Prince ton a rchitec t ur a l Pre s s

ne w york

Chad Randl

ack now l edgmen t s : 7 / in troduc tion : 9

^—6Chapter One

EaRly histoRy of Rotating Buildings15

Chapter twO

Rotating aRChitECtuRE 1900–194551

Chapter three

PostwaR Rotating dEsigns 95

Chapter fOur

thE PostwaR REvolving REsidEnCE141

^—6c onclusion : 191 / note s : 197 / im age credit s : 2 08

inde x : 2 05

ContEnts

Nancy Noonan. Portions of this book were presented at a Society of Architectural Historians conference session on kinetic architecture. I would like to thank the session chair Victoria Young and presenters, Nicole Watson, Taiji Miyasaka, and Eran Neuman for their fruitful discussions about this topic. Aviva Zuk Share, and the family of William Zuk, provided financial assistance for the session. At Princeton Architectural Press, Kevin Lippert and Jennifer Thompson recognized the significance of rotating architecture and provided early encourage-ment. The manuscript benefited immensely from Dorothy Ball’s thoughtful review and editorial guidance. Paul Wagner’s admi-rable design skills translated the subject’s dynamism to the printed page. The Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts provided essential support for the research and production of this book. Final thanks go to Melissa and the girls for their patience and support.

The kindness of friends and colleagues, many of whom were strangers a few years ago, made this book possible. They received phone calls, letters, and emails and responded generously with insights, anecdotes, sugges-tions, corrections, photographs, brochures, postcards, drawings, and leads for finding more of the same. They hosted me at their offices, and rotating homes, and restaurants, (and jail), and let me push the button or turn the crank to put the building in motion. I am especially grateful to Lidia Invernizzi, Lorella Campi Gandini, Professor Aurelio Galfetti, Simone Nicolini, Luigi Colani, Martin Brümmerhoff, Uwe Schmidt, Annette Müller, Rolf Disch, Boris Kauth, Eric and Marc Halter, Tamara Hemmerlein, Al and Janet Johnstone, Bill Butler, Don Dunick, Christian Lintl, Clarence Reed, Margaret Campbell, Ron Miller, John Portman, Anthony Rubano, Patrick Stacey, Gregory Donofrio, Irene Thali, Boo Pergament, Luke Everingham, Debra Gust, Bing Xu, and

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his plans to capitalize upon it neatly typify the development of rotating architecture throughout the twentieth century. With ever-changing vantage points revolving buildings offered a new way of looking at the world. They rewrote spatial relationships within buildings and reconfigured views of the world outside. With gears, motors, and ball bearings they made nature serve the occupant, for climate or lighting control, entertainment or spectacle. Amateur inventors, entrepreneurs, and eccentrics took up the challenge of designing a viable, affordable version for their own use or to package and sell to the public. Like George Ade’s epiphany many of these designs were never built, but remained elusive visions of a revolving future.

The wheel was probably the earliest rotating tool, and since its introduction history has seen innumerable adaptations. From ancient waterwheels and medieval windmills to the winches, gears, and pulleys Leonardo da Vinci drew in his notebooks, rotating devices overcame the limitations of human muscle and multiplied available power and space. Early engineers placed derricks, pile drivers, and excavating and dredging cranes on turntables to increase their range and facilitate movement. In time other rotat-ing buildings appeared that were constructed

In 1906 American newspaper columnist George Ade described planning a trans- atlantic voyage and reserving a stateroom that he assumed would be filled with sunlight and warm breezes throughout the crossing. At the outset of the journey, however, he was disappointed to realize that the ship had to turn around as it left the dock, and that his cabin would actually face north “with nothing coming in at the porthole except a current of cold air direct from Labrador.” The experience gave him an idea:

The unexpected manner in which the boat turned around has suggested to me a scheme for a revolving apartment house. The build-ing will be set on giant casters and will revolve slowly, so that every apartment will have a southern exposure at certain hours of the day, to say nothing of the advantage of getting a new view every few minutes. It is well known that apartments with south-ern exposure and overlooking the Boulevard command a double rental. When every apartment may have a southern exposure and face the main thoroughfare, think of the tremendous increase in revenues!1

Ade was not the first to come up with the idea of a rotating building, but his description and

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for a variety of pragmatic and otherworldly reasons.

Revolving structures referenced the rotation of the earth and the annular move-ments of the heavens; they could remain in synchrony with the sun throughout the day and follow the stars at night. Legendary palace halls with rotating domes made to resemble the nighttime sky suggest a human fascination with the mysteries of the universe and a consideration of the place of humans within it. The first observatory with a rotat-ing telescope and dome was constructed in Kassel, Germany, in the sixteenth century. Space stations planned in the twentieth century would rotate to simulate gravity in outer space.

Like technology in general, rotating structures facilitated destruction and creation; some were deadly serious, others were for play. Rotating devices raised siege engines and aimed large cannon and their armored enclo-sures toward an approaching threat. Rotating altars divided into three sections, like that built in the New York City Women’s House of Detention in 1933, allowed a single interior space to be readily adapted for Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish religious services.2 Revolving stages helped entertain theater audiences by enabling quick scenery changes and new forms of dynamic staging. At a time when cameras and film stock were not sensitive, early motion pictures were filmed in three-walled roofless rooms that could be rotated to maintain optimal natural light and position shadows. Spinning amusement rides and steel towers with turning arms and wheels thrilled fairgoers and seaside vacationers.

From at least the Middle Ages structures meant to be lived in—for short visits or during a meal—were made to turn. Detached dining halls and gazebo-like shelters located in the pleasure gardens of the European nobility impressed visitors and provided variable vistas of surrounding landscapes. In the 1800s writers first imagined a future of revolving residences. At the dawn of the next century, fueled by new technological develop-ments and an atmosphere of can-do ingenuity, a diverse group of entrepreneurs, architects, amateur builders, physicians, and health advocates sought to realize the dream of a rotating house.

Designers were drawn to the concept for many reasons. The range of structures, forms, and mechanisms they came up with reflected their various motives and the cultural atmosphere in which they worked. Some maximized living space in apartments and houses by incorporating partitioned turntables—at the turn of a crank or the flip of a switch, a living room became a bedroom. Rotating houses that turned in their entirety could be swung into or out of breezes and the sun’s rays to regulate the effects of out-side conditions upon the building interior. Sanatoriums in the early 1900s used rotating cottages to keep tuberculosis patients bathed in daylight. The view out the windows of externally rotating houses could be altered at the occupant’s whim, overturning the static relationship between building and site that had essentially remained unchanged since the beginning of architecture.

In the first half of the twentieth century rotating bars appeared in highbrow hotels and nightclubs. Patrons enjoyed cocktails as their

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stools and bar top slowly orbited a central core of bartenders and bottles. In the post–World War ii era entrepreneurs and architects combined this concept with roof-top dining and new tower construction to inaugurate an era of revolving restaurants. Dinner at a table in a room slowly revolving high in the air became a tourist’s ritual and a favored setting for anniversaries and special events. Cities around the world raced to build revolving restaurants on top of hotels, office buildings, and communication towers, seeing them as symbols of modernity and progress.

Ostensibly the revolving structures that developed over time appear to have little in common. The reasons for rotating a windmill seem very different from the reason that restaurants were rotated in the postwar era. Stages were turned for entertainment, while treatment shelters were turned in grave efforts to cure respiratory diseases. The mechanics of rotation also varied considerably. Some were turned by hand, others with hydraulic pressure or motors powered by solar panels; some only turned half circles, while others could rotate 360 degrees without limit. Angelo Invernizzi’s 1936 revolving house near Verona, Italy, took over nine hours to make a complete revolution while the restau-rant in London’s 1965 Post Office Tower revolved every twenty-two minutes.

Yet despite their differences, revolving structures across time, geography, and func-tion shared many similarities. Revolving architecture was a product of inquisitive problem-solvers determined to improve exist-ing ways of working, living, and thinking. Many of the buildings and designs reflect a belief in the beneficence of technology, that

the right machine could solve almost any problem, that the new way was the better way. In some cases designers let their ideas and passion for mechanical solutions out-weigh all else—the occupants’ comfort and convenience was secondary to the rotating feature. This faith in technology as a means of progress often mirrored broader cultural perspectives. But there were also signs that the public viewed revolving designs with some ambivalence.

Over the past hundred and thirty years, newspaper and magazine stories, a Broadway farce, novels, movies, and television programs have depicted rotating buildings. In most the designs are met with curiosity tempered by a wariness of their future implications. Rotating houses were lauded by health offi-cials for maximizing the salutary effects of sunlight and ventilation, but were lampooned in essays and editorials as proof that society had run amuck. Rotating buildings were dismissed by the architectural establishment as little more than follies at the same time many assumed them to be inevitable designs of the future. Attendees at world’s fairs and home shows lined up to see the latest rotating kitchen, but few wanted one in their own house.

Revolving restaurants and the vertigi-nous towers that supported them were especially tempting subjects for ridicule. East Berlin’s tv tower with its revolving “Telecafe” was called the “Tele-Asparagus.” London’s Post Office Tower, which transmit-ted telephone signals and housed a revolving restaurant near the top, was referred to as “a modern Tower of Babel.” Food critics found a correlation between the price of the

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entrees and the height of the restaurant. Humorist Calvin Trillin once wrote, “I never eat in a restaurant that’s over a hundred feet off the ground and won’t stand still.”3

✽ ✽ ✽

As far back as ancient Rome, rotating archi-tecture has been a symbol of conspicuous consumption, a showpiece for the well-to-do. Rotating designs were meant to awe or at least impress. Automobile turntables set in drive-ways and private garages seemed as essential as chauffeurs to wealthy motorists of the early twentieth century. Any bachelor pad of 1960s and ’70s worthy of the name had a revolving bed to signal sexual prowess and economic success. In Don DeLillo’s 2003 novel Cosmopolis, the main character, a young, single, billionaire trader, battles insomnia reading poetry in his rotating bed-room atop a Manhattan skyscraper.4

Rotating structures were not unusual only because they could turn. Their physical forms were often shaped to maximize the effect of their ability to turn. Many also reflected the individualistic aesthetics of designers dissatisfied with conventional architecture. As a result revolving houses, restaurants, hotels, and other structures frequently bore little resemblance to past buildings. Perched on pedestals, dome shaped, hexagonal, with faceted wall planes and unusual glazing configurations, the range of unorthodox design decisions seems to further distance rotating structures from other buildings.

Examined in isolation or even as a group, it is tempting to consider rotating structures simply as architectural freaks, standing

outside established narratives of the past. But they have counterparts. In their ability to move, revolving architecture can be placed within the general category of kinetic design. Identified and explored by William Zuk and Roger H. Clark in their 1970 book Kinetic Architecture, buildings of this type are by definition adaptable to changing environ-mental conditions and programmatic needs.5 They use barometers, photoelectric cells, and anemometers to evaluate conditions and engage motors to extend, retract, fold, unfold, or turn automatically. The form or orienta-tion of these designs can respond to the time of day, position of the sun, cloud cover, and existence of wind or precipitation. Movement in kinetic designs can also be initiated manu-ally based on the weather, the occupants’ activities, their desire for greater privacy or openness, or pure whim.

Zuk and Clark discuss auditoriums and stadiums with moveable seating and retract-able roofs, self-erecting shelters, pneumatic exhibition pavilions, revolving structures, and a variety of experimental and conceptual designs for modular buildings and cities intended to be expanded incrementally. They argue that movement is change and that architecture needs to change—both individual structures reorientable from one moment to the next, and the field of design adapting to new ideas of what buildings should be capable of doing. Rotating designs strive to achieve this vital flexibility.

Dismissing rotating structures as quirky and exceptional diminishes the lessons that can be derived from them. An exploration of these buildings reveals the reasons why architects, engineers, entrepreneurs, and

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owners wanted their houses, restaurants, jails, theaters, and other structures to turn. But it also reveals valuable insights into how structures are viewed and perceived by the public, how designers reach decisions about how to best articulate their personal visions, and how themes in popular culture—the turn-of-the-twentieth-century obsession with efficiency, the post–World War ii fascination with space travel—leave marks on our built landscape.

While this study is an architectural investigation of buildings that turn, it also looks at the cultural atmosphere that gave rise to the concept in various locations at various times. Rotating buildings are cultural artifacts. As such, they provide insights into the people that constructed them, their con-cerns, hopes, interests, and view of the world around them. Even buildings that were planned but never constructed, envisioned but never realized, tell us about their design-ers and the eras in which they lived. In the first half of the twentieth century revolving structures were “mechanical contrivances” well suited to the machine age. Revolving designs reflected the kinetic energy of a period increasingly characterized by motion and movement, electric motors, trains, cars, and the beginnings of aviation. During the post–World War ii era revolving architecture was a product of the space age, transistors, and circuits, and, later, innovations in smart and green design.

The story of the rotating building is entwined with the stories of mechanization and the assumed impending victory of

automation. The machine’s impact on our environment, on work, and on life in general has been well documented. One seminal work is Wolfgang Schivelbusch’s book on the transformative effect of an older, much more pervasive artifact, the railway: The Railway Journey: The Industrialization and Perception of Time and Space.6 In the foreword Alan Trachtenberg notes that cultural historians have looked for “new forms of consciousness arising out of new structures, new things. One feature of modernity as it crystallized in the 19th century was a radical foreground-ing of machinery and mechanical apparatus within everyday life.” Trachtenberg advocates a search “for evidence of culture at those minute points of contact between new things and old habits, and that we include in our sense of history the power of things them-selves to impress and shape and evoke a response within consciousness.”7

Throughout their history, rotating buildings have been heralded as architecture of the future and their imminent adoption widely anticipated. But that anticipation continues. The dream of a viable, popularly accepted, and affordable rotating residence remains elusive. Other forms have come and gone. Examples of built designs, designs that went nowhere, the motives, influences, and approaches of their developers, the continuing popular curiosity about rotating homes, the appearance of the rotary jail, the rotating tower, the revolving stage, and the revolving restaurant show new, mechani-cal things contacting old habits. They deserve a closer look.

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