

incomplete Hartmann's patriarchy model of gender occupational


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W i l l i a m s a n d S m i t h 6

t in g u is h b e t w e e n d o m e s t i c a n d w a g e l ab o r m u s t b e m o d i f ie d w h e n

a p p l ie d to A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n w o m e n . C o n s i d e r b l a c k w o m e n d o m e s t ic s ,

f o r w h o m t h e w h i t e h o m e i s t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . C l e a r l y , b o t h t h e d i v i s i o n s

a n d t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h w o m e n a r e i d e n t i fi e d w i t h t h e p u b l i c , p r i v a t e , o r

f a m i l i a l s p h e r e s v a r y b y c l a s s a n d e t h n i c i t y . . . ,, 6

R u t h M i l k m a n ' s e a r ly w o r k a l s o th e o r e ti c a ll y e r a s e s A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n

w o m e n . 7 S h e d o e s , h o w e v e r , o f f e r a u s e f u l e x p a n s i o n o f H a r t m a n n ' s

o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t u n i o n s h a v e b e e n t h e p r i n c i p a l m e c h a n i s m b y w h i c h

w h i t e m a l e w o r k e r s h a v e e x c l u d e d w h i t e w o m e n f r o m h i g h - p a y i n g j o b s

a n d p r e v e n t e d t h e i r a c c e s s to t ra i n in g a n d a p p r e n t i c e p r o g r a m s . M i l k m a n

i n s t ru c t i v e l y f o c u s e s o u r a t te n t i o n o n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r i o d d u r i n g

w h i c h C I O u n i o n s c o l l u d e d w i t h m a n a g e m e n t t o s e x - s e g r e g a t e t h e l a b o r

f o r c e a n d o p e n l y n e g o t i a t e d c o n t r a c t s t o d i s c ri m i n a t e a g a i n s t w o m e n . 8

W h i l e c o g e n t l y d e m o n s t ra t in g t ha t th e e x c l u s io n o f w o m e n f r o m u n i o n s

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e g e n d e r d i v i s i o n o f la b o r a n d t h e c r e a ti o n o f a w a g e

h i e r a rc h y t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c te d w o m e n , M i l k m a n m a i n t a i n s t h a t i n -

c r e a s e d u n i o n p a r ti c i p a ti o n r e m a i n s a n i m p o r t a n t s t r a te g y f o r w o m e n

s e e k i n g t o a c h i e v e e c o n o m i c e q u a l i t y :

T h e l a b o r m o v e m e n t m u s t b e c e n t r a l t o a n y c h a l l e n g e t o t h e e s t a b -

l i sh e d s y s t e m o f s e x u a l s e g r e g a t io n i n th e l a b o r m a r k e t , i f s u c h a

c h a l l e n g e i s t o h a v e a n y c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s . T h e h i s t o r y o f u n i o n

p a r t ic i p a ti o n i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n o f j o b s e g r e g a t i o n

b y s e x m e a n s n o t t h a t t h e l a b o r m o v e m e n t s h o u l d b e d i s m i s s e d a s

i n c o rr ig i b le , b u t t h at it m u s t b e c h a l l e n g e d . . , t o a c t a s a n in s tr u -

m e n t f o r e r a d i c a t i n g s e x u a l i n e q u a l i ty a t w o r k . 9

W e w o u l d a d d , h o w e v e r , t ha t th e r ac ia l m e d i a t i o n o f g e n d e r i n e q u a li ty

m u s t a l s o b e c h a l l e n g e d . A s M i l k m a n a n d o t h e r s o b s e r v e , u n i o n s d i s ti n -

g u i s h a m o n g t h e ir m e m b e r s a c c o r d i n g t o r a c e a n d s e x . 10 T h a t w h i c h i s

r e q u i r e d , a n d p r o v i d e d b y t hi s i n v e s t ig a t i o n , i s a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e

a n a ly s is o f r a ce / g e n d e r e m p l o y m e n t h i e ra r ch i es a m o n g c o n t e m p o r a r y u n i o n -

i z e d w o r k e r s . I n c o n t ra s t t o th e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d m o d e l s o f j o b s e g r e g a ti o n

b y s e x , t h is a r ti c le a c c o r d s p r i m a c y t o t h e p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h w h i t e m a l e

w o r k e r s c a p t u r e t h e u p p e r t ie r s o f t h e w a g e h i e r a r c h y w i t h in a u n i o n i z e d

s e t t i n g ; h e n c e w e f o c u s n o t o n t h e ex lusion o f w o m e n f r o m u n i o ns b u t

t h e in t ra - u ni o n c o n f i n e m e n t o f b l a c k w o m e n t o s p e c if ic o c c u p a t i o n s a n d

t h e d e te r m i n a t i o n o f w a g e s i n th o s e j o b s . U s i n g a c a s e s tu d y t o g e n e r a t e

d a t a , w e c o n s i d e r h o w t h e j o b a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s i n c o r p o r a t e s r a c e a n d


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6 2

T h e R e v i e w o f B l a c k P o l it i ca l E c o n o m y W i n t e r 1 9 90

c e r n e d w i t h t h e i m p a c t o f w h i t e s u p r e m a c y a n d m a l e p r i v i l e g e o n t h e

e c o n o m i c s ta t us o f b l a c k w o m e n w i t h i n L o c a l 3 5 .1 1

L O C A L S 3 4 A N D 3 5: A B R I E F H I S T O R Y

W i t h a w o r k f o r c e t o t al l in g m o r e t h a n 7 5 0 0 , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y i s N e w

H a v e n ' s l a rg e s t a n d w e a l t h i es t e m p l o y e r . O f th a t n u m b e r , m o r e t h a n h a l f

a r e c l a ss i f ie d a s s t a f f a n d a r e e m p l o y e d a s e i t h e r c l e r ic a l a n d t e c h n i c a l

w o r k e r s ( C & T s ) o r s e r v ic e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k e r s ( S & M s ) . T h o u g h

n o t d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i n g c l a s s r o o m e d u c a t i o n a n d r e s e a r c h ,

b o t h t h e C & T s a n d t h e S & M s p l a y a n i n t e g r a l r o l e i n i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e

u n i v e r s i t y f u n c t i o n s s m o o t h l y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f i t s d a i l y o p e r a t i o n .

C u s t o d i a n s, h o u s e k e e p e r s , p a n t r y w o r k e r s , a n d c o o k s a r e j u s t a f e w o f

t h e w o r k e r s w h o a r r i v e a t Y a l e b e f o r e d a w n e a c h m o r n i n g . T h r o u g h o u t

t h e d a y a n d n i g ht , h u n d r e d s o f e m p l o y e e s - - i n c l u d i n g a c c o u n t i n g a ss is -

t a n t s , c a s h i e r s , d e s k a t t e n d a n t s , s e c r e t a r i e s , p a g e o p e ra t o r s , l i b r a ry a s -

s is ta n ts , a n d l ab t e c h n i c i a n s - - w o r k d i li g e n tl y w i t h in Y a l e ' s i v y - c o v e r e d

ha l l s .

Y e t t h e u n i v e r s i t y h a s b e e n a n y t h i n g b u t g e n e r o u s t o i ts s t a f f e m p l o y -

e e s o n p a y d a y . C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , Y a l e ' s f i s c a l p o s i t i o n i n 1 9 8 3 . T h e

u n i v e r s i t y r e p o r t e d a s u r p l u s o f $ 3 5 m i l l io n o v e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s, a ll o f

w h i c h w a s p o u r e d b a c k i n to a n e n d o w m e n t o f m o r e t h a n $ 1 .1 b i ll io n ,

w h i l e p a y in g t h e a v er a g e C & T o n l y $ 1 3 , 5 6 7 . T h e y e a r 1 9 8 4 o f f e r e d n o

i m p r o v e m e n t f o r C & T s - - e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f w h o m w e r e , a n d s til l a r e,

f e m a l e ; t h e a v e r a g e s a l a r y f o r w h i t e m e n t o t a l l e d $ 1 4 , 3 2 4 w h i l e b l a c k

m e n a n d w h i te w o m e n w e r e p a id $ 1 2 , 8 1 3 a n d 1 3 ,4 0 8 , r e s p e c t i v e ly .

B l a c k w o m e n t r a il e d b e h i n d a l l r a c e / s e x g r o u p s , r e c e i v i n g o n l y $ 1 2 , 6 0 3 .

L a t e r d u r i n g t h at s a m e y e a r , i n a n e f f o r t t o d e m a n d r e s p e c t f r o m

Y a l e i n th e f o r m o f a li v in g w a g e , t h e C & T s l a u n c h e d a b o l d c a m p a i g n

t o g a i n u n i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h o u g h e a r l i e r a t t e m p t s t o u n i o n i z e h a d

b e e n s t y m i e d b y th e u n i v e r s it y , t h e C & T s s u c c e e d e d a n d w e r e i n c o r p o -

r a t e d i n to L o c a l 3 4 . L e s s t h a n f i v e m o n t h s a f t e r t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 6 0 0

C & T s f o r m e d L o c a l 3 4 , m o r e t h a n t w o - t h i r d s w e n t o n s t r ik e a s e f f o r t s t o

n e g o t i a t e t h e i r f i r s t c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y c a m e t o a n i m p a s s e .

D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t w o - m o n t h s tr ik e , t h e C & T s r e c e i v e d s u p p o rt

f r o m m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s , b u t t h e i r g r e a t e s t a l ly w a s L o c a l

35 .

L o c a l 3 5 , o r a v a r i a ti o n t h e r e o f , h a s e x i s t e d o n t h e Y a l e c a m p u s s i n c e

t h e la t e 1 9 3 0 s. A f t e r fi v e s t ri k e s o f it s o w n , L o c a l 3 5 w a s w e l l - v e r s e d i n


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W i ll ia m s a n d S m i th

6 3

A v e r a g e H o u r l y

G R A D E B F

T A B L E

l a

W a g e

W i t h in S a l a r y G r a d e b y R a c e a n d

Sex

W F B M W M

1 7 . 5 6 7 . 4 2 7 . 6 0 7 . 4 8

t . eL t

t

3 7 . 5 9 7 . 7 2 7 . 6 0 7 . 6 5

4 8 . 0 6 7 . 9 6 ~ 7 . 9 6

5 8 . 0 6

8 . 0 9 8 . 0 8 8 , 0 2

6

9 . 3 6 9 . 4 0 9 , 3 6

7 9 . 5 6 9 . 6 6 9 , 8 7

8 9 . 9 0 1 0 . 0 8 1 0 , 4 0

9 1 0 . 0 5 8 . 8 7 1 0 . 0 5

1 0 1 0 . 0 0 1 0 . 2 2 1 0 . 3 5

1 1 1 1 . 6 3 1 1 . 6 3

1 2 1 1 . 9 1 1 2 . 1 8 1 2 . 3 2

1 3 . . . . 1 2 . 1 3 1 2 . 1 7

1 4 1 2 . 3 8 1 2 . 3 8 1 2 . 4 2

1 5 . . . . 1 2 . 1 1 1 1 . 5 4

1 6 . . . . 1 2 . 8 1 1 2 . 8 1

1 7 . . . . 1 3 . 2 4 1 3 . 1 8

BF = Black female BM = Black male

WF = White female WM = White male

Note: Indicates that no member of race/gender group is employed in grade.

Source: All data from Yale Univer sity Personnel Files.

Y a l e ' s m a n a g e m e n t p o l i c y a n d s tr i k e -b r e a k in g t e c h n iq u e s . T h e c o n t e n -

t i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y c o n v i n c e d t h e l e a d e r s o f L o c a l 3 5

t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s e c o n d u n i o n w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e i r b a r g a i n i n g l e -

v e r a g e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , L o c a l 3 5 s p e a r h e a d e d s e v e r a l o f th e e a r l i e r a t-

t e m p t s t o u n i o n i z e t h e C & T s . F r o m t h e m o m e n t 3 4 t h r e a t e n e d to s t ri k e in

t h e fa l l o f 1 9 84 , t h e b l u e c o l la r w o r k e r s o f 3 5 , t h e m a j o r i t y o f w h o m w e r e

m a l e , j o i n e d f o r c e s w i t h t h e w h i t e - c o ll a r f e m a l e w o r k e r s o f 3 4 . T h e

p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n L o c a l s 3 4 a n d 3 5 f l o u r i s h e d a n d e m b o d i e d t h e e n -

d u r i n g s p i r i t o f s o l i d a r i t y a n d c o o p e r a t i o n t h a t o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e

A m e r i c a n la b o r m o v e m e n t . O n e o b s e r v e r n o t e d t h a t t h e a l li a n c e s e n s i -

t i z e d , t h e m a l e w o r k e r s o f L o c a l 35 t o t h e i ss u e o f s e x d i s c r im i n a t i o n

[ in ] t h e w o r k p l a c e . ' '1 2 W e s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f

w o r k e r s i n 3.5 t o c o n f r o n t w h i t e a n d m a l e p r i v i l e g e m u s t n o t b e g a u g e d i n


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64 The R ev iew of Black Po li ti ca l Econom y/Winter 1990

T A B L E

l b

Average Sen ior i ty With in Sa lary Grade By Race and Sex

G R A D E B F W F B M W M

1 8.42 6.80 6.69 5.36

~ ~

3 8.57 8.12 6.55 7.18

4 26.28 19.83 10.93

5 13.48 4.0 6 12.55 7.61

6 15.17 11.48 8.67

7 9.17 9.40 8.73

8 16.08 16.67 14.48

9 20. 92 13.21 15.75

0 6.0 6 13.41 6.1 7

1 13.33 6.48

2 6.33 14.99 1 2 6 4

3 . . . . 21.88 12.65

4 23.83 20.25 24.23

5 . . . . 14.73 10.43

6 . . . . 26.37 15.94

7 . . . . 18.26 14.67

BF = Black female BM = Black male

WF = White female WM = White male

N ot e: **Indicates hat no mem berof race/gender group is em ployed n grade.

Source: All data fro m Ya le Unive rsity Personnel Files.

i s o l a ti o n f r o m t h e ex p e r i e n c e o f b la c k a n d w h i t e w o m e n w o r k e r s w i t h in

t h e c o n f i n e s o f 3 5 i ts e l f .

T H E R A C E A N D G E N D E R D I S T R I B U T I O N O F W O R K A N D W A G E S

I N L O C A L 3 5

W h e r e a s L o c a l 3 4 s m e m b e r s h i p i s 8 0 p e r c e n t f e m a l e a n d o v e r 8 0

p e r c e n t w h i t e , L o c a l 3 5 i s f a r m o r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s . O f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y

1 0 00 w o r k e r s r e p r e s e n t e d b y L o c a l 3 5 ( e x c lu d i n g s t u d e n t w o r k e r s ) , 3 3

p e r c e n t ar e w o m e n ; b l a c k w o m e n a c c o u n t f o r 6 0 p e rc e n t o f al l w o m e n o r

2 0 p e r c en t o f L o c a l 3 5 s t o t a l m e m b e r s h i p . T h e r e a r e 3 8 0 w h i t e m a l e s

( th e l a rg e s t r a c e / s e x g r o u p ) a n d 2 6 5 b l a c k m a l e s i n 3 5. A l t h o u g h t h e

w o r k e r s t h e m s e l v e s a r e r a c ia l l y d i v e r s e , t h e i r j o b s a r e h i g h l y s e g r e g a t e d


7/17

W i l li a m s a n d S m i t h 6 5

TABLE 2

L o c a l 5 M e a n s b y R a c e a n d S e x

B L A C K W H I TE B L A C K W H I TE

W O M E N W O M E N M E N M E N

T o ta l n u m b e r 2 1 0 1 3 5 2 6 5 3 8 0

ercentage 2 0 . 6 1 3 . 2 2 6 . 0 3 7 . 2

Years o f h i gh schoo l 2 .49 2 .87 2 .52 2 99

Hourly wa ge 7 .73 8 .01 8 .92 11 .23

Sa la ry g rade 2 .29 3 .47 5 .9 9 11 .85

S e n i o r it y 9 . 2 7 8 . 1 5 1 0 . 3 1 2 . 0 4

Source: All data from Yale University Personnel Files

L o c a l 3 5 h a s 6 2 m a j o r c l a s s i f ic a t i o n s 13 ( s e e a p p e n d i x l a ) ; a n y j o b t it le

h e l d b y 6 0 p e r c e n t o r m o r e o f o n e g e n d e r w a s c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r a m a l e

j o b o r a f e m a l e j o b . A d d i t i o n a ll y , a n y j o b c o m p r i s e d o f 6 0 p e r c e n t o r

m o r e o f o n e r a c e / g e n d e r g r o u p w a s c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r a b l a c k f e m a l e ,

w h i t e f e m a l e , b l a c k m a l e , o r w h i t e m a l e j o b . O f th e i n it ia l 6 8 j o b t it le s

i n L o c a l 3 5 , a n a s t o n i s h in g 6 0 a r e m a l e o r f e m a l e j o b s . A c l o s e r e x a m -

i n a ti o n r e v e a l s t h a t o n l y 8 o f t h o s e 6 0 j o b s a r e f e m a l e j o b s , w h i l e t h e

r e m a i n i n g 5 2 a re m a l e j o b s . M o r e o v e r , r a c e fu r t h e r s e g r e g a t e s j o b s a l o n g

g e n d e r l i n e s w i th i n L o c a l 3 5 : 3 7 o f t h e 6 2 j o b t i tl es a r e w h i t e m a l e j o b s ;

8 a re b l a c k m a l e jo b s ; a n d b l a c k f e m a l e s a n d w h i t e f e m a l e s c o m p r i s e t h e

m a j o r i t y o f w o r k e r s i n 3 a n d 2 o f t h e 6 2 j o b s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( s e e a p p e n d i x

l b ) .

T h e j o b t i tl e s ar e c a t e g o r i z e d i n to 1 7 s al a ry g r a d e s ( n u m b e r e d 1 t h r o u g h

1 7 w i t h g r a d e 1 7 b e i n g t h e h i g h e s t ) w h i c h s e t t h e p a y s c a l e r a n g e f o r e a c h

o c c u p a t i o n . W i th i n e a c h s a la r y g r a d e, w a g e s te n d t o c o n v e r g e a m o n g

r a c e / g e n d e r g r o u p s ( s e e T a b l e l a ) a n d i n t r a - o c c u p a t i o n a l w a g e p a r i ty 14 i s

c o m m o n . 15 H o w e v e r , r a ci al a n d g e n d e r w a g e i n e q u a li ty r e m a i n w h e n

o n e l o o k s a t a g g r e g a t e w a g e s ; b l a c k f e m a l e s r e c e i v e a n a v e r a g e h o u r l y

w a g e o f 7 . 7 3 c o m p a r e d w i t h 8 . 0 1 f o r w h i t e w o m e n , 8 . 9 2 f o r b l a c k

m e n , a n d 1 1 . 2 3 f o r w h i t e m e n ( s e e T a b l e 2 ). O u r o b j e c t i v e w a s t o

e x p l a i n b l a c k w o m e n ' s l o w r e l a t i v e w a g e s .

T a b l e 2 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r a c e - g e n d e r e d u c a t i o n g a p s a r e r a t h e r m o d e s t ;

e d u c a t i o n l e v e ls ra n g e b e t w e e n a n a v e r a g e o f 2 . 5 y e a r s o f h i g h s c h o o l f o r

b l a c k f e m a l e s a n d 3 y e a r s o f h i g h s c h o o l fo r w h i t e m a l e s . L o c a l 3 5 ' s

s e n i o r it y d i f fe r e n t ia l s a r e m o r e s u b s t a n ti a l; w h i t e m e n l e a d b l a c k m e n a n d

w o m e n i n s e n i o ri ty , w h i le w h i t e w o m e n h a v e l o g g e d t h e f e w e s t y e a rs a t

Y a l e . H o w e v e r , i t i s w o r t h n o t in g t h a t i n s e v e n o f t h e e i g h t g r a d e s w h e r e


8/17

6 6

T h e R e v i e w o f B l a c k P o li t ic a l E c o n o m y f W i n t e r 1 9 9

T A B L E 3

S a l a r y G r a d e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f L o c a l 3 5

W o r k e r s b y R a c e a n d S e x

G R A D E B L A C K

W O M E N

W HIT E B L A C K W HIT E

W O M E N M E N M E N

1 1 1 2 2 4 2 2 1 1

2

3 7 8 8 5 1 3 6 6 1

4 3 2 1 2

5 5 3 2 2 1 9

6 2 8 1

7 2 13 5

8 2 6 4

9 1 2 1

1 7 8 2 6

1 1 1 4

12 1 9 1 6

1 3 8 2

1 4 1 7 1 5

1 5 5 7

1 6 9 6

1 7 1 6 1 7

Source: All data from Yale UniversityPersonnelFiles.

n i o r i t y t ha n t he ir w h i t e m a l e c oun t e r pa r t s ( se e T a b l e l b ) . I f un i on w a g e s

r e fl e c t s e n io r i ty , t h e n b l a c k w o m e n s s e n i o r it y a d v a n t a g e s h o u l d a f f o r d

t h e m h i g h e r w a g e s . H o w e v e r , i f w e c o n s i d e r g r a d e s 4 t h r o u g h 6 w e f i n d

t ha t b l a c k w om e n s s ubs t a n ti a l s e n io r i t y a dva n t a ge d oe s no t tr a n s l a te i n t o

s i gn i f i c a n t l y h i ghe r hou r l y w a ge s ( s e e T a b l e s l a a nd l b ) .

I n a dd i t i on , T a b l e 3 r e ve a ls t ha t L oc a l 35 s s a la r y s t r uc t u r e i s r e m a r k -

a b l y s tr a ti f ie d ; s pe c i f i c a ll y , w h i t e m e n a r e ov e r w he l m i ng l y c on c e n t r a t e d

i n th e h i g h e s t s a la r y g r a d e s. S e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f w h i t e m a l e s w o r k i n jo b s

w i t h a s a la r y g r a de o f 10 o r h i ghe r a nd 45 pe r c e n t o f al l w h i t e m a l e s w or k

i n the h i ghe s t sa l a ry g r a de , 17. T he y r e p r e s e n t 100 pe r c e n t o f a ll bo i l e r

ope r a t o r s , c a r pe n t e r s , ga r de ne r s , c he f s , f i r e c on t r o l m e c ha n i c s , f i r e i n -

s pe c t o r s , g la z i e r s, l oc k s m i t h s , m a s o ns , a nd s he e t m e t a l m e c ha n i c s . L i ke -

w i s e , a t l e a s t 90 pe r c e n t o f a l l p l um be r s , w a t c h e ng i ne e r s , e l e c t r i c i a ns ,

a nd c on t r o l s m e c ha n i c s a r e w h i t e m a l e s . I n s t a r k c on t r a s t , 90 pe r c e n t o f

b l a c k f e m a l e s , 8 0 p e r c e n t o f w h i te f e m a l e s , a n d 6 0 p e r c e n t o f b la c k m a l e s


9/17

W i l l i a m s a n d S m i t h

67

TABLE

a

Sa lary G rade: Regres s ion Res u l t s

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t s t a t i s t i c

s e n io r it y . 2 5 8 1 4 . 3 6

h igh sch . . 367 4 .25

s e x

5 . 2 1 0 1 7 . 6 4

r c e 3 . 8 4 1 1 3 . 6 6

c o n s t a n t 1.940 4 .81

N = 9 9 0 F = 2 4 2 . 6 A d ju s te d R 2 = 0 . 4 9

w o r k i n g r a d e 1 7 , a n d t h e r e a r e n o w o m e n i n t h e h i g h e s t t h r e e s a l a r y

g r a d e s a n d j u s t t e n i n g r a d e s 1 0 t h r o u g h 1 4. A m o n g r a c e / g e n d e r g r o u p s ,

b l a c k w o m e n b e a r t h e e c o n o m i c b r u n t o f r a c e a n d g e n d e r j o b s e g r e g at i o n ;

5 3 p e r c e n t o f a ll b l a c k w o m e n w o r k i n t h e l o w e s t g r a d e a s li g h t c u s to -

d i an s . T h e s u b o r d i n at e d s ta tu s o f b l a c k w o m e n , w h o c a n c l a i m n e i t h e r

t h e e c o n o m i c p r i v il e g e o f w h i t e n e s s n o r m a l e n e s s , is l a r g e l y a t tr i b u ta b l e

to t h e ir c o n f i n e m e n t t o lo w p a y i n g o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h b e a r a n u n c a n n y

r e s e m b l a n c e t o d o m e s t i c w o r k . M o r e o v e r , it a p p e a rs t h at t h e c o n -

s tr u c ti o n o f c e r ta i n j o b s a s b l a c k w o m e n ' s o c c u p a t i o n s p l a y s a c r u c ia l

f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g l o w s a l ar y g r a d e s f o r t h e s e j o b s .

E M P I R I C A L A N A L Y S I S

T h e d a t a p r e s e n te d s h o w t h a t 1 ) w h i te m a l e s d o m i n a t e t h e w a g e h i e r -

a r c h y ; 2 ) t h e r e a r e w h i t e m a l e , b l a c k m a l e , w h i t e f e m a l e , a n d b l a c k

f e m a l e j o b s ; 3 ) h o l d i n g s a l a r y g r a d e c o n s t a n t , b l a c k f e m a l e s a v e r a g e

m o r e s e n i o r i t y t h a n o t h e r w o r k e r s a n d 4 ) e d u c a t i o n l e v e l s a re f a i r ly c o n -

s t a n t a c r o s s r a c e / s e x g r o u p s . W e n o w c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t h e r a c e - g e n d e r c o m p o s i t i o n o f s p e c i f i c j o b s a n d t h e s a l a r y g r a d e s o f


10/17

68 The Rev iew of Black Po li ti ca l Econo my W inter 1990

TABLE 4b

Log Wage: Reduced Form Wage Equat ion

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t - s t a t is t i c

s e n i o ri ty 0 . 0 0 5 1 5 . 3 2

h i g h s c h . 0 . 0 0 6 3 . 4 9

s e x 0 0 7 8 1 4 . 2 9

r ac e 0 . 0 6 4 1 2 . 2 6

c o n s t a n t 0 . 8 0 8 1 0 6 . 9 1

N = 9 9 0 F = 2 0 1 . 9 A d ju s te d R 2 = 0 . 4 4

t h a n w h i t e m a l e j o b s a n d t h e a s s i g n m e n t o f s a l a ry g r a d e s t o o c c u p a t i o n s

m e d i a t e s t h e e f f e c t s o f r a c e a n d g e n d e r i n th e w a g e h i e r a r c h y . T h e o u t -

c o m e o f t h is p r o c e s s i s t h a t c e rt a in j o b t it le s h a v e h i g h g r a d e s b e c a u s e o f

t h e r a c e a n d g e n d e r o f th e j o b i n c u m b e n t s . W h e r e a s t r a d i ti o n a l t h e o r y

s u g g e s t s t h a t b l a c k w o m e n e a r n l o w e r w a g e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c r o w d e d

i n to l o w - w a g e d j o b s , w e c o n t e n d t ha t l o w - w a g e d j o b s , i n p a rt , a re

d e f i n e d as su c h b e c a u s e th e y a re h e l d b y b l a c k w o m e n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e

c o n j e c t u re t h at t h e m a j o r it y o f b l a c k w o m e n d o n o t e a r n h ig h w a g e s b o t h

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e

e x c l u d e d

f r o m h i g h w a g e d j o b s ( i .e . , w h i t e m a l e jo b s )

a n d b e c a u s e t h e i r w o r k i s d e v a l u e d . 16

T o e v a l u a t e th is c l a im , w e d e v e l o p e d t w o s i m p l e w a g e r e g r e s s i o n

m o d e l s . I n M o d e l 1 w a g e s ( w ) a re a f u n c t i o n o f s a l a ry g r a d e ( g ) , s e n i o r i t y

( s e n ) , y e a r s o f h i g h s c h o o l ( h s ), r a c e ( r ) , a n d s e x ( s ) [* r a c e a n d s e x a r e

d u m m y v a r i ab l e s; r = 1 f o r w h i t e a n d r = 0 f o r b l a c k . S i m i la r ly , s = 1 f o r

m a l e a n d s = 0 f o r f e m a l e ] .

E q u a t i o n 1: w = f g , s e n , h s , r , s )

B e c a u s e s a la ry g r a d e i s e n d o g e n o u s , w e f i rs t g a u g e d t h e i m p a c t o f s e-

n i o r i ty , h i g h s c h o o l , r a c e , a n d s e x o n s a l a r y g r a d e .

E q u a t i o n 2 : g = f sen, hs , r , s )


11/17

W i l l ia m s a n d S m i t h 6 9

T A B L E 4 c

L o g W a g e : S L S R e g r e ss i o n R e s u l t s

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t - s t a t i s t i c

p r e d x 0 0 1 5 7 . 1 1

s e n io r it y 0 0 0 1 2 . 3 7

s e x - 0 . 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 9

r ac e 0 : 0 0 5 0 . 6 0

c o n s ta n t 0 . 8 3 7 1 3 0 . 6 7

N - - 9 9 0 F = 2 0 1 . 9 A d ju s te d R 2 = 0 . 4 4

U s i n g E q u a t i o n 2 w e c r e a t e d a n i n s t ru m e n t f o r g r a d e , r e d e f i n e d a s p r e d x ,

w h i c h w e u s e d i n a t w o - s t a g e l e a s t s q u a r e r e g r e s s i o n .

E q u a t i o n

3:

w = f ~ o r ed x , s e n , r , s

W e a l so e s t im a t e d a r e d u c e d f o r m w a g e e q u a t i o n , w h i c h e x c l u d e s s a la r y

g ra d e a s a r i g h t -h a n d s i d e v a r i a b l e . T a b l e s 4 a a n d 4 c p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s

f o r E q u a t i o n s 2 a n d 3 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T a b l e 4 b p r e s e n t s t h e r e d u c e d f o r m . 17

M o d e l 2 t e st s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , ce t e r is p a r i b u s , a j o b s r a c e - g e n d e r

c o m p o s i t i o n is a s i g n i f ic a n t d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h e j o b h o l d e r s w a g e . H e r e i n ,

w e d e p l o y A p p e n d i x l b s r a c e - g e n d e r j o b g r o u p i n g s t o d e f i n e fo u r v e c -

t or s o f d u m m y v a ri a b le s . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a w o r k e r h o ld s a b l ac k w o m a n s

j o b , t h e n B F J = 1 ; i f n o t, B F J = 0 ; t h e o t h er d u m m y v ar ia b le s ( W M J ,

W F J , a n d B M J ) w e r e s i m i la r ly c o n s tr u c t e d . A g a i n , w e b e g a n w i t h a

r e d u c e d f o r m g r a d e e q u a t i o n f r o m w h i c h w e c a l c u l a t e d t h e i n s t r u m e n t

p r e d x . T a b l e 5 a r e p o r t s t h e f i n d i n g s o f th e s a l a r y g r a d e e s ti m a t i o n . T h e

r e s u l ts o f t h e r e d u c e d f o r m w a g e r e g r e s s i o n a n d t h e t w o s t ag e l e a s t sq u a r e

r e g r e s s i o n a r e r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e s 5 b a n d 5 c , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

D I S C U S S I O N

T h e r e s u l ts s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t L o c a l 3 5 s w a g e -

s e t ti n g p r o c e s s p e r p e t u a te s w h i t e m a l e s u p r e m a c y . T a b l e 4 a s t r a d it i o n a l

d u m m y v a r i a b le s p e c i f i c a ti o n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t, ce t e r i s p a r i b u s , r a c e a n d


12/17

7 0 T h e R e v i e w o f B l a c k P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m y W i n t e r 1 9 9 0

TABLE 5a

Salary G rade: Regres s ion Res u l t s

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t s t a t is t i c

s e n i o r i t y 0.014 13.04

high sch. 0.126 1.87

BFJ 3.663 11.15

WFJ 0.609 0.87

BMJ 0.417 1.37

WMJ 8.21 28.76

constant 2.977 8.70

N=990 F 384.9 Adjusted R2=0.69

s e x a r e i m por t a n t de t e r m i na n t s o f s a l a r y g r a de . Y e t , t h i s s pe c i f i c a t i on

p r e c l u d e s a p r e c i se c o n s i d e r a t io n o f j o b s e g r e g a t i o n ' s i m p a c t o n s a la r y

g r a d i n g . T a b l e 5 a s h o w s t h a t t h e r a c e / g e n d e r a tt ri b u te s o f j o b i n c u m b e n t s

s i gn i f i c a n t ly i n f l ue nc e s a la r y g r a de a s s ignm e n t . S pe c i f i c a l l y , b l a c k w o-

m e n ' s j o b s , w h i t e w o m e n ' s j o b s , b l a c k m e n ' s j o b s a re d o w n -

g r a de d , a l t hough on l y BF J ' s c oe f f i c i e n t i s l a r ge a nd s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i gn i f i -

c a n t . I nde e d , on l y W M J ' s c oe f f i c i e n t i s l a rge r ; m or e o ve r , i t i s pos i t i ve l y

s i gn i fi c a n t . A s e xp e c t e d , b o t h s e n i o r i t y a nd h i gh s c h oo l a r e s i gn i f i c a n t i n

M o d e l s 1 a n d 2 , a l t h o u g h M o d e l 2 ' s h i g h s c h o o l c o e f f ic i e n t f al ls b e l o w

t he 5 pe r c e n t s i gn i f i c a nc e l e ve l . I t i s a l s o w or t h no t i ng t ha t M ode l 2 ' s

s a l ar y g r a de e qua t i on y i e l d s a s u r p r i s i ng l y l a r ge R 2 g i ve n t ha t w e a r e

a na l yz i ng c r o s s - s e c t i on da t a .

O u r r e d u c e d f o r m w a g e e q u a t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e s e n i o r i t y ' s c o n t i n u e d

s i gn i f i c a nc e , t hou gh t he c oe f f i c i e n t d r ops c ons i de r a b l y a nd l o s e s i ts s i g -

n i f ic a n c e f r o m M o d e l 1 t o 2. T h e h i g h s c h o o l c o e f f ic i e n t a g a i n d r o p s

b e l o w t h e r a n g e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n M o d e l 2 ' s r e d u c e d f o r m w a g e e q u a -

t io n . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , t h e r a c e a n d g e n d e r jo b c o e f f i c ie n t r e -

v e a ls t h e e x i st e n c e o f su b s ta n t ia l w a g e p r e m i u m s f o r w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d

i n w h i t e m e n ' s j o b s . I n s h ar p c o n tr a s t, e m p l o y m e n t i n a b l a c k w o m a n ' s


13/17

W i l li a m s a n d S m i t h 7

TABLE 5b

L o g W a g e : R e d u c e d F o r m R e s u l t s

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t s t a t i s t ic

s e n i o r i t y 0.041 3.98

high sch. 0.002 1.30

BFJ 0.038 5.71

WFJ 0.012 0.82

BMJ 0.011 1.75

WMJ 0.142 25.13

constant 0.879 129.32

N=990 F=280.3 Adjusted R2 0.62

t h o u g h s t a ti st ic a ll y i n s i g n i fi c a n t p r e m i u m ; w o r k e r s i n b l a c k m e n ' s j o b s

d o n o t r e a p t h e t r ad i ti o n a l b e n e f i ts o f h a v i n g a m a n ' s j o b . T h e s e

r e s u l t s s t r ong l y s ugge s t t ha t r e s e a r c he r s a nd s t r a t e g i s t s m us t be m or e

p r e ci se i n t h ei r d i sc u s si o n s o f m e n ' s j o b s a n d w o m e n ' s j o b s ; w e

m us t i nd i c a t e whi h m e n a n d w o m e n w e h a v e in m i n d . W e c a n n o t, i n

o t h e r w o r d s , o v e r l o o k t h e r a c ia l d i m e n s i o n s o f jo b s e g r e g a ti o n .

Bo t h t w o- s t a ge r e g r e s s i ons c on f i r m t he r e l e va nc e o f t he s a l a r y g r a de /

w a g e c o n n e c t i o n in L o c a l 3 5 ' s w a g e - s e tt i n g p r o c e s s . O u r i n s t r u m e n t e d

s a l a r y g r a de va r i a b l e ( p r e dx ) c a p t u r e s a nd t r a ns m i t s t he w a ge e f f e c t s o f

r a c e - g e n d e r j o b s e g r e g a ti o n . I n t e re s t in g l y e n o u g h , o n l y w h i t e w o m e n ' s

j o b s r e a p a n a d d i t io n a l b o n u s i n t h e tw o - s t a g e m o d e l . T h i s r e su l t, w h e n

v i e w e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o u r r e d u c e d f o r m r e s u lt s , s u g g e s t s t h e e x i s te n c e

o f a r a c e - s p e c if i c b a r g a in i n g p o w e r w i t h in t h e u n i o n .

C O N C L U S I O N

O ur f i nd i ngs s t r ong l y s ugge s t t ha t L oc a l 35 ' s w a ge s e t t i ng p r oc e s s

r e p r o d u c e s w h i t e s u p r e m a c y w i th i n th e u n i o n . A l l e ls e e q u a l, w h i t e m e n ' s

j o b s r e c e i v e s ig n i f ic a n t a n d l ar g e w a g e a n d g r a d e p r e m i u m s . W h i t e w o -


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72 The R ev iew of Black Po li ti ca l Econo my/W inter 1990

TABLE 5c

Log Wage: 2SL S Regress ion Results

v a r i a b l e c o e f f i c i e n t t s t a t i s t i c

Predx 0.014 2.29

s n i o r i t y 0.001 1.31

BFJ 0.013 0.59

WFJ 0.020 2.29

BMJ 0.004 1.10

WMJ 0.029 0.05

constant 0.838 39.94

N=990 F=280.3 Adjusted R2=0.62

T h e w a g e - s e t ti n g p r o c e ss s i g n i f ic a n t ly d o w n g r a d e s b l a c k w o m e n ' s j o b s .

B l a c k m e n ' s j o b s a r e g r a d e d l o w e r a n d s u f f e r a w a g e p e n a l t y , a l th o u g h

t h e r e l e v a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t s t a n d a r d l e v e l s .

B e c a u s e n e i t h e r o f o u r m o d e l s i n c l u d e s m e a s u r e s o f j o b - s p e c i f i c s k i l ls ,

t h e r a c e / g e n d e r j o b c o e f f ic i e n ts c o u l d b e a r g u a b ly b i a s e d . H o w e v e r , m a n y

c r a f ts w o r k e r s r e c e i v e t h e i r tr a i n in g o n t h e j o b o r i n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p r o -

g r a m s . I n c l u s i o n o f s k il l v a r i a b le s m i g h t c h a n g e o u r p a r a m e t e r e s ti m a t e s ;

i t w o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , e x p l a i n b l a c k w o m e n ' s e x c l u s i o n f r o m t r a i n i n g

p o r t s o f e n t r y . L o c a l 3 5 ' s l e a d e r s h i p h a s n o t , to d a t e , b e e n i n t h e

v a n g u a r d o f o c c u p a t i o n a l i n t e g r a t io n a d v o c a t e s , t h u s s u g g e s t i n g a n a c -

c e p t a n c e o f t h e s ta tu s q u o . I n d e e d , t h e l o n g s t a n d i n g t r a d i ti o n o f w h i t e

m a l e e x c l u s i v i t y i n A m e r i c a n c r a f t u n i o n s l e a d s u s t o b e l i e v e t h a t L o c a l

3 5 ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e i s a c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a g e - o l d

r a c e / g e n d e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e w o r k i n g c l a ss .

B l a c k w o m e n s e e k i n g t o r a i s e t h e i r e a r n i n g s w i t h i n t h e u n i o n c o u l d

p u r s u e a l i v i n g w a g e s t ra t e g y , a l t h o u g h t h is t o o w o u l d c h a l l e n g e t h e

e x i s ti n g w a g e h i e r a r ch y . A l t h o u g h b l a c k m e n a r e m o r e e v e n l y d is t ri b u te d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e j o b c l a s s if i c a ti o n s t h a n a r e th e w o m e n , t h e i r j o b s d o n o t

e a r n a w a g e p r e m i u m ; h e n c e , t h e y t o o w o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m a r e n e g o ti a t io n


15/17

W i l li a m s a n d S m i t h 7

o f t h e d i v i s io n o f l a b o r a n d w a g e - s e t t i n g p r o c e s s . R e c a l l i n g M i l k m a n , i f

b l a c k w o m e n w i s h t o u se L o c a l 3 5 a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r e r a d i c a t i n g

g e n d e r - s p e c i f i c r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , t h e y m u s t c h a l l e n g e i t s j o b g r a d i n g

a n d w a g e s e t t i n g p o l i c i e s ,

N O T E S

T h e au th o r s w i sh to t h an k Jo sep h V i t e l l i f o r h i s a s s i s t an ce in co l l ec t in g th e d a t a f o r t h i s

s tu d y .

1 . Ba r b a r a F . Resk in an d He id i I. Ha r tm an n ( ed s . ) , W o m e n s W o r k , M e n s W o r k : S e x

Segregat ion on the Job ( W ash in g to n , DC: Na t io n a l Ac ad e m y Pr e ss , 1 9 86 ), p p . 1 0 - 1 1.

2 . E x cep t io n s t o t h e p a t te r n o f i g n o r in g th e r ac i a l d iv i s io n s am o n g wo m en a r e Au g u s -

t in K . F o s u , E x p l a i n i n g P o s t -1 9 6 4 E a rn i n g s G a i n s B y B l a c k W o m e n : R a c e o r S e x ? ,

Th e R ev iew o f B la ck P o l i t i ca l E co n o my , Vol 15 :3 (Win ter 1987) , pp . 41-55 ; Ju l ianne

M a l v e a u x , R e c e n t T r en d s i n O c c u p a t i o n a l S e g r e g a t i o n b y R a c e an d S e x , p a p e r p r e -

s e n te d t o th e C o m m i t t e e o n W o m e n ' s E m p l o y m e n t a n d R e l a t e d S o c i a l I s s u e s , N a t i o n a l

A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s ( 19 8 2 ) a n d T h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m y o f B l a c k W o m e n , i n M .

Dav i s , M. Mar ab le , M. Sp r in k e r , an d F . P f e i l ( ed s . ) , Th e Yea r Le f t : A n A mer ica n

Socia l is t Yearbook: Race , Ethn ic i ty , Class , and Gender ( Ve r so , 1 9 87 ); E v e ly n Nak an o

G l e n n , R a c i a l E t h ni c W o m e n ' s L a b o r : T h e I n t e rs e c t io n o f R a c e , G e n d e r , a n d C l a s s

O p p r e s s i o n , R ev iew o f R a d ica l P o l i t i ca l E co n o m ics , Vol 17 (1985) , pp . 86-108 .

3 . S e e e . g . , H e i d i H a r t m a n n , C a p i t a l i s m , P a t r ia r c h y , a n d J o b S e g re g a t i o n b y S e x ,

S ig n s : Jo u rn a l o f Wo men in Cu l tu re a n d S o c ie t y , Vol 1 :2 (1976) , pp . 137-169; Ruth

M i l k m a n , O r g a n i z i n g t h e S e x u al D i v is i o n o f L a b o r: H i s t o ri c a l P e r s p e c t iv e s o n ' W o -

m e n ' s W o r k ' a n d t h e A m e r i c a n L a b o r M o v e m e n t , S o c ia l i s t R ev i ew ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; Ba r b a r a

R e s k i n , B r i n g i n g t h e M e n B a c k In : S e x D i f f e r en t i at i o n a n d t he D e v a l u a t io n o f W o m e n ' s

W o r k ,

Gen d er a n d S o c ie t y ,

Vo l 2 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 5 8 - 8 1 ; Sam u e l Bo wles an d Her b e r t

G in t i s , Demo cra cy a n d Ca p i ta l i sm: P ro p er t y , Co mmu n i t y , a n d th e Co n t ra d ic t io n s o f

Mo d ern S o c ia l Th o u g h t ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s , 1 9 86 ); R h o n d a , W i l l i a m s , B e y o n d

H u m a n C a p i t a l: B l a c k W o m e n , W o r k , a n d W a g e s , W e l l e s l e y C o l l e g e C e n t e r f o r R e -

sea r ch o n W o m en , W o r k in g Pap e r No . 1 8 3, ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; Ba r b a r a Be r g m an n , Th e E co n o mic

E m e r g e n c e o f W o m e n

( New Yo r k : Bas i c Bo o k s , 1 9 8 6 ) .

4 . H a r t m a n n , C a p i t a l i s m ; P a t r ia r c h y , a n d J o b S e g r e g a t io n b y S e x .

5 . G l e n n , R a c i a l E t hn ic W o m e n ' s L a b o r .

6 . Ib id . , p . 102 .

7 . M i l k m a n , O r g a n i z i n g th e S e x u a l D i v i s i o n o f L a b o r .

8 . I b id . , pp . 134-141 .

9 . Ib id . , p . 144 .

1 0 . He r b e r t H i l l , R ac e an d E th n ic i ty i n Or g an ized L ab o r : T h e Hi s to r i ca l So u r ces o f

R e s i s t a n c e t o A f f i r m a t i v e A c t i o n , Jo u rn a l o f I n t e rg ro u p R e la t io n s , Vo l 1 2 ( W in te r

1984), pp. 5-49, and B la ck La b o r a n d the A m er ica n Leg a l S y s t em: R a ce , W o rk , a n d th e

L aw ( Mad i so n : Un iv e r s i t y o f W isco n s in P r e ss , 1 98 5 ); Ka r l K la r e , T h e Q u es t f o r I n -

d u s t ri a l D e m o c r a c y a n d t h e S t r u gg l e A g a i n s t R a c i s m : P e r s p e c t iv e s f ro m L a b o r L a w a n d

C i v i l R i g h t s L a w , O r e g o n L a w R e v i e w , Vo l 61 (1982) , pp . 15%200.

1 1 . F o r m o r e d e t a i l ed th eo r e t ic a l d i scu ss io n o f j o b co m p e t i t i o n am o n g w o r k e r s see

W i l l i a m s , B e y o n d H u m a n C a p i t a l , ( 19 8 8) a n d C a p i t a l , C o m p e t i ti o n , a n d D i s c r i m -

in a t io n : A Reco n s id e r a t io n o f Rac ia l E a r n in g s I n eq u a l i t y , R e v i e w o f R a d i c a l P o l i ti c a l

E co n o mics , V o l 1 7 :2 ( 1 98 7 ); W i l l i a m A . D a r i ty J r . a n d R h o n d a M . W i l l i a m s , P e d d l e r s

F o r e v e r? : C u l tu r e , C o m p e t i t i o n , a n d D i s c r i m i n a t i o n , A m e r i c a n E c o n o m i c R e v i e w , V o l .


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7 4

T h e R e v i e w o f B l a c k P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y W i n t e r 1 9 9 0

75 (1985), pp. 256-261; Darity, What 's Left of the Economic Theory of Discr imina-

tion? in Steven Shulman and William Darity, Jr. (eds.), The Question of Discrimination

(Wesleyan, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).

12. Toni Gilpin, Gary Isaac, Dan Letwin, and Jack McKivigan, On Strike for Respect:

The Yale Strike of 1984-1985 (Chicago: Charles Kerr Publishing, 1988), p. 55.

* Because Hispanics and Asian Americans are less than 3 percent of Local 35's Yale

employees, they were not included in this study.

13. The initial number of job classifications in Local 35 totalled sixty-eight. Six of

these jobs had very few employees and were virtually identical in title to six other

occupations that had greater numbers of employees. Consequently, we combined those

jobs that were similar in job title to form sixty-two major occupations.

14. Data on gender/race wages within job titles are available from authors upon re-

quest.

15. According toReskin and Hartmann (1986), most of the aggregate gender wage gap

in the United States is due to intra-occupational wage disparities across firms. In other

words, women tend to earn less than men not because they are employed in different

occupations but because they work in low wage firms whereas men, employed in the same

occupations, work in high wage firms. Within individual firms, however, the wages of

men and women employed in the same occupations tend to converge and the bulk of the

gender wage-gap is, in fact, the result of interoccupational wage inequality.

16. See Reskin, Bringing the Men Back In (1988) for a recent discussion of the

devaluation of women's work. For an excellent discussion on how port of entry mecha-

nisms operate to channel workers into race and gender segregated jobs in a universi ty

setting, see Beth Ann Shelton, Racial Discrimination at Initial Labor Market Access,

National Journal of Sociology

Vol 1:1 (Spring 1987), pp. 101-117.

17. Our SPSSx regression package consistently omitted the high school variable (hs)

from the 2SLS regression, which means that this equation suffers from specification error.

However, we are comforted by the small magnitude of the 'hs ' coefficient in the reduced

form of Model 1 and its insignificance in Model 2' s reduced form. Hence, Tables 5b and

5c have our greatest confidence.


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Rhonda Williams - What else Unions Do?

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