REWIE 2008 VIMAZAL The use constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface.pdf

ecolog ical eng ineer ing 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117

avai lab le at www.sc iencedi rec t .com

journa l homepage: www.e lsev ier .com/ locate /eco leng

Review

The u hoow f r

J. Vymaa ENKI o.p.sb Czech Univ DepNmest Smirickych 1, 281 63 Kostelec nad Cernymi lesy, Czech Republic

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article histor

Received 20

Accepted 29

Keywords:

Constructed

Hybrid syste

Municipal w

Nutrients

Organics

Sub-surface

a b s t r a c t

1. Int

The technostructed wewas startedcommencin1966) and b1978, 1981)inlet and surface ofreaches thevia level co

CorresponE-mail a

0925-8574/$doi:10.1016/y:

August 2008

August 2008

wetlands

ms

astewater

ow

Constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface ow (HF CWs) have been used for

wastewater treatment for more than 30 years. Most HF CWs have been designed to treat

municipal or domesticwastewater.Nowadays,municipalHFCWs focusnot only on common

pollutants but also on special parameters such as pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptive

chemicals or linear alkylbenzensulfonates (LAS). At present, HF CWs are used to treat many

other types of wastewater. Industrial applications include wastewaters from oil reneries,

chemical factories, pulp and paper production, tannery and textile industries, abattoir, dis-

tillery and winery industries. In particular, the use of HF CWs is becoming very common for

treatment of food-processing wastewaters (e.g., production and processing of milk, cheese,

potatoes, sugar). HF constructed wetlands are also successfully used to treat wastewaters

from agriculture (e.g., pig and dairy farms, sh farm efuents) and various runoff waters

(agriculture, airports, highway, greenhouses, plant nurseries). HF CWs have also effectively

been used to treat landll leachate. Besides the use as a single unit, HF CWs are also used

in combination with other types of constructed wetlands in hybrid systems.

2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

roduction

logy of wastewater treatment by means of con-tlands with horizontal sub-surface ow (HF CWs)in Germany based on research by Kthe Seidel

g in the 1960s (e.g., Seidel, 1961, 1964, 1965a,b,y Reinhold Kickuth in the 1970s (e.g., Kickuth, 1977,. In these systems the wastewater is fed in at theows slowly through the porous medium under thethe bed in a more or less horizontal path until it

outlet zone where it is collected before leavingntrol arrangement at the outlet (Fig. 1). During this

dence address: ENKI o.p.s., Dukelsk 145, 379 01 Trebon, Czech Republic.ddress: [email protected].

passage the wastewater will come into contact with a networkof aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic zones. The aerobic zonesoccur around roots and rhizomes that leak oxygen into thesubstrate (Brix, 1987; Cooper et al., 1996). Major design param-eters, removal mechanisms and treatment performance havebeen reviewedbyKadlec andKnight (1996), Cooper et al. (1996),Vymazal et al. (1998), Kadlec et al. (2000), Vymazal (2005),Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008) or Kadlec and Wallace (2008).

HF constructed wetlands have long been used primarily fortreatment of municipal or domestic wastewaters. However, atpresent, constructed wetlands are used for a wide variety ofpollution, including agricultural and industrial wastewaters,

see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.j.ecoleng.2008.08.016se constructed wetlands withor various types of wastewate

zala,b,

., Dukelsk 145, 379 01 Trebon, Czech Republicersity of Life Sciences in Prague, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,rizontal sub-surface

artment of Landscape Ecology,

2 ecolog ical eng ineer ing 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117

Fig. 1 Schwith horizwith largegravel, crusbed; 6, colldrainage plevel in thepattern. Fro

various runthis paper ihorizontal

2. Mu

HF construipal andwastewatestages (Tabnot used tKnight (19ipal waste220mg l1,TKN: 40mgwidely as asubstantialThe resultswetlands hwastewatecially imposuccessfullof organicssystems suwith low orBOD5). Avewetlands is

Besideswastewateof linear alBillore et aKantawaniticals (Mataindicated tmary biodsulfonezoicresults alsowere removhomologuehas been fo

the differences in the degree to which the homologues areadsorbed onto suspended particles and different biodegrada-

tes. TR deaceuof washow

In

is vain

rial wvery

Pet

ntratry intivelina

s wwateal ofpicalne, xuilt iinaHF

m2)rks2000d desticses atreatA HFs fro.ematic representation of a constructed wetlandontal sub-surface ow. 1, distribution zone lledstones; 2, impermeable liner; 3, medium (e.g.,hed stones); 4, vegetation; 5, water level in the

ection zone lled with large stones; 7, collectionipe; 8, outlet structure for maintaining of waterbed. The arrows indicate only a general owm Vymazal (2001).

off waters and landll leachate. The objective ofs to evaluate the use of constructed wetlands withsub-surface ow for various types of wastewater.

nicipal wastewaters

cted wetlands are commonly used to treat munic-domestic (single house or cluster of houses)rs as both secondary and tertiary treatmentle 1). In general, HF constructed wetlands areo treat raw municipal wastewater. Kadlec and96) listed the typical composition of munic-watersBOD5: 220mg l1, COD: 500mg l1, TSS:NH4N: 25mg l1, NOxN: 0mg l1, Norg: 15mg l1,l1, TP: 8mg l1. However, the concentrations varyconsequence of water consumption, which variesly in cities and villages and also among countries.shown in Table 1 indicate that HF constructedave been successfully used to treat municipal

r with a wide range of inow concentrations. Espe-rtant is the fact that HF constructed wetlands cany treat wastewaters with very low concentrations

tion raand HLpharmtypeslters)CWs.

3.

Theretreatedindusthaving

3.1.

Conceally varespeccontamprocesrunoffremovics (tyethylewas bcontamlargest49,000cal woet al.,tics anfor plapurpospapertives.nitrateTable 3. It is well known that conventional treatmentch as activated sludge cannot treat wastewaterganic concentrations (usually less than 5080mg/lrage treatment performance of the HF constructedshown in Table 2.pollutants commonly monitored in municipal

rs (see Table 1), HF CWs were also used for removalkylbenzensulfonates (LAS) (del Bubba et al., 2000;l., 2002; Thomas et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2004;chkul and Wara-Aswapati, 2005) and pharmaceu-moros et al., 2005) from the sewage. The results

hat sulfophenylcarboxylic acids represent the pri-egradation products of LAS and, among these,acid is present at signicant percentages. Therevealed that the longer alkyl chain homologuesed to a greater extent than the shorter alkyl chains in the order C13 >C12 >C11 >C10. This decreaseund by other authors and has been attributed to

3.2. Pu

Pulp mill eorganics asuntreated eof 200800activated sabout 1010of untreateacids (e.g.,ment, the rand someThe most cents are orthese parain these wa

Concentwaters usuhe removal has also been found to be temperaturependent. The comparison with the elimination ofticals and personal care products through otherstewater treatment plants (activated sludge, bio-ed either similar or slightly better results for HF

dustrial wastewaters

riety of industrial wastewaters which have beenHF constructed wetlands (Table 3). The quality ofastewaters varies widely, with many wastewatershigh concentrations of pollutants (Table 4).

rochemical and chemical industries

ions of BOD5 and COD in renery efuents usu-the range of 101000mg l1 and 504000mg l1,

y (Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008). Treatment ofted waters from the petrochemical industry (e.g.,aters from oil-elds, oil-contaminated waters,rs fromreneries, oil-renery efuents) is aimedatvarioushydrocarbons includingdiesel range organ-ly reported as C10C40), BTEX (benzene, toluene,ylene). Probably the largest system (240,000m2)n Heglig, Sudan, to treat oil-elds hydrocarbon-ted waters (D. Wood, pers. comm.). One of theconstructed wetlands in Europe (total area ofwas built in 1990 at the Air Products chemi-at Billingham, Teeside, United Kingdom (Sands). The plant is producing alcohols for the plas-tergent industries, phenol/acetone and derivatives, detergents, pharmaceuticals and ame-retardantnd amines and derivatives for drugs, detergents,ment, agrochemicals and animal feedstock addi-CW built in Portugal treats wastewaters rich in

m the production of nitric acid. For references, see

lp and paper, textile and tannery industries

fuents are complex mixtures of wood-derivedwell as some inorganic ions and compounds. Infuents, the BOD5 is high (generally in the range

mg l1). Secondary treatment (by aerated lagoon orludge) can be quite effective, reducing the BOD5 to0mg l1. The compounds responsible for the BOD5d efuents are primarily simple sugars, organicacetic) and alcohols (e.g., methanol). After treat-esidual BOD5 is largely caused by biological solidsmore refractory organic compounds (Thut, 1993).ommon target parameters in pulp and paper efu-ganics, suspended solids and ammonia. Besidesmeters, also color and phenol have been targetedstewaters.rations of BOD5, COD and TSS in tannery waste-ally vary between 1000 and 2000mg l1, 2000 and

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Table 1 Examples of treatment performance of HF constructed wetlands for treatment of municipal and domestic sewage

Location Country Area (m2) Flow(m3 d1)

BOD5 TSS TP TN NH4N FC Ref.

In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out In Out

Wigmore UK 328 87 5.8 1.1 9.7 3.8 0.67 0.24 1Onsov Czech Republic 2100 92 5.9 2.7 12.0 5.2 1.3 1.0 17.9 10.7 5.2 4.2 5.4 4.4 2Leek Wootton UK 825 306 8.5 2.3 17.7 3.8 5.5 0.44 1Bear Creek, AL USA 2035 14.9 9.4 1.0 72 3.5 6.6 0.45 52 9.9 10.5 2.7 5.3 1.0 3Pisgah Jamaica 90 0.9 27 13 57 13 9.6 0.4 40 1.6 5.8 0.4 5.6 2.2 4Lifosa Lithuania 3780 180400 51 7.8 30.6 12.2 11.2 9.6 9.4 7.4 5Baggiolino Italy 96 6 81 7.2 55 18 5.7 1.8 72 25 6.5 2.5 6Uggerhalne Denmark 2640 103 115 6.0 158 6.4 4.8 4.8 22.5 16.8 17.3 12.5 7Ondrejov Czech Republic 806 50 143 14.8 129 2.4 8.8 7.0 57 42.5 35.5 33 7.4 5.6 2Holtby UK 612 30 189 18.5 135 19 65.5 42.3 1Kolodeje Czech Republic 4495 176 204 15 102 11 10.1 6.8 42.1 22.2 8.2 5.2 2Hasselt-Kiewit Belgium 896 23.3 232 6.0 196 9.0 12.4 4.0 81 29 8Brondum Denmark 437 8.1 330 16 392 10 21 14.3 74.5 43.3 9Middleton UK 168 10 390 25 116 21 63.2 15.7 1Glavotok Croatia 360 40 427 56 171 32 13.2 5.9 152 80 6.2 3.0 10Carrin de los

CspedesSpain 229 5.8 513 67 304 33 14.5 10.9 110 53 84 48.7 11

Agronomica Brazil 450 6.6 979 19 224 104 49 16 12

Chemical parameters in mg l1, fecal coliforms (FC) in log CFU 100 ml1. Values are mostly annual means. From Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). 1, CWA (2006); 2, unpublished results; 3, Watson (1990);4, Stewart (2005); 5 Gasiunas and Strusevicius (2003); 6, Pucci et al. (2004); 7, Kadlec et al. (2000); 8, VMM (2006); 9, Schierup et al. (1990); 10, Shalabi (2004); 11, Sardn et al. (2006); 12, Philippi et al.(2006).


Table 2 Average treatment performance of HF CWs treating municipal and domestic wastewaters. Elaborated fromVymazal and Krpfelov (2008)

Concentration (mg l1) Eff. (%) na Loading (kgha1 d1) na

In Out In Out Rem

BOD5 (40mg l1) 178 32 80.7 746 (261) 97 19.4 77.6 624 (213)COD 287 76 63.2 556 (244) 237 88 149 493 (217)TSS 113 22.3 68.1 975 (319) 111 28 83 828 (271)TN 53.0 29.8 39.4 419 (182) 25.9 15.9 10 388 (162)NH4N 28.4 17.1 21.1 789 (254) 18.2 12.9 5.3 711 (225)TP 8.7 4.4 40.9 643 (247) 6.8 4.9 1.9 509 (213)

In= inow to a vegetated bed(s), Out =nal outow, Rem=removed load.a The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.

Table 3 Examples of the use of horizontal ow constructed wetlands for treatment of various types of industrialwastewater

Industry Location Reference

Petrochemical USA Wallace (2002a)UK Chapple et al. (2002)South Africa Wood and Hensman (1989)China Ji et al. (2002)Taiwan Yang and Hu (2005)Sudan D. Wood (pers. comm)

Chemical UK Sands et al. (2000)Portugal Dias et al. (2006)China Wang et al. (1994)

Pulp and paper USA Thut (1990, 1993)USA Hammer et al. (1993)Kenya Abira et al. (2005)

Textile Slovenia Bulc et al. (2006)Australia Davies and Cottingham (1992)

Mbuligwe (2005)Germany Winter and Kickuth (1989)

Tannery Portugal Calheiros et al. (2007)Turkey Kck et al. (2003)USA Dotro et al. (2006)

Abattoir Australia Finlayson et al. (1990)New Zealand Van Oostrom and Cooper (1990)Mexico Poggi-Varaldo et al. (2002)Ecuador Lavigne and Jankiewicz (2000)Uruguay Perdomo (pers. comm.)

Food processing Slovenia Vrhovsek et al. (1996), Urbanc-Bercic et al. (1998)Netherlands De Zeeuw et al. (1990)USA White (1994), Wallace (2002b)France Khalil et al. (2005)Italy Pucci et al. (2000), Mantovi et al. (2007), Gorra et al. (2007)Lithuania Gasiunas et al. (2005)

Distillery and winery India Billore et al. (2001)Italy Masi et al. (2002)South Africa Grismer et al. (2003), Sheridan et al. (2006)

Lignite pyrolysis Germany Wiessner et al. (1999)

Mining USA Gerth et al. (2005)Germany Pantano et al. (2000)

Laundry Australia Davison et al. (2005, 2006)

ecolog ical eng ineer ing 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117 5

Table 4 Average treatment performance of HF CWs treating industrial wastewaters1 a 1 1 a

BOD5CODTSSTNNH4-NTP

Elaborated Out=a The num paren

4000mg l1

and Krpfeof tannerywere carriOn the othment of teduring latetralia (Tabl35,000mg l

BOD5 valueis treated sof COD, TSremoval ofBOD/COD rtile wastewexpected.

3.3. Ab

The rst ereported bVaraldo etwetland asan abattoirThe systemlagoon andefcienciestively. Reduand 5.0 logreported onslaughterh

Van OostreatmentGasiunas apresented tdesigned to

3.4. Foo

There is a whave beenters usuallyorganics uprespectiveland Krpfe

for fd proe offoodhibiD5d 89in the reniumg l1

rbanto

ently-proe ofdesigChd onnce

uctedium-aly,d w2m. Thgroupple2007he pr2, 10.Concentration (mg l ) Eff. (%) n

In Out

652 254 60.1 48 (23)1856 789 63.1 40 (25)239 128 71.6 37 (17)138 102 27.8 18 (8)65.2 48.6 28.0 46 (22)9.3 5.2 47.6 10 (4)

from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s),

ber denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in

and 1500 and 3000mg l1, respectively (Vymazallov, 2008). The use of HF CWs for treatmentwastewaters is relatively new, and experiments

ed out in Portugal, Turkey, and USA (Table 3).er hand, the attempts to use HF CWs for treat-xtile wastewaters were carried out as early as1980s and early 1990s in Germany and Aus-

e 3). Colored wastewater, with high COD (up to1), TSS (up to 25,000mg l1) and pH values and lows (BOD5:COD ratio usually between 0.1 and 0.4),atisfactorily in HF CWs with very good removalS, ammonia, sulfate and anionic sulfate. Also, thevisible colorization is high. On the other hand, lowatio indicates the hardly-degradable nature of tex-ater and therefore, high BOD5 removal cannot be

attoir and meet processing efuents

xperiments to treat abattoir wastewaters werey Finlayson et al. (1990) from Australia. Poggi-al. (2002) described an 1144m2 HF constructeda part of treatment system for wastewaters from(slaughter house) in the State of Hidalgo, Mxico.consisted of primary sedimentation, anaerobic

an HF constructed wetland. The overall treatmentwere 90%, 91%, 85% forCOD, BOD5 andTSS, respec-ction of fecal and total coliforms amounted to 5.5units, respectively. Lavigne and Jankiewicz (2000)the use of a 1200m2 HF constructed wetland for

ouse wastewater treatment in Ecuador.trom and Cooper (1990) used the HF CW for the

HF CWseafoothe usfrom atem exand BO92% anphateand thAmmo16.3mAlso UHF CWnia.

Reccheesethe usationEichtenreporteern Fraconstra medwest Itwetlanabouturationgravel,soil suet al. (from t(400mof meat-processing wastewater in New Zealand.nd Strusevicius (2003) and Gasiunas et al. (2005)he results from a 1880m2 HF constructed wetlandtreat meat-processing wastewaters in Lithuania.

d processing

ide variety of food-processing wastewaters whichtreated in HF CWs. Food-processing wastewa-contain high concentrations of easily degradableto BOD5 and COD of 80,000 and 200,000mg l1,

y, for oil olive production wastewaters (Vymazallov, 2008). One of the rst reports on the use of

The treatmand amouCOD, BOD5of vegetablcentrationsPadano) wHF constru(75%) anding (cheeseetc., 25%) nDe Zeeuwthe treatming.Loading (kgha d ) n

In Out Rem

353 158 195 45 (22)1212 652 560 40 (24)212 137 75 37 (15)84.4 63.9 20.5 18 (8)34.1 27.0 7.1 43 (21)5.6 2.7 2.9 10 (4)

nal outow, Rem=removed load.

theses.

ood-processingwastewater was byWhite (1994) oncessorwastewater. Vrhovsek et al. (1996) described156m2 HF CW to treat highly loaded wastewater-processing plant in Gradisce, Slovenia. The sys-ted excellent removal of organicsaverage CODinows of 3674 and 962mg l1, were reduced by%, respectively. The concentration of orthophos-e inow reached a maximum value of 4.6mg l1

moval efciency varied between 92% and 99%.inow concentrations varied between 2.1 and

with an average treatment efciency of 86%.c-Bercic et al. (1998) reported on the use oftreat food-processing wastewaters in Slove-

, HF CWs have been frequently used to treatcessing wastewaters. Wallace (2002b) reported on189m2 HF constructed wetland with articial aer-ned to treat cheese-processing wastewaters in

eese, a small dairy in Minnesota. Khalil et al. (2005)treatment of cheese dairy farm efuent in south-

. Gorra et al. (2007) reported on the use of an HFwetland for the treatment of wastewater from

size cheese-making plant in Aosta Valley, north-in a mountain region at the altitude of 540m. Theas a long (ca. 100m) narrow ditch 1m deep andwide. The slope follows a natural terrain cong-e wetland is divided into ve sections lled withnd ceramic wastes, magnetite, zeolite and local

mented with compost and marble sand. Mantovi) described the use of HF CW to treat wastewatersoduction of Italian cheese Parmigiano-Reggiano5m3 d1) and Grana Padano (2700m2, 70m3 d1).

ent efciency in both systems was very high

nted to 94%, 96%, 98%, 62% and 45% for TSS,, TKN and TP, respectively. Also, the reductione fats and oils was very highthe inow con-of 59mg l1 (Parmigiano) and 167mg l1 (Grana

ere reduced to 1 and 2mg l1, respectively. Thected wetland was also used to treat domesticwastewaters produced by seasonal food process-, tomato sauce, apple and grape juice, olive oilear Florence in Tuscany, Italy (Pucci et al., 2000).et al. (1990) used HF constructed wetlands forent of wastewaters from potato starch process-


3.5. Winery and distillery

Winery wastewaters are characterized by the high content oforganic (up to 45,000mg l1 BOD5) and solids content, highacidity and large variations in a seasonal ow production(Shepherd et al., 2001; Masi et al., 2002). Also, the winerywastewaters are characterized by low N/C and P/C ratios.Detailed studies on the organic composition indicated thatethanol and sugars (fructose and glucose) represent morethan 90% of the organic load. However, the wastewater alsoincludes low amounts (about 0.15% of the total COD) of recal-citrant constituents (polyphenols and lignins), that could bedifcult to degrade because of their structure as well as highmolecular weights. Constructed wetlands may offer an ef-cient low-cost, low-maintenance and energy alternative forwineries that have sufcient land available for a wetland cre-ation. Constructed wetlands also have the advantage of beingable to accept seasonal ow uctuations without adverselyaffecting the functional aspects of the treatment system (Masiet al., 2002; Grismer et al., 2003). For example, Masi et al. (2002)reported on three HF CWs in Tuscany, Italy and Sheridan et al.(2006) described the HF CW for treatment of winery efuentin South Africa.

Billore ewetland toa private dat Khodigratral India. Tefuent evamountedfore additioCOD, BOD5The study iable tertiar

3.6. Oth

Wiessner ewetland to

stored for a long time in an efuent pond. Jardinier et al.(2001) reported on the use of the pilot-scale two-stage HFconstructed wetland to treat coke plant efuents in France.The authors concluded that HF constructed wetland may bea valid method to substantially decrease nitrogen concentra-tions and also to retain some metals and PAHs. Gerth et al.(2005) used a hybrid FWSHF constructed wetland (total areaof 1400m2) to treat seepage water from uranium mining inAchlema-Alberoda, Germany. The authors pointed out thatdifferent conditions are needed for removal of arsenic (aero-bic) and uranium (anaerobic). Pantano et al. (2000) reportedthe use of HF CWs to treat mining impacted groundwaterwith elevated metal concentrations in Butte, Montana, USA.The wetlands were effective in removing Cd, Zn and Cu whilearsenicwas released from the system and lead concentrationswere not affected by the wetland. Davison et al. (2005, 2006)reported on the use of anHF constructedwetland plantedwitha mixture of Typha orientalis and Bolboschoenus uviatilis for thetreatment of laundry wastewater in Australia.

4. Agricultural wastewaters

Wastewaters from various feedlot operations are commonlywit

of laadle

uctedampatmgro-iconate

Pig

on etre

rm,

Table 5 s foragricultu

Type of w

Pig farms laysoang eay etntawruseve et a

Fish farm e chritzmeauhulz

Dairy ntovrn anll et annerhierusiunaay ett al. (2001) reported on the use of anHF constructedtreat the secondary treated distillery efuent fromistillery, Associated Alcohols and Breweries, Ltd.m village in the outskirts of Baraha town in Cen-he BOD5 and COD concentrations in the distilleryen after the conventional secondary treatmentto 2540 and 13,866mg l1, respectively and, there-nal treatmentwas necessary. The system achievedTKN and TP reductions of 64%, 84%, 59% and 79%.ndicated that constructed wetlands may be a suit-y treatment option.

er industrial efuents

t al. (1999) reported on the use of an HF constructedtreat lignite pyrolysis wastewater which had been

treatedseries1996; Kconstrne exage trefrom ainowwastew

4.1.

Finlaysfor theHog Fa

Examples of the use of horizontal ow constructed wetlandral operations

astewater Location

Australia FinChina WUnited Kingdom GrThailand KaLithuania StTaiwan Le

fuent USA ZaCanada CoGermany Sc

Italy MaGermany KeUSA HiNew Zealand TaDenmark ScLithuania GaUnited Kingdom Grh free water surface constructed wetlands withgoons as pretreatment step (Kadlec and Knight,c et al., 2000; Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008). HFwetlands are used to a lesser extent but many

les could be found in the literature (Table 5). Aver-ent performance for HF CWs treating wastewatersndustrial operations are presented in Table 6. Thecentrations are much lower as compared to rawrs because of intensive pretreatment.

farms efuents

t al. (1987, 1990) reported on the use of HF CWatment of piggery wastewater at Cooper Countyin Springs, Australia. Wang et al. (1994) reported

treatment of various types of wastewater from

Reference

n et al. (1987, 1990)t al. (1994), Junsan et al. (2000)al. (1990)anichkul and Somprasert (2005)icius and Struseviciene (2003)l. (2004)

and Jacquez (1993)et al. (2001), Naylor et al. (2003), Chazarenc et al. (2007)

et al. (2003)

i et al. (2002, 2003)d Brettar (2002)l. (2003), Chen et al. (1995), Drizo et al. (2006)(1992)p et al. (1990)s et al. (2005)al. (1990)


Table 6 Average treatment performance of HF CWs treating agricultural wastewaters1 a 1 1 a

BOD5CODTSSTNNH4-NTP

Elaborated Out=a The num paren

on the usea pig farmof screens,pond, HF cinow/out15,000/99, 8TSS, respecHF wetlanwastewatering from myard. Junsawetland wment of piquite wellreduced froto 51.5mg lKantawanination VFfarm efueof about 40(2003) preswetland deLithuania. TPhragmiteschamber streatment o

4.2. Fis

Efuents frdiluted tharespect tostraining eefuents isJacquez (19a treatmen high denconcludedan ecologicsh farm efappears proHF construPiscicultureQubec Cityreported onto treat dil

ested weform. Thee. Chuctedlectresterhe T25m

tive vt. Slg l

uctedny u7.5

Da

vi etd toisolaEmientashewerchnon wacharresu

g doLith

expePotsdConcentration (mg l ) Eff. (%) n

In Out

464 183 68.2 43 (19)871 327 63.0 38 (17)516 180 76.9 56 (26)116 57.5 51.3 31 (13)71.5 39.6 33.8 45 (18)19.8 8.5 54.3 44 (18)

from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s),

ber denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in

of an HF constructed wetland for treatment ofin Leping, south China. The system consists

sedimentary pond, upow anaerobic hydrolysisonstructed wetland and sh pond. The averageow concentrations for the whole system were000/58 and 70,000/432mg l1 for COD, BOD5 andtively. Gray et al. (1990) reported on the use of

ds for the treatment of a combined stream offrom a septic tank and farmyard runoff result-uck from pig housing being scraped across then et al. (2000) used a 4-stage HF constructedith a total surface area of 449m2 for the treat-g farm efuents in China. The system performedconcentrations of BOD5, COD and TSS werem 1038 to 124mg l1, 1865 to 246mg l1 and 5581, respectively. Kantawanichkul et al. (2003) andchkul and Somprasert (2004, 2005) used a combi-HF and HFVF constructed wetlands to treat pignts in Thailand with TKN and COD concentrations0 and 1000mg l1. Strusevicius and Strusevicieneented the results from a 50m2 HF constructedsigned to treat pig-breeding farm wastewaters inhe wetland was lled with sand and planted with

australis. The pretreatment unit consisted of a 3-eptic tank. Lee et al. (2004) used HF CW for thef swine efuent in Taiwan.

h farm efuents

om trout farms are typically 2025 times moren medium-strength municipal wastewaters. Withreceiving water quality objectives, the most con-lement to remove from freshwater sh farmphosphorus (Comeau et al., 2001). Zachritz and

bic digplanteoutperNH4Nparablconstrwith ebic digfarm. T29 andrespecefuento 2.3mconstrGerma2.5 and

4.3.

Mantowetlanin anReggiotreatmwith wresultsthis tetants ifor dissentedtreatinfarm inof theter in93) reported the use of HF constructed wetland fort of recycled water from a geothermal aquaculturesity nsh culture in New Mexico. The authorsthat the potential of HF constructed wetlands asally attractive and economical method for treatinguents to reduce solids and phosphorus dischargemising. In Canada, Comeau et al. (2001) used twocted wetlands to treat trout farm efuents at thedu Lac William near St-Ferdinand, southeast of. In another study fromCanada, Naylor et al. (2003)the use of experimental HF constructed wetlands

uted sludge from a freshwater sh farm anaero-

(28mm), cplanted wiacutiformis.the overallet al. (2003uble P from55m2 bedstonite tailinapproxima(shale thatmaterial thstone and sLoading (kgha d ) n

In Out Rem

541 294 246 43 (18)1239 602 637 37 (17)1430 779 651 54 (23)

68.0 42.0 26.0 31 (13)74.6 19.0 55.6 45 (18)13.7 7.0 6.7 44 (18)

nal outow, Rem=removed load.

theses.

r. Pollutant removal was generally very good withtlands (Phragmites australis, Typha latifolia) clearlying unplanted units in term of BOD5, COD, TKN,removal of TSS, NO3N PO4P and TP were com-

azarenc et al. (2007) used a combination of a HFwetland (28m2) followed by static columns lled

ic arc furnace slag to treat efuent from anaero--sludge storage tank at the ow-through trout shSS, COD, TKN and TP concentrations of 120, 710,g l1 in the storage tank efuent were reduced toalues of 23, 43, 5.9 and 11mg l1 in the HF wetlandag columns reduced the TP concentrations down1. Schulz et al. (2003) reported successful use of HFwetlands to treat rainbow trout farm efuents in

nder various hydraulic retention times (HRT: 1.5,h).

iry efuents

al. (2002, 2003) reported the use of a HF constructedtreat dairy parlor efuent and domestic sewage

ted mountain rural settlement in the province oflia, Italy. The treatment system consisted of pre-in an Imhoff tank and two 72m2 HF cells lledd gravel and planted with Phragmites australis. Thee quite promising and the authors pointed out thatlogy is an appropriate treatment to reduce pollu-stewater from rural activities to values acceptablege into surface waters. Gasiunas et al. (2005) pre-lts from a gravel-based HF constructed wetland

mestic wastewater and wastewaters from a dairyuania. Kern and Brettar (2002) reported on the userimental HF wetland to treat dairy farm wastewa-am, Germany. The wetland was lled with gravel

ompost and sand (0.52mm) in the upper layer andth Spartina pectinata, Phragmites australis and CarexDespite high inow N concentrations (264mg l1)removal was 91.6% for NH4 and 80.6 for Norg. Hill) reported on the use of HF system to remove sol-an 800-head dairy farm in New York State. Eightwere lled with four different materials: wollas-gs (by-product of a mining operations containing

tely 15% wollastonite and 7080% garnet), Norlitehas been crushed and red; it is a constructionat is classied as a lightweight aggregate), lime-oil. Over 1.5 years, soil removed the most soluble P


Table 7 Average treatment performance of HF CWs treating landll leachate

Concentration (mg l1) Eff. (%) na Loading (kgha1 d1) na

In Out In Out Rem

BOD5 155 96 32.8 25 (13) 28 17.1 10.9 24 (12)COD 933 698 24.9 7 (6) 330 279 51 7 (6)TSS 391 86 54.5 8 (5) 40 17 23 8 (5)TN 211 126 33.1 8 (5) 46.3 37.8 8.5 8 (5)NH4-N 162 98 38.7 25 (11) 32.2 21.7 10.5 26 (10)TP 1.7 0.29 66.1 11 (3) 0.16 0.02 0.14 8 (3)

Elaborated from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s), Out =nal outow, Rem=removed load.a The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.

(53%), followedbyNorlite (34%),wollastonite tailings (13%) andlimestone (4%). Drizo et al. (2006) used HF wetlands plantedwith Schoenoplectus uviatilis to treat dairy wastewaters in Ver-mont, USA. The results indicated that constructed wetlandshave a goomentundewetlands toGray et al. (or Tanner (

5. La

Inltrationmunicipaltains undequality ofto anotherlandll. Ledependinginltratingally coloredissolved sammonia (manganesezinc or chrRovers, 199

HF conslandll leaincludes 17

ment in United Kingdom with wetland area up to 2800m2.The use of HF constructed wetlands was also reported bySanford (1999) from Ithaca, NY, USA or Sloop et al. (1996) fromNew Hanover County, NC, USA. The summary of treatment

mantedtypeschatebiod

Sto

Air

t runs apal mene gF coof a

at Zed bful

t wag coent

rminalancstru

Table 8 each

Country

Canada

Norway

Poland

Slovenia

United Kin

USAd potential for dairy farms wastewater manage-r cold climate conditions. TheuseofHF constructedtreat dairy farm wastewaters was also reported by

1990) in United Kingdom, Chen et al. (1995) in USA1992) in New Zealand.

ndll leachate

of precipitation and migration of water throughsolid waste landlls produce leachate that con-sirable or toxic organic chemicals. The chemicallandll leachate differs greatly from one landlland uctuates seasonally within an individual

achate composition is waste- and site-specicon the waste type, landll age, and amount ofwater (Staubitz et al., 1989). Leachate is gener-d, anoxic and has high concentrations of totalolids, COD, BOD5 (with very low BOD/COD ratio),Table 7), phenols, benzene, toluene, chloride, iron,, arsenic, heavy metals such as lead, cadmium,omium but little or no phosphorus (McBean and9).tructed wetlands have been frequently used forchate treatment (Table 8). CWA (2006) databaseHF constructedwetlands for landll leachate treat-

perforindicaotherll leaeasily

6.

6.1.

Airporpoundprincippropylscale Hsystemwatertrial re2001) aAirporde-icincatchmand teated bHF con

Examples of HF constructed wetlands used to treat landll lLocation Area (m2) Flow (m3 d

Richmond, BC, Canada 645Blstad 40 2

Szadki 3600 50

Dragonja 450 10Mislinjska Dobrava 600 35Lubevc 275 11

gdom Monument Hill 1800

Tompkins Co., New York 720 8Jones Co., Iowa 93 0.55ce landll leachate treatment systems (Table 7)quite low removal of organics as compared toof wastewater. This is because organics in land-frequently consist of compounds which are not

egradable as indicated by high COD/BOD ratio.

rmwater runoff

port runoff

off (Table 9) contains de-icing and anti-icing com-plied to the aircraft, runways and taxiways. Theaterials involved are ethylene, di-ethylene, andlycols (Worrall et al., 2002). Probably the rst full-

nstructed wetland for airport-runoff was a 5500m2

Kickuth type built in 1994 to treat de-icing runoffrich-Kloten Airport (Rthlisberger, 1996). After theeds experiment constructed in 1994 (Revitt et al.,l-scale system at London Heathrow Internationals completed in 2002 with the primary aim to treatmpounds contaminated runoff from an extensiveof some 600ha of runways, taxiways, cargo areasal buildings. The system comprises a series of aer-ing ponds combined with 2.08ha of gravel-basedcted wetlands together with a kilometer of rafted

ate (Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008)

1) Reference

Birkbeck et al. (1990), Experimental units

Mhlum et al. (1999), part of a complex system

Obarska-Pempkowiak et al. (2005)

Bulc et al. (1996), Urbanc-Bercic (1997)Urbanc-Bercic (1997)Urbanc-Bercic et al. (1998)

Robinson et al. (1999)

Surface et al. (1993)Nivala et al. (2005) Pilot-scale


Table 9 Examples of HF constructed wetlands used to treat various types of stormwater runoff

Runoff waters Location

Airport

Greenhous

Agricultura

Urban

Highway

reedbeds. R(2004). Karrstructedweat Westoveicing runofEdmonton,Schnefeldarea at Edmcoupled wiamounts oconsists ofeach arrangarea is 2.7hthe treatme1350mg l1

(Higgins an

6.2. Gre

Runoff fromcontains hiand very l(1996) testeland with aorganic carTP 126mg lin the greegested thatto the orgaincreased tland matur(2002) testetal units tothe mean nnitrate was(2001) notetion of legisin agricultunurseries tauthors tesgravel andremovals w2 and 5 day

Ag

et alds tds wis anwas, 10%betwon ti

Urb

atmedslovan H6) ret urb, Ausvitt etreatm. Ted awatestemevennc, wUKUSASwitzerlandCanadaGermany

e and nursery CanadaAustraliaFrance

l China

Australia

UKItaly

esults have been reported by, e.g., Richter et al.h et al. (2002) reported on the use of an HF con-tland for the treatment of anti/de-icing runoff builtr Air Reserve base in western Massachusetts. De-f is also treated in HF constructed wetlands atCanada (Higgins and Dechaine, 2006), and Berlin-(Abydoz Environmental, 2005). The catchmentonton International Airport is very large, and this,th the airports tight clay soil, result in very largef stormwater runoff. The HF constructed wetland12 square gravel-lled cells with sides of 47.5med in six trains of two cells each. Wetland surfacea and design conditions for the wetland were fornt of stormwater runoff contaminated with up toof ethylene glycol at ows of up to 1500m3 d1

d Dechaine, 2006).

enhouse and nursery runoff

a nurseries and greenhouses (Table 9) typicallygh concentrations on nitrogen (mostly as nitrate)ow concentrations of organics. Prystay and Lod the potential use of an HF constructed wet-surface area of 254m2 for the treatment of low

bon, high nutrient wastewaters (TOC 21mg l1,1, NH4N 38mg l1, NOxN 240mg l1) generatednhouse operations in Canada. The authors sug-the treatment efciency appeared to be related

6.3.

ZhouwetlanThe beaustraltrationnitratevariedretenti

6.4.

For trewetlanKrpfeuse ofal. (200to treaHavenand RerunoffKingdodesignrunoffthe systormand zinic carbon concentration in the system implyingreatment efciencies can be achieved as the wet-e and larger litter layer accumulates. Merlin et al.d in Nimes, France HF constructed experimen-treat tomato greenhouse drainage solutions withitrateN concentration of 329mg l1. Up to 70% ofreduced in Phragmites-planted units. Headley et al.d that in New South Wales, Australia, the introduc-lation to control runoff and charge for water usedral production has encouraged commercial plant

o collect and recycle their irrigation drainage. Theted HF pilot-scale units lled with 10mm basalticplanted with Phragmites australis. TN and TP loadere >84% and >65%, respectively, at HRTs betweens.

reported onway connectotal of 60 csystem constructed warea.

7. Enspecial or

Chemical stioning of tDisruptingpointed ouReference

Revitt et al. (2001), Worrall et al. (2002)Karrh et al. (2002)Rthlisberger (1996)Higgins and Dechaine (2006)Abydoz Environmental (2005)

Prystay and Lo (1996)Headley et al. (2001)Merlin et al. (2002)

Zhou et al. (2004)

Geary et al. (2006)

Shutes et al. (2001), Revitt et al. (2004)Bresciani et al. (2007)

ricultural runoff

. (2004) reported on the use of HF constructedo treat agriculture stormwater runoff in China.ere lled with gravel and planted with Phragmitesd Zizania caduciora. The average TN inow concen-approximately 22mg l1 in which about 80% wasammonia and 10% organic nitrogen and removaleen 27% and 80% depending on the hydraulic

me.

an and highway runoff

nt of urban stormwater runoff, FWS constructedare mostly used (Scholz, 2006; Vymazal and, 2008). However, there are some examples of theF constructed wetlands as well (Table 9). Geary etported on the use of an HF constructed wetlandan runoff from a 21ha urban catchment at Bluetralia. Shutes et al. (2001, 2003), Pontier et al. (2004)t al. (2004) described the use of HF CW for highwayment along the A34 Newbury Bypass in the Unitedhe authors pointed out that the wetland had beens an HF wetland; however, during the storms, ther will over-top the substrate and therefore, it turnsinto surface ow part way through an intense

t. The target parameters, copper, chromium, nickelere removed sufciently. Bresciani et al. (2007)

the highway runoff treatment project for the high-tionVillesse-Gorizia in Italy. The project includes aonstructed wetlands along 17km of highway. Eachsists of a rst ush sedimentation tank, HF con-etland, wet pond and a nal vegetated retention

docrine disrupting chemicals andganics

ubstances that can interfere with the normal func-he endocrine system have been termed EndocrineChemicals (EDCs) (Keith, 1997). Masi et al. (2004)t that the full list of EDCs includes a large range of


anthropogenic organic compounds, such as phthalates, pes-ticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkylphenols, bisphenols andsteroid estrogens (Birkett and Lester, 2003). EDCs do not repre-sent any special wastewaters but they occur in most types ofwastewaters (municipal agricultural and industrial) and there-fore they are evaluated separately in this review. Vymazal andKrpfelov (2008) summarized that a number of EDC classes(phthalates, pesticides, PCBs and bisphenols) are industrialproducts, worldwide used for several applications and aretherefore common pollutants (Staples et al., 1997; Kupfer,1975; Chen et al., 2002). Other EDCs compounds such as diox-ines and PAHs are not commercial products, but are formed asby-products of various industrial and combustion processes;they are transported from atmosphere to soil and water bod-ies (Birkett and Lester, 2003). Alkylphenols are metabolites oftheir ethoxylate precursors, which are non-ionic surfactantsused inma(Del Bubbain wastewaparticular ftraceptional., 1998; AHF CWs for

Masi et(160m2)VFters from atrace amouin inlet waat high perexceptionby the HDPan HF consPAHs, partipresent in tgenera, uwhile only

Containous timesare commo7075% of tthat the coKnox, 1991of pesticideusing FWS

1996; Braskerud and Haarstad, 2003; Sherrard et al., 2004),but studies with the use of HF systems are limited. Stearmanet al. (2003) used HF constructed wetlands to treat runoffwater from container nursery containing herbicides simazine(Princep) [2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine] and meto-lachlor (Pennant) [2-chloro-N-(2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-N-2-methoxy-1-methylethyl-acetamide]. Removal of both her-bicides was high with planted cells more efcient thanunplanted cells; during the 2-year period, R wetlands plantedwith Scirpus validus removed 82.4% metolachlor and 77.1%simazine compared with control cells without plants, whichremoved 63.2%metolachlor and 64.3% simazine. Removal alsodepended on hydraulic loading rateat 2.3 d HRT 62% of theapplied herbicide was removed while at 5.1 d HRT 82% of theherbicide was removed.

Moore et al. (2000) used the HF constructed wetland totreat condensate-contaminated groundwater at the Gulf Stra-

as Pnor

neding 5ylen

m2 whe wbotttionomparbo100

cand outilizal inhritza. 90vali

l1. Tds ed to10) aSA. D

ofnicipt to hdesc

Table 10 d in

EDCs Loca

Estrogens (phenantdi-n-butyalkylben

Italy

PAHs (uor FrancHerbicides USAMonochlor GermExplosives USABTEXBenzoic acBTEX Canany industrial, commercial and household functionsand Lepri, 2002). The presence of steroid estrogenster mainly arises from direct female excretion, inrom pregnant females and women using oral con-or hormone replacement therapies (Arcand-Hoy etndrews, 1995). In Table 10, examples of the use oftreatment of EDCs are presented.al. (2004) monitored the removal of EDCs in a HF(180m2) constructed wetland treating wastewa-hotel in Florence, Italy. Among EDCs (Table 10),

nts of estrogens, PAHs and phthalates were foundstewater. All of these compounds were removedcentage (up to 100% for estrogens), with the onlyof bis-2-ethylhexylphthalate which was releasedE liner. Giraud et al. (2001) described the use oftructed wetland to treat water contaminated withcularly uoranthene and the possible role of fungihese ecosystems. Out of 40 fungal species from 24oranthene was degraded efciently by 33 species2 species were able to remove anthracene over 70%.er nurseries apply pesticides and nutrients at vari-throughout the year. Overhead irrigation systemsnly used to water the plants daily. As much ashis irrigation water runs off the packed gravel bedsntainer plants rest on (Cabrera, 1997; Beeson and). This runoff may have signicant concentrationss. Removal of pesticides has been often reportedconstructed wetlands (e.g., Alvord and Kadlec,

chan G200kmcontaiincludzene, xof 850ifolia. Tat theof aerawere chydroc30% toa signipointebe volaremov

Zacacid (cScirpus80mgBehrenwetlan(TableTN, Uful useof murespec(2006)

Examples of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) treate

17--estradiol and ethynyl-estradiol), PAHs (naphthalene,hrene, uoranthene and pyrene), Phthalates (diethyl,l and bis-2-ethylhexylphthalate), Alifatic hydrocarbons,

zenes (C2C3), naphatalene, nonylphenols and phthalatesanthene, anthracene)(simazine, metolachlor)benzene(TNT, RDX, HMX, TNB, 2A-DNT, 4A-DNT)

idlant, near Rocky Mountain House, approximatelythwest of Calgary, Alta., Canada. The groundwaterbetween 15 and 20mg l1 of C5C12 hydrocarbons,0% BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylben-es). An HF constructed wetland with a total areaas planted with Phragmites australis and Typha lat-etland was supplemented with articial aeration

om of the bed to prevent freezing. With the useduring the period NovemberMay, hydrocarbons

letely removed.Without aeration (MayNovember),n removal efciency in the wetland varied from%. Without aeration, temperature appeared to bet factor in the variable removal rates. The authorst that the main removal mechanism appeared toation. Also, Wallace (2002a) reported effective BTEXHF constructed wetland in South Dakota.et al. (1996) reported excellent removal of benzoic

%) in pilot-scale constructedwetlands plantedwithdus up to inow concentration of benzoic acid ofhe vegetated units outperformed unplanted units.t al. (2000) described the use of an HF constructedtreat groundwater contaminated with explosivest the Milan Army Ammunition Plant near Milan,el Bubba et al. (1998) reported on the success-

an HF constructed wetland in tertiary treatmental activated sludge system in Florence, Italy withydrocarbons removal (Table 10). Braeckevelt et al.

ribed the use of pilot-scale HF constructed wetland

HF constructed wetlands

tion Reference

Masi et al. (2004), Del Bubba et al. (1998)

e Giraud et al. (2001)Stearman et al. (2003)

any Braeckevelt et al. (2006)Behrends et al. (2000)Wallace (2002a)Zachritz et al. (1996)

da Moore et al. (2000)


to treat contaminated groundwater with monochloroben-zene (MCB) in Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. The resultsshowed thatMCB concentrations decreased along thewetlandtransect with the most effective removal in the upper layer.Isotopic fractionation provided evidence for in situ MCB degra-dation and suggested that anaerobic microbial degradationprocesses played a relevant role.

8. HF constructed wetlands used idcombination with other types of constructedwetlands

Various types of constructed wetlands may be combinedin order to achieve higher treatment effect. These systems

are called hybrid constructed wetlands (Vymazal, 2005). HFconstructed wetlands suffer from the lack of oxygen in l-tration beds and, therefore, nitrication is very low. In orderto enhance ammonia removal, HF CWs are commonly com-bined with VF constructed wetlands in a staged manner.VF systems have a much greater oxygen transport capacityand, therefore, provide much better conditions for nitrica-tion. However, very limited or no denitrication occurs in VFsystems (Vymazal, 2007). Recently also, FWS constructed wet-lands have been combined with sub-surface ow constructedwetlands in order to achieve better treatment performance.Therefore, the optimum combination of various types of con-structed wetlands always depends on the target pollutants(Table 11).

Table 11 Examples of hybrid constructed wetlands used for various types of wastewater

Type of CW Country Type of wastewater Reference

Sewage UK VFHF Burka and Lawrence (1990)USA VFHF House and Broome (2000)Estonia VFHF vel et al. (2007)France VFHF Lienard et al. (1990)Ireland VFHF OHogain (2003)Tunisia VFHF Mhiri et al. (2005)Turkey VFHF Korkusuz et al. (2004)Greece VFHF Tsihrintzis et al. (2004)Denmark HFVF Brix et al. (2003)Poland HFVF Obarska-Pempkowiak et al. (2005)Mexico HFVF Belmont et al. (2004)Greece FWSHF Zdragas et al. (2002)Canada HFFWS Laouali et al. (1996)Kenya HFFWS Nyakango and van Bruggen (1999)Poland HFVFHF Obarska-Pempkowiak (1999)Estonia VFHFFWSP Mander et al. (2003)Thailand VFHFFWSP Brix et al. (2006)Italy HFVFHFFWS Pucci et al. (2004)

Landll leachate Slovenia VFHF Bulc (2006)Norway HFFWS Mhlum et al. (1999)Canada HFFWS Kinsley et al. (2006)USA FWSHF Eckhardt et al. (1999)Portugal VFHFP Dias et al. (2006)

Hospital Nepal HFVF Laber et al. (1999)

Dairy Japan VFHF Kato et al. (2006)

Cheese dairy France VFHF Reeb and Werckmann (2005)

Pig farm Thailand VFHF Kantawanichkul and Neamkam (2003)

Winery Italy HFFWS Masi et al. (2002)P

Fish aquac

Shrimp aqu

Polluted riv

Industrial

Mining

Compost le

Slaughterh

VF=verticaItaly VFHFFWS

ulture Taiwan FWSHF

aculture Taiwan FWSHF

er Taiwan FWSHF

China FWSHF

Uganda FWSHF

achate France VFHF

ouse Poland VFHF

l ow, HF=horizontal ow, FWS= free water surface, P =pond.Masi et al. (2002)

Lin et al. (2002)

Lin et al. (2003, 2005)

Jing et al. (2001)

Wang et al. (1994)

Byekwaso et al. (2002)

Reeb and Werckmann (2005)

Soroko (2005)


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