RhetoricRhetoricIn the study of rhetoric, the focus should be how In the study of rhetoric, the focus should be how a writer uses elements of language – diction, a writer uses elements of language – diction, detail, image, tone, syntax, logical ordering, detail, image, tone, syntax, logical ordering, juxtaposition, or contrast, for example – to juxtaposition, or contrast, for example – to achieve a specific purpose.achieve a specific purpose.

Rhetoric is the art of using words to persuade in Rhetoric is the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. All types of writing – writing or speaking. All types of writing – fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry – seek to fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry – seek to persuade, and rhetoricians study these genres for persuade, and rhetoricians study these genres for their persuasive qualities.their persuasive qualities.

Rhetorical TheoryRhetorical Theory

Argument is used here to designate the entire Argument is used here to designate the entire persuasive essay. Writing argumentative persuasive essay. Writing argumentative essays is a complex process that addresses essays is a complex process that addresses with a specific purpose a targeted audience. with a specific purpose a targeted audience. The process requires reasoning, a kind of The process requires reasoning, a kind of controlled thinking in which you come to controlled thinking in which you come to accept or reject an idea based on its validity accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth. and truth.

Effective arguments involve…Effective arguments involve…

key issueskey issues anticipated objectionsanticipated objections gathered supportgathered support logical reasoning to sway the logical reasoning to sway the

thinking of the audiencethinking of the audience..

An effective argument is a well-constructed presentation of An effective argument is a well-constructed presentation of ideas that takes a stand about an issue – often called the ideas that takes a stand about an issue – often called the thesis statement or claim – and supports that thesis thesis statement or claim – and supports that thesis statement with various examples of evidence. statement with various examples of evidence.

Arguments are consciously structured using logical lines or Arguments are consciously structured using logical lines or reasoning such as order of importance, chain of reasoning, reasoning such as order of importance, chain of reasoning, cause and effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation, and cause and effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation, and process analysis. process analysis.

Arguments also include the various modes of discourse to Arguments also include the various modes of discourse to support their claims with a combination of both logical support their claims with a combination of both logical (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their credibility as writers or their ethical appeals (ethos).credibility as writers or their ethical appeals (ethos).

ELEMENTS OF ELEMENTS OF ARGUMENTATIONARGUMENTATION

PurposePurpose AudienceAudience AppealsAppeals

PurposePurpose The The purposepurpose is the specific reason or reasons is the specific reason or reasons

for the writing. It conveys what the readers for the writing. It conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or goal that the writer wishes to the objective or goal that the writer wishes to establish.establish.

The Writer’s purpose might be to:The Writer’s purpose might be to:

Support a causeSupport a cause Promote changePromote change Refute a theoryRefute a theory Stimulate interestStimulate interest Win agreementWin agreement Arouse sympathyArouse sympathy Provoke angerProvoke anger

AudienceAudience

The The audienceaudience is the writer’s targeted reader or is the writer’s targeted reader or readers. The relationship between the writer readers. The relationship between the writer and the audience is critical. Focus on, kind of and the audience is critical. Focus on, kind of information, language, and overall approach information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to a specific audience. that will appeal to a specific audience.

Questions to consider:Questions to consider:

Who exactly is the audience?Who exactly is the audience? What do they know?What do they know? What do they believe?What do they believe? What do they expect?What do they expect? How will the audience disagree with argument?How will the audience disagree with argument? What do they need to be addressed?What do they need to be addressed? How can /should jargon be used?How can /should jargon be used? Should language be formal, factual, and objective – Should language be formal, factual, and objective –

or, familiar, anecdotal, and personalor, familiar, anecdotal, and personal

Appeals of Logic, Emotion, and EthicsAppeals of Logic, Emotion, and Ethics

Logical Appeals (logos)Logical Appeals (logos) Emotional Appeals (pathos)Emotional Appeals (pathos) Ethical appeals (ethos)Ethical appeals (ethos)

Logical Appeals (logos)Logical Appeals (logos)

Cite traditional cultureCite traditional culture Cite commonly held beliefsCite commonly held beliefs Allude to history, religious texts, great literature, or Allude to history, religious texts, great literature, or

mythologymythology Provide testimonyProvide testimony Draw analogies/create metaphorsDraw analogies/create metaphors Order chronologicallyOrder chronologically Provide evidenceProvide evidence Classify evidenceClassify evidence Cite authoritiesCite authorities Quote researchQuote research Use factsUse facts Theorize about cause and effectTheorize about cause and effect Argue from precedentArgue from precedent

Emotional Appeals (pathos)Emotional Appeals (pathos)

Use language that involves the sensesUse language that involves the senses Include a bias or prejudiceInclude a bias or prejudice Include an anecdoteInclude an anecdote Explore euphemismsExplore euphemisms Use descriptionUse description Use figurative languageUse figurative language Develop toneDevelop tone Experiment with informal languageExperiment with informal language

Ethical appeals (ethos)Ethical appeals (ethos)

Show written voice in the argumentShow written voice in the argument Make the audience believe that the writer is trustworthyMake the audience believe that the writer is trustworthy Demonstrate that the writer put in research time.Demonstrate that the writer put in research time. Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidenceSupport reasons with appropriate, logical evidence Present a carefully crafted and edited argumentPresent a carefully crafted and edited argument Demonstrate the writer knows and respects the audience Demonstrate the writer knows and respects the audience

Show concern about communicating with the audience.Show concern about communicating with the audience. Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and

knowledgeable knowledgeable