Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding ...48 speed is only achievable with...

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Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2016), xxx(xx): xxx–xxx

CJA 694 No. of Pages 27

25 October 2016

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics& Beihang University

Chinese Journal of Aeronautics

[email protected]

REVIEW ARTICLE

Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels

for grinding metallic materials

* Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W. Ding), bslinke@

ucdavis.edu (B. Linke).

Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA.

Production and hosting by Elsevier

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.0031000-9361 � 2016 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http:org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003

Wenfeng Ding a,*, Barbara Linke b, Yejun Zhu a, Zheng Li a, Yucan Fu a,

Honghua Su a, Jiuhua Xu a

aCollege of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, ChinabDepartment of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA

Received 7 April 2016; revised 23 May 2016; accepted 2 July 2016

KEYWORDS

Brazed;

Cubic boron nitride;

Electroplated;

Grinding;

Monolayer superabrasive

wheels

Abstract A state-of-the-art review on monolayer electroplated and brazed cubic boron nitride

(CBN) superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials has been provided in this article. The

fabrication techniques and mechanisms of the monolayer CBN wheels are discussed. Grain distri-

bution, wheel dressing, wear behavior, and wheel performance are analyzed in detail. Sample appli-

cations of monolayer CBN wheel for grinding steels, titanium alloys, and nickel-based superalloys

are also provided. Finally, this article highlights opportunities for further investigation of mono-

layer CBN grinding wheels.� 2016 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is

an open access article under the CCBY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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1. Introduction

Monolayer cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheels, including elec-troplated wheels and brazed wheels, are usually fabricated with

a single layer of superabrasive grains that are bonded to ametallic wheel substrate by an electroplated nickel layer or abrazed filler layer,1,2 as schematically displayed in Fig. 1.3 In

comparison to the multi-layered CBN wheel types,4,5 i.e.,resin-bonded wheels, vitrified-bonded wheels and metallic-bonded wheels, monolayer CBN wheels have significant

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advantages, some of which include good form retention overlong grinding times, capability of running at higher removalrates (due to high grain protrusion and large chip-storagespaces6–11), reduction of the complex pre-grinding wheel

preparation work (i.e., periodically dressing and truing opera-tions especially in rough grinding), and possible re-applicationof the wheel hub after the grains wear out (such as stripping of

the abrasive layer).12,13

In particular, the CBN wheels for high-speed grinding andhigh-efficiency grinding are usually subject to special require-

ment regarding resistance to fracture and wear; at the sametime, good damping characteristics, high rigidity, and goodthermal conductivity are also desirable.7 Under such condi-

tions, the grinding wheels are normally required to be com-posed of a body with high mechanical strength and acomparably thin coating of CBN superabrasives attached tothe body using a high-strength adhesive. The highest cutting

//dx.doi.

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:bslinke@ ucdavis.edu

mailto:bslinke@ ucdavis.edu

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10009361


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Fig. 1 Schematics of monolayer electroplated and brazed CBN wheels.3

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25 October 2016

speed is only achievable with monolayer CBN wheels, as

demonstrated in Fig. 2.14

To utilize the advantages of high-speed grinding, in the pastdecades, the monolayer CBN wheels have been applied more

and more in grinding of some important metallic structurematerials (i.e., steels, titanium alloys and nickel-based superal-loys) in the automobile and aerospace industries.15–17

This article aims to provide a state-of-the-art review on

monolayer CBN wheels for grinding metallic materials, andto offer the authors’ viewpoint about some further investiga-tion. For an easy understanding of the relationship between

fabrication techniques, grain distribution, dressing techniques,tool wear, grinding simulation, and application techniques, asummarized diagram is firstly demonstrated in Fig. 3.

2. Fabrication of monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels

The electroplated CBN wheels and brazed counterparts are

both composed of metallic wheel hub, bonding layer andCBN superabrasive grains, as displayed in Fig. 1.3 The appliedmetallic material of wheel hub mainly includes AISI 1020 steel,

AISI 1045 steel, alloyed steel, and hardened ball bearing steel(100Cr6)18; surely, if the application does not allow for a mag-netic material, aluminum or bronze/brass may be also uti-lized.4 Furthermore, the structure design and mechanical

machining of the wheel hub are always carried out accordingto the comprehensive requirements of the machine tools andcomponent profiles. Particularly, for the profile grinding of

some critical components (i.e., aero-engine blade), the size of
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117Fig. 2 Affordable grinding speeds and materials removal rates

of different CBN wheels.14

Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabraorg/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003

CBN superabrasive grains must be taken into consideration

when designing the particular concave and convex asperitieson the circumferential surface of the metallic wheel hub.19

The reason is due to the fact that the final profile dimension

of the monolayer CBN wheel is completely determined by boththe wheel hub and the grain size, as schematically shown inFig. 4.20 If either wheel hub or grain size distribution exceedsthe desired tolerances, the profile dimension accuracy of the

ground components will not meet the desired level. For mono-layer wheels, preparing the wheel hub with high strength andhigh accuracy is not as decisive for the wheel performance as

the proper bonding of the CBN grains to the wheel hub. Forthis reason, this section will focus on the bonding techniquesrather than wheel hub preparation.

Usually, the metallic bonds of the monolayer CBN wheelsare primarily produced by electroplating and brazing; mean-while, the electroless plating process is also reported infre-

quently.4 Figs. 5 and 6 display the sample morphology andgrain protrusion of monolayer electroplated and brazedCBN grinding wheels, respectively.

2.1. Fabrication mechanism of monolayer electroplated CBNwheels

2.1.1. Bonding of CBN grains based on the traditionalelectroplating technique

In most cases, nickel is utilized as the bond material between

CBN grains and metallic substrate of the monolayer electro-plated wheels. The traditional electroplating technique is basedon the cathodic metal deposition behavior from a watery elec-trolyte.4 Generally, fabrication of electroplated CBN wheels

may be described as follows23: pretreatment of metallic wheelhub and CBN grains before electroplating; preparation of elec-troplating solution; spreading and plating the CBN grains on

the wheel working surface and then thickening the bondmaterial.

During electroplating, the anode consists of the bonding

material and the wheel hub acts as cathode. The wheel hubis completely covered with CBN grains and placed into theelectrolytic bath. Particularly, the area to be coated is required

to be surrounded by a sufficient amount of grains. The elec-trolytic bath consists of a watery solution of metal salts fromthe deposited metal, such as Ag, Co, Cu, Ni, Au salts.4 Thedirect current voltage leads to precipitation of Ni at the wheel

hub. After the initial bonding of the grains, the excessive grains

sive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http://dx.doi.



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Fig. 3 An overview of the current review work on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials.

Fig. 4 Schematic of the profile grinding with monolayer CBN

wheel.20

Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials 3


25 October 2016

are removed and the process is continued until the desired plat-ing depth has been arrived. Particularly, the first bonding

phase needs a motionless bath, while the second phase of layergrowth can work with higher power and bath circulation.4 Theplating depth leaves about 50% or above of the grain exposed.

As an advantage of the electroplating method (also calledelectrodeposition), no residual stress exists at the bond leveldue to the low electroplating temperature (such as 60 �C oreven at room temperature).6,15,24,25 However, because of the

weak mechanical anchorage between CBN grains and nickelbond, performance of the electroplated CBN wheels can belimited, for instance, by grain dislodgement and even grain

pullout from the surrounding nickel bond during high-performance grinding with heavy load, as displayed in


Fig. 7.15 Particularly, the stripping of nickel bond from thewheel hub also becomes a common phenomenon and majordeciding factor for shortening the tool service life. In order

to improve the bonding strength between the nickel bondand the metallic wheel hub, and finally raise the service lifeof the electroplated CBN wheels, measures such as heat-

diffusion treatment and coating have been applied.

2.1.2. Fe-rich electrodeposition and heat-diffusion treatment

As for the conventional electrodeposition, the Fe-content of

the electroplating solution must be reduced to the minimumbecause it could affect the brittleness of the deposited layer.On the contrary, in the research work carried out by

Liu et al.23, Fe-atoms was creatively used by means ofFeSO4�7H2O in the electroplating solution. The main purposeincluded a good leveling-up ability of the electroplating solu-

tion, a good softness capability in contrast to the traditionalhard-plating Ni, and cost reduction potential due to lowercosts of Fe instead of part Ni. After electrodeposition, theheat-diffusion treatment of the electrodeposition layer of

CBN wheels was performed in a vacuum stove; as such, themetal composition, especially the Fe atoms, diffused into themetallic wheel substrate. A wide composition-transition-zone

was accordingly produced between the bond and wheel hub,and the binding strength was increased greatly. In the grindingprocess using the electroplated CBN wheels with heat-

diffusion treatment, both the machining precision and surfaceroughness of hardened gear steel were improved effectively.26

2.1.3. Coating of electroplated CBN wheels

Chattopadhyay et al.27,28 deposited TiN layer on the electro-plated CBN wheels with Ni-bonding (Fig. 8). TiN coating




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Fig. 5 Topography of different monolayer CBN wheels.

Fig. 6 Grain protrusion on the working surface of different monolayer CBN wheels.22

Fig. 7 Grains pullout from the electroplated wheel after grinding AISI 52100 steel.15

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25 October 2016

was expected to provide twofold benefits15: (a) to render someanti-frictional and anti-wear characteristics in grinding ductileand adhesive metallic material like C-20 low carbon steel and

(b) to prevent grain pullout from the nickel bond of the elec-troplated wheels. The reason for the latter was mainly attribu-ted to the high energy ion impingement of TiN within the

electroplated nickel layer coupled with the strong affinity ofnickel towards titanium. Under such conditions, a cross-diffusion occurred with the formation of nickel-titanium inter-metallic phases up to a certain depth (i.e., 1–1.5 lm) between

TiN and nickel.27 Because the Ni–Ti intermetallic phase washard, the scratch resistance of the nickel-bond could be


improved during grinding.29 At the same time, the enhancedadhesion between nickel and steel substrate avoided grain pull-out of the coated CBN wheels in the grinding operations of

AISI 52100 hardened bearing steel15; the retention of TiN onthe edge and surface of CBN grains also enabled grain fractureduring grinding.

Furthermore, Bhaduri et al. [22] investigated the tribologi-cal behavior of MoS2-Ti composite coating with TiN under-layer on electroplated CBN wheels. Compared with TiNcoated and uncoated counterparts, the MoS2-Ti composite

coating was found to be best performing on nickel in termsof coefficient of friction and depth of the wear track. In the




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Fig. 8 Morphology of a TiN coated electroplated CBN wheel.27



25 October 2016

grinding experiments, a minimum variation in normal grindingforce and remarkably steady behavior of the tangential grind-

ing force were obtained with the MoS2-Ti coated CBNwheels.22 It should be noted that, there is a potential cost ben-efit of coating the electroplated CBN wheels for industrial

applications; however, this has not yet been discussed orreported.

2.2. Fabrication mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN wheels

As just reviewed in Section 2.1, conventional electroplatedCBN wheels usually exhibit random grain distribution, lowmechanical bond strength and small protrusion of the

grains.30–33 Particularly in some cases of grinding metallicmaterials, grain pullout can occur and result in early wheelbreakdown. Monolayer brazed CBN wheels have been

reported to outperform their electroplated counterparts.9,12,33

A precisely controlled brazing technique can build a chemicalbridge between CBN grains and metallic wheel hub with the

help of an active braze alloy.3 Major advantages with thebrazed wheels include higher bonding strength to grains, sub-stantially higher exposure of grains measured from the bond

level (up to 70–80% of the whole grain height) and flexibilityin grain placement in any desired patterns. As such, a largeinter-grain chip-accommodation space is created with a tai-lored grain-distribution pattern, which is essential to avoid

premature loading in the grinding operations with highMRR (material removal rate) and to enhance the effectivenessof grinding fluids.3,34

Obtaining reliable joints among CBN grains, brazing filleralloy and metallic wheel hub is an essential problem in the pro-duction of monolayer brazed CBN wheels. The interfacial

microstructure and chemical resultants at the joining interfaceare the primary concerns when investigating the brazing tech-niques of CBN grains. Microstructure and chemical resultantsare significantly influenced by the brazing filler alloy, heating

method, and heating parameters (especially brazing tempera-ture and dwell time).

2.2.1. Brazing filler alloy

Based on the thermodynamic analysis and physical observa-tions in experiments, Chattopadhyay and Hintermann35 dis-covered that the transition elements of group IV B, such as

Ti or Zr, were preferred over the transition elements of groupVI B, such as Cr, as activators to promote wetting of the braz-ing filler alloy towards CBN grains, which are generally far


more chemically stable than diamond grains. For example,Ni–Cr alloy, known for effective diamond brazing, failed to

show satisfactory wetting and bonding characteristics towardsCBN under identical brazing conditions to those of diamondbrazing. Meanwhile, wetting and bonding could not be

improved either by increasing the Cr content, brazing temper-ature, or dwell time.35 For this reason, direct brazing betweenCBN grains and metallic wheel hub has been realized through

filler alloy containing active transition elements (Ti or Zr). Par-ticularly, Ag–Cu–Ti filler alloy has been utilized broadly owingto its high capillary effect when contacting boron nitride mate-rials12,36 and excellent comprehensive mechanical properties

(i.e., Young’s modulus, thermal expansion coefficient and yieldstrength). However, the cost of Ag–Cu–Ti alloy is usually highdue to high Ag content; as such, in the recent years, Cu–Sn–Ti

alloy37,38 and Cu–Sn–Ni–Ti (or Cu–Ni–Sn–Ti) alloys39 werealso applied for brazing CBN grains. In order to furtherimprove the filler properties and adjust exposure height of

brazed grains, Ding et al.40–42 made attempts to add particlesof TiN, TiB2, TiC, and graphite into the Ag–Cu–Ti filler pow-ers to prepare the composite filler to braze CBN grains.

2.2.2. Heating method

There are generally four types of heating methods for brazingCBN grains: vacuum resistance furnace heating, laser heating,

high-frequency induction heating, and electron beam activatedheating.38,43 The vacuum resistance furnace heating44 andhigh-frequency induction heating45 are the most popular heat-ing methods due to integrated advantages. For example, the

vacuum resistance furnace heating is advantageous for themass production of monolayer brazed CBN wheels; however,it is difficult to control the deformation of the metallic wheel

hub for large sizes (for instance, 400 mm in diameter). In com-parison to the vacuum resistance furnace heating, the high-frequency induction heating method has different advan-

tages,45 such as rapid heating rate, locally heating and easycontrol of wheel deformation.

2.2.3. Heating parameters

Based on the differential thermal analysis (DTA), it is knownthat the solidi and liquidi of both the above-mentionedAg–Cu–Ti and Cu–Sn–Ti filler alloys are usually about

780 �C and 820 �C, respectively. Accordingly, the brazing tem-perature is usually set to 880–940 �C37,46 for brazing CBNgrains. At the same time, the dwell time is chosen at

5–20 min with the vacuum resistance furnace heating method,




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while it is chosen at only several seconds with the high-frequency induction heating method.45 Miab and Hadian47

investigated the effects of dwell time on microstructure and

mechanical properties of the brazed joints between CBN mate-rials and medium carbon steel (CK45) hub, in which Cusil-ABA (63 wt% Ag, 35 wt% Cu and 2 wt% Ti) was utilized as

an active filler alloy. The brazing temperature was kept at920 �C. With increasing the dwell time from 5 min to 15 min,the interfacial reaction layers between CBN and filler become

thicker and more continuous, resulting in a higher jointstrength (such as the maximum shear strength of129 MPa).47 Ding et al.37 also discussed the interfacialmicrostructure and chemical resultants in brazing CBN grains

with different dwell time, and the brazing parameters werefinally optimized based on the integrated consideration ofthe mechanical strength, wear resistance, and grinding

performance.

2.2.4. Formation mechanism of interfacial microstructure and

chemical resultants in brazed CBN grains

In order to detect the formation mechanism of interfacialmicrostructure and chemical resultants in brazed CBN grains,experiments of joining CBN grains and a metallic wheel hub

using different filler alloys have been carried out.44 Differentheating parameters and heating methods with high vacuumcondition or under argon gas protection were investigated.

Pobol et al.38 studied the physical and chemical phenomenawhich occurred at the CBN-filler interface during electronbeam brazing. Wettability was investigated by the contact

angles of multicomponent adhesion-active Cu-based alloyson CBN and steel. In addition, the distribution of chemical ele-ments at the CBN-filler interface was examined. At the sametime, Elsener et al.48 investigated the role of Cu-based active

brazing filler composition on its microstructure and propertieswith the purpose of brazing CBN grains. Furthermore, Dinget al.44,49 discussed the effects of the Ti content of Ag–Cu–Ti

alloy on the interface microstructure in brazed CBN grains.It was reported that Ti in the filler concentrated preferentiallyon the grain surface (Fig. 9), which generated the needlelike

Ti–N and Ti–B compounds layer by means of chemical inter-action between Ti, N and B at elevated temperatures.

Based on an investigation into the solid diffusion reactionof pure Ti and BN materials, Ma et al.50 discovered that the

formation sequence of different resultants in the Ti/BN diffu-

Fig. 9 Microstructure and elemental diffusion across the bra


sion couples were mainly dominated by the relative amountsand distribution of the correlated Ti, B and N elements.Furthermore, Faran et al.51,52 pointed out that the chemical

resultants produced at the Ti/BN interface consisted of theinner layer of fine Ti borides (TiB2, TiB) and the outer layercontaining Ti and N. Ding et al.44,49 also discussed the forma-

tion process and morphology of the brazing resultants betweenCBN grains and Ag–Cu–Ti alloy, which has been identified asTiB2, TiB and TiN, respectively, as shown in Fig. 10. Specially,

based on the thermodynamic and kinetic analysis,53,54 TiN wasfound to play a dominating role in controlling the growth ofresultants layer during brazing.

Furthermore, the delamination microstructure across the

brazing interface of CBN grain and Ag–Cu–Ti alloy wascharacterized as CBN/TiB2/TiB/TiN/alloy containing Ti, asdisplayed in Figs. 10 and 11.49 Under these conditions, the dif-

ferent thermal expansion coefficients of the several brazingresultants have to be considered. For example, the averagecoefficients of thermal expansion of CBN, TiB2, TiB, and

TiN are 5.6 � 10�6 K�1, 7.8 � 10�6 K�1, 8.6 � 10�6 K�1,and 9.35 � 10�6 K�1,55–61 respectively. This gradual transitionof thermal expansion coefficients reduces the residual thermal

stresses at the brazing interface and minimizes potentialthermal damage of brazed CBN grains, as verified byexperiments.49

2.2.5. Indirect brazing of coated CBN grains

Besides the abovementioned direct brazing with the fillers con-taining active Ti or Zr, indirect brazing of the metallic coated

CBN grains may be realized using the Ni–Cr filler alloy. Graincoating is applied by various techniques, such as chemicalvapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, electroless coat-ing, electrolytic wet chemical methods, or dry deposition.4

Moreover, several layers can be applied sequentially, forinstance, the grain was coated with Ti layer by electroplating,then a Ni-coating was applied by electroplating. Under such

conditions, dependent on the reaction of CBN-Ti andTi-filler (such as Ni–Cr alloy), the CBN grains could be alsobonded chemically to the wheel hubs. However, indirect

brazing of CBN grains is not commonly utilized in the presentdays. In general, grain coating is applied for various reasons,such as grain retention in the bonding, grain protection, grainalignment, or heat transfer during the manufacturing/applica-

tion process of the grinding wheels.4

zing interface between CBN grain and Ag–Cu–Ti filler.49




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Fig. 10 Delamination layer and morphology of brazing resultants around a CBN grain.49

Fig. 11 Schematics of elemental distribution and delamination

behavior across the brazing interface between CBN grain and Ag–

Cu–Ti alloy.49

Table 1 Grain properties and affected tool life stages.63

Grain properties Influence

on chip

formation

Influence

on tool

wear

Influence on

single-layer tool

manufacture

Size X X X

Shape/morphology X X

Hardness X X

Toughness,

friability

X

Thermal

properties,

chemical reactivity

X X X

Electric properties

and magnetic

X

Packing density X

Uniformity X X X



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3. Grain distribution on the working surface of monolayer CBN

wheels

During the grinding process, numerous grains interact with theworkpiece material producing mechanical and thermal loads

on the machined surface.62 Linke63 has summarized the mostimportant grain properties and their main impacts on thewheel performance, as listed in Table 1. Particularly, the

stochastic geometry, dimension and distribution of the grainson the working surface of monolayer CBN wheels, can causeirregular grain protrusion, which limits the material removalrates and workpiece surface quality generated during grind-

ing.64,65 The main reason is the variation of the resulting uncutchip thickness per single grain, which yields undesirable sideeffects. For example, the friction behavior of a single grain

with very low uncut chip thickness increases the heat genera-


tion in the grinding process; however, a single grain with veryhigh uncut chip thickness is stressed by high grinding forces,

which potentially leads to grain breakout. Therefore, it isimportant to prepare the monolayer CBN wheels with acontrollable and homogeneous grain distribution pattern, to

control the tool grinding performance, force and powerrequirement, loading, grain wear and grain pullout.33

3.1. Grain geometry and dimension

Usually, a precise analysis of the material removal mechanismsin grinding is very complicated because the contact zone isinaccessible for measurements, the abrasive grains are




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randomly distributed, and grain geometry and dimensions arestochastic.66 A comprehensive understanding of the singlegrain interaction enables to synthesize the material removal

mechanism of a grinding wheel from the contribution of eachsingle grain.67

Morphology of CBN grain crystal can vary between cubic

and octahedral like diamond and between octahedral andtetrahedral.68 Based on this understanding, Schumann et al.62

modeled the ideal shape of CBN grains as the intersection of

hexahedron, octahedron and tetrahedron based on the con-structive solid geometry technique. He also modeled diamondgrains which miss the tetrahedron shape. By scaling theseprimitives appropriately, different geometries and dimensions

were generated. Several simulated grains, which were identifiedusing a pair of index values, are shown in Fig. 12. Meanwhile,Opoz and Chen66 recently investigated the removal mechanism

and scratch topography using CBN grains. Similar researchwork on grain shape was also carried out by Li et al.69, whosimulated the grinding wheel numerically with discontinuous

structure using discrete element method.Additionally, Transchel et al.67 conducted an experimental

study of single grain grinding operations using varying orien-

tations of blunt, octahedral shaped diamonds, the results ofwhich could be also transferred to CBN grains. It was foundthat, the position of the flank face defined by the correspond-ing clearance angle towards the grinding direction, has a signif-

icant influence on the material removal mechanism andassociated grinding force ratio. Positive clearance anglesorthogonal to the grinding direction usually favor the material

removal towards a higher efficiency.Furthermore, the grain dimension and its distribution on

CBN wheels need to be controlled strictly. Generally, a small

grain size commonly achieves smaller surface roughness, butalso causes higher grinding forces and shorter tool life.63 Atthe same time, the unavoidable distribution of grain size in

monolayer CBN grinding wheels is one reason for touch-dressing, which can equalize the highest cutting edges andmaintain a predictable part surface quality.70 Under such con-ditions, understanding the correlation between grain dimen-

sion deviation and wheel performance is critical, and the firststep to gain this knowledge is to correlate the relevant wheeldesign parameters with the wheel topographical features. Rong

et al.71 established the through-the-process model for single-layer electroplated CBN wheels by simulating each wheel fab-rication procedure numerically. Capacity of this model was

Fig. 12 Constructive solid geometry and shape of CBN grains.62


verified by comparing simulation results with the experimentalmeasurement data in terms of the static grain count and grainprotrusion height distribution. Furthermore, the intrinsic rela-

tionship between the grain dimensional distribution and thewheel surface topographical properties was also analyzed.The ‘digital’ wheel bears sufficient resemblance with the real

products, and the through-the-process model of grindingwheels is capable to predict the micro-topographical featuresof the electroplated CBN wheels, such as the static cutting edge

count and the protrusion height.

3.2. Structured CBN wheels

In grinding industry community, the surface functionalizationof grinding wheels by introducing pre-engineered textures orstructure is a recognized approach to reduce the grinding tem-perature or the grinding force, and help the chip removal.72

For example, Rabiey et al.73 developed a structured electro-plated CBN wheel for dry grinding of metallic materials, inwhich defined clusters or islands of grains were fabricated, as

shown in Fig. 13. The new macro-topography of the wheelreduced the actual contact area to only 22% of the conven-tional contact area between wheel and workpiece. With this

structured wheel, the average uncut chip thickness wasincreased, which decreased the specific grinding energy andtangential grinding forces.73,74 The total heat generated inthe contact zone was accordingly reduced greatly, which also

reduced the heat transferred to the workpiece and thereforedecreased the grinding temperature. In addition, enough spacewas provided for the chips to be carried away in the empty

space on the surface structure, reducing wheel loading andrubbing between chips and workpiece surface in comparisonto the conventional wheels.

Patterned surface structures on grinding wheels can also beproduced by dressing.75 Tawakoli et al.76 generated differentwheel-structure patterns using the dressing tool, as displayed

in Fig. 14. The contact area between wheel and workpiecewas reduced by removing portions of the wheel surface withthe dressing roller; simultaneously, recesses were created onthe wheel surface which made canals for coolant or air flow

on one side and created relatively bigger chip pockets on theother side.77–79 Mohamed et al.80 developed grooved grindingwheels made by dressing, as displayed in Fig. 15. In creep-feed

grinding experiments, the grooved wheels not only removed

Fig. 13 Specially structured electroplated CBN wheel.73




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Fig. 14 Schematics of cylindrical plunge grinding with normal

and structured wheel.76

Fig. 15 Wheel grooving patterns.80



25 October 2016

twice as much material as a non-grooved wheel before work-piece burn occurred, but also improved the grinding efficiency

by reducing the consumed power by up to 61%. Oliveira et al.81

also presented a dressing technique that allowed the inscriptionof pre-configurable patterns, or textures, on the grinding wheel

surface, which increased the grinding performance in conven-tional applications. Generally, the combination of the dressingdepth, dressing velocity and the dressing tool tip geometrydetermined the wheel topography characteristic. By control-

ling these parameters, the desirable wheel sharpness can beobtained to ensure the best grinding performance.

Likewise, Gao et al.82 developed an electroplated CBN

wheel with controlled abrasive clusters in specific patterns, asshown in Fig. 16. The maximum dimension of clusters was

Figure 16 Schematic of examples o


0.2–1.0 mm and the interspace between them was about 0.5–1.0 mm. Compared with the conventional electroplated CBNwheels, the grinding forces of these new wheels were always

lower, and the wheel loading phenomenon was markedlydecreased. Walter et al.83 developed a picosecond pulsed laserstructuring method to produce various micro patterns on the

surface of CBN wheels. This method allowed for fabricationof arbitrary surface structures, enabling a high degree of geo-metrical and dimensional control of the produced features

and thus of the grinding performance of CBN wheels.84 More-over, the thermal impact of picosecond laser processing on theCBN abrasive grains can be neglected according to Walteret al.83,84.

In recent years, theoretical analyses were also carried outon the above-mentioned structured wheels. For example,Aslan et al.85 developed a thermo-mechanical model to predict

forces in grinding with circumferentially grooved and regular(non-grooved) wheels. Good agreement was obtained betweenthe theoretical results and the experimental data. As a disad-

vantage of the structured wheel from a quality point of view,the decreased contact layer between wheel and workpiece usu-ally produces a rough ground surface. At present, this problem

has been solved effectively by increasing the process time byfollowing the rough grinding pass with one fine grindingpass.73,76,80,83

3.3. Defined grain distribution

Besides the grain dimension and layer structures, grain distri-bution is another important parameter to define the topogra-

phy of monolayer CBN wheels.73 Ghosh andChattopadhyay6 prepared brazed wheels with three types ofgrain distribution patterns, i.e. regular distribution (RD), den-

sely packed distribution (DP), and helical distribution (HEL),as schematically shown in Fig. 17. The transverse finish pro-duced by the DP wheels before dressing is better than that pro-

duced by the other two types of wheels, because they have ahigher density of active grains leading to increasedoverlapping-cuts of active grains during grinding. Further-more, the performance of HEL wheels after touch-dressing

was found to be the best because they produced good finishcomparable with that produced by DP wheels, and simultane-ously they also offered larger inter-grain chip space.6

Likewise, Aurich et al.64 developed electroplated CBNwheels with defined grain patterns to reach a homogeneous

f cluster distribution patterns.82




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Fig. 17 Different distribution patterns of grains placement on monolayer brazed CBN wheels.6

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25 October 2016

grain protrusion in conjunction with a huge chip space volumeso as to improve process stability. Different grain distributionpatterns were designed by means of kinematic simulation with

special focus on the uncut chip thickness,86–88 as shown inFig. 18. A ratio of 1.13 of the long- and short-grain axis anda ratio of 3:1 of cubic and tetrahedral basic grain geometry

was modeled. A protrusion height of 35% of the grain sizewas taken; for instance, the average grain protrusionheight was 107 lm for an average short grain axis length of305 lm and a standard deviation of 30 lm. Based on the sim-

ulation results, a prototype grinding wheel with an optimizeddefined grain structure was constructed, as shown in Figs. 19and 20.86,89 The grinding performance of the prototype wheel

was also validated in dry grinding experiments of hardenedheat-treated steel 42CrMo4V (DIN EN 10132-3) with a mate-rial removal rate of 70 mm3/mm�s. Generally, the prototype

wheel showed better performance, such as lower grindingforces and power and lower grinding temperature, than thetraditional wheel with random grain distribution.90,91 Similarwork for the defined grain distribution of monolayer CBN

wheels was also reported by Burkhard et al.92 and Ding et al.18.Phyllotaxis is defined as a geometrical and dynamic system

generated by biological organisms.93 Most of the arrangements

of biological structures, such as leaves, seeds of fruit, andpetals of plants, conform to the rule of phyllotaxis. Based onthe phyllotaxis theory of biology, Wang et al.94–96 developed

a grinding wheel with phyllotactic pattern, fabricated withlithography mask electroplating technology, as displayed inFig. 21. Furthermore, Wang et al. analyzed not only the rela-

tionship model between the phyllotactic coefficient and ground

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Fig. 18 Model of grain geometry and distribution.86


surface roughness, but also established a model of dynamiccutting point density. Compared with the wheel with the con-ventional stochastic grain patterns, the wheel with the abrasive

phyllotactic pattern usually produced better surface roughnessin the grinding experiments.96

In theory, the topography of grinding wheels and the grind-

ing forces per active grain provide the basic understanding ofgrinding edges and workpiece interaction, which is veryimportant to the modeling, planning, and optimization of thegrinding process as a whole. Hecker et al.97 presented a three-

dimensional (3D) analysis of the grinding wheel topographyto evaluate static parameters from the wheel surface, such asthe effective grain dimension and the static grain density as

function of the radial distance from the wheel surface. Thedynamic grain density was deduced from the static graindensity while considering the kinematic effects (such as the

shadows generated by active grains) and the dynamic effects(such as the local grain deflection). These effects were evaluatedanalytically using the grain depth of engagement and the nor-mal force developed per grain. At the same time, a probabilistic

model that estimated the uncut chip thickness was also used tocalculate the kinematic and dynamic effects.97 This model wascalibrated and validated based on experimental data of total

normal and tangential forces in surface grinding. Differentgrain patterns, based on geometric models, were also investi-gated by means of kinematic simulation64 to predict the work-

piece surface generated during grinding with electroplatedCBN and diamond wheels.87,98,99

4. Dressing of monolayer CBN wheels

Usually, it is not necessary to periodically true or dress themonolayer electroplated or brazed CBN wheels in rough

grinding. However, as for the precision grinding operation,because the electroplated wheels as well as the brazed wheelspossess an inherent weakness of having unequal distance ofthe grain tips from the wheel hub surface100, certain percentage

of the grains always remains over-protruded, which does notallow the lower grains to participate.6,101 For example, Dinget al.102 established the normal distribution function of the

protrusion height of the CBN grains on the original brazedwheel surface, P(x), which has been described as follows:

PðxÞ ¼ 1

rffiffiffiffiffiffi2p

p e�ðx�lÞ2=ð2r2Þ ð1Þ




Fig. 19 Electroplated CBN wheel with defined grain distribution.89

Fig. 20 Electroplated CBN wheel with random grain distribution.89

Fig. 21 Phyllotactic patterns of plants and CBN grains.96



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Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003



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12 W. Ding et al.


25 October 2016

where x is the actual protrusion height of each grain, while l is

the average protrusion height, r is the standard deviation.For grains with 80/100 US mesh, the average grain size and

the standard deviation were 171.0 lm and 16.74 lm, respec-

tively, while the protrusion height of the brazed CBN grainsand the corresponding standard deviation were 112.9 lm and18.20 lm, respectively, as shown in Fig. 22.102 Under such con-ditions, the monolayer CBN wheels without dressing can result

in few overlapping cuts of grains in precision grinding, whichwould lead to a surface roughness, measured in the transversedirection, substantially higher than the acceptable value. Par-

ticularly, absence of any crossfeed during profile grindinggreatly worsens the situation. Additionally, the performanceof monolayer wheels also varies due to wheel wear through

the wheel life, which degrades the workpiece qualityuncontrollably.13,73

In recent years, the problem of high workpiece surfaceroughness associated with application of monolayer CBN

wheels has been solved by mechanical touch-dressing, asdemonstrated in Fig. 23.6,103 Although electroplated CBNwheels are not considered to be dressed in the conventional

sense, the resultant workpiece surface roughness can neverthe-less be influenced within narrow limits by means of the touch-dressing process. This involves removing the peripheral grain

tips by means of very small dressing infeed steps in the rangeof dressing depths of cut between 2 and 4 lm, thereby reducingthe effective roughness of the grinding wheel.7 In general, a

rotary diamond dresser can be also used to touch-dress mono-layer CBN wheels.

In one example application, the dressing tool was a blockwith synthetic diamonds brazed on its top flat face, and tips

of the diamond particles (D91, 90/75 lm mesh width) weremade intentionally dull. Gradual touch-dressing of CBNwheels can improve the roughness of the ground surface.70 It

was found that the required cumulative depth of dressingwas dependent on the size of CBN grains. The touch-dressedwheel not only reduced the ground surface roughness greatly

but also maintained an almost constant roughness value overa long span of grinding. In particular, after touch-dressing, awheel with helical grain distribution produced a finish (aboutRa = 1 lm) close to the one produced with densely packed

grain distribution; whereas, the wheel with regular grain distri-bution finally produced a surface roughness of Ra = 1.5 lm.

Fig. 22 Sample of protrusion height distribution of CBN grains

on brazed wheel surface.102


Warhanek et al.104 presented a laser dressing process whichenabled the generation of positive clearance angles on stochas-tic grain surface of the monolayer electroplated diamond abra-

sive tools, as displayed in Fig. 24. As such, the problemscaused by near-zero or negative angles at the micro-cuttingedges could be solved. This method may be also utilized on

monolayer CBN wheels. The generation of clearance onsuperabrasive wheels was a promising complement to existingtool conditioning processes. The dressing time was more than

halved by the laser process in comparison to the conventionalmechanical touch-dressing process.

5. Wear of monolayer CBN wheels

As well known, because the CBN wheel performance wouldchange gradually due to wheel wear through the wheel life,13

wear of CBN grains is always one of the key issues influencingthe grinding process and the resulting workpiece qual-ity.17,89,105–110 In recent years, much investigation has beencarried out on wear of monolayer CBN wheels.

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5.1. Wear behavior and mechanism of monolayer electroplated

CBN wheels

5.1.1. Wear behavior of monolayer electroplated CBN wheels

Literature has discussed four general wheel wear behaviors

and mechanisms: grain surface layer wear, grain splintering,grain-bond-interface wear, and bond wear.111 Particularly,Ghosh and Chattopadhyay3 proposed possible failure patternsof CBN grains in electroplated wheels, as displayed schemati-

cally in Fig. 25. Because the process temperature in electroplat-ing is very low, no residual stress exists at the bond level; assuch, the grain failure occurs mainly due to lack of mechanical

anchorage and crystallographic defects. In the case of low levelof plating, grain pullout from the encapsulation of theNi-bond easily happens (Fig. 25(a)). On the contrary, in the

case of high level of plating, the grain failure is decided bythe defect structure of CBN grains. Any defect near the bondlevel is the most detrimental factor because a sudden variation

of stress taking place at the bond level or within the bond layerunder the grinding load can lead to grain breakage at or fromthe bond level (Fig. 25(b)). Otherwise, mostly the damagetakes place much higher above the bond level.3 The additional

coating on the electroplated wheel surface also has a significantinfluence on the grain fracture. For example, Bhaduri andChattopadhyay15 have found that the uncoated wheel

produced fracture wear during grinding low carbon steel (AISI1020) and hardened bearing steel (AISI 52100), while the grainfracture was remarkably absent in the TiN coated wheel.

The reason is mainly attributed to the resultant compressivestresses in the CBN grains during coating and a better heattransportation capacity in grinding.

In the actual grinding operation, besides the grain pulloutand grain fracture, attrition wear is also an important failurepattern for CBN grains. Attrition wear causes an increase inthe active grain density and leads to wheel dulling.13,21 Dulling

of the grain tips by attrition and fine scale grain fracture(fragmentation) resulted in an increase in the grinding powerand grinding temperature, and even led to various types of

thermal damage to the workpiece of metallic materials.112




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Fig. 23 Schematics of the influence of mechanical touch-dressing of monolayer abrasive wheel.6

Fig. 24 Section of grain surface of a laser-dressed diamond tool with positive clearance angle.104



25 October 2016

Self-sharpening by grain fracture is commonly important tomoderate the forces in grinding.

Rong et al.113 proposed four types of CBN-bond failurepatterns in electroplated wheels in the grinding process, as


visualized from experiments in Fig. 26: ① the attrition wearof the grain, where a wear flat area is created on the grain

tip; ② the chipping of the grain cumulated by small breakagefrom the grain tip, ③ the grain dislodgement, referring to




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Fig. 25 Possible grain failure patterns in electroplated CBN wheel.3

Fig. 26 Grain failure modes in electroplated CBN wheels proposed by Rong et al.113

14 W. Ding et al.


25 October 2016

CBN grains being totally removed from out of the bonding

layer with potentially minor leftovers; and finally ④ the bonderosion behind CBN grain in the direction of the grinding pro-cess. The removal of bonding material was expected to weaken

the stability of CBN grain and may in consequence allow graindisplacements leading to reduced process accuracy and totalgrain break outs.

Furthermore, in order to analyze the wear behavior takinginto account the grain type and plating thickness, Upadhyayaand Fiecoat2 carried out creep-feed grinding experiments of440 stainless steel workpieces (54 HRC) using electroplated

CBN wheels (mesh size 60/70, FEPA B251). The wheels con-taining tougher CBN grains generally exhibited less wear anda higher G-ratio, and also required less power2; in addition,

less wear and higher G-ratio were also obtained for wheelswith a thinner layer of nickel plating despite an increased ten-dency for large-scale grain loss. This would indicate that the


overall wheel wear depended more on grain exposure than

on active grain density; grain exposure facilitates chip removaland grinding fluid access.114

Based on the grinding experiments of AISI 52100 hardened

bearing steel (HRC 62) and B-1900 nickel-based superalloy,Shi and Malkin13,21 made an investigation on how the wearprocess affected the whole electroplated wheel topography,

as displayed in Fig. 27.112 The radial wheel wear was quantita-tively characterized in each case by an initial transient at a pro-gressively decreasing rate to a steady-state wear regime at anearly constant rate until the end of wheel life, which occurred

when the radial wear reached 70–80% of the grain dimension.The wheel wear during the initial transient was mainly due topullout of the most protruding and weakly held grains

(accounting for 60–80% of the initial transient wear with therest mainly due to grain fracture), and the radial wheel wearin the steady state regime was dominated by grain fracture.




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Fig. 27 Radial wheel wear versus accumulated removal per unit

width.112



25 October 2016

Particularly, the wheel wear was accompanied by a progressive

increase in the active grain density and a correspondingdecrease in surface roughness. The uncut chip thicknessshowed a direct and great effect on the wear rate in the

steady-state regime for various grinding conditions and grainsizes.21 Furthermore, Upadhyaya and Malkin112 also foundthat water-based fluids caused much more rapid wear than

straight oils; additionally, the workpiece material also had abig effect on the wear rate, for example, nickel-based superal-loy caused much more rapid wheel wear than ferrousmaterials.

5.1.2. Wear mechanism of monolayer electroplated CBN wheels

Rong et al.113 investigated the failure mechanism of bonding

layer of electroplated CBN wheels from the viewpoints ofbonding force. The experimental setup similar to an inclinedthread turning process was designed to observe and measurethe failure and maximum bonding force of the electroplated

layer, respectively, as displayed in Fig. 28.113 Particularly,one single grain with an average diameter of 300 lm wasplaced on a tool holder to eliminate the influences of various

grains on each and focus on the bonding behavior. Four levelsof bonding layer thickness, i.e. 50, 100, 150 lm and 200 lm,were applied, respectively. It was found that the factors that

contributed to the maximum bonding force of the electro-plated CBN grain could be grouped into three categories: grainproperties, bond properties, and the operation conditions, asindicated in Fig. 29.115 The bonding layer thickness with a

maximum of 150 lm had a limited influence on the absolutevalue of the bonding force as a result of mechanical and ther-mal actors.113 A significant influence was determined for the

length of cut required for the grain to be broken off as wellas for the grain morphology and orientation. Based on the cor-relation of the bonding force and wear mechanism, a regime to

discriminate grain pullout and sliding was established.Rong et al.115 also established a finite element model

(FEM) of single electroplated CBN grains for quantitative

analysis of the bonding force, as displayed in Fig. 30. A com-prehensive correlation between the bonding force and thebonding layer thickness and grain orientation was establishedthrough response surface methodology. It was found that a

maximum bonding force of up to 60 N was achieved at certaingrain orientations. In addition, some suggestions were alsoprovided to develop monolayer electroplated CBN wheels


without grain dislodgement. For example, the grain shouldbe as sharp as possible and moreover the sharp corner shouldbe located towards the cutting direction, thus allowing the

grain to remain in a stable position as long as possible eventhough bond erosion weakens the stability and therewithincreases the likelihood of the grain to break out. Zhou et al.116

also carried out similar simulation work to investigate grainpullout under given mechanical loads and grain geometry.

For wear only by attrition behavior, Upadhyaya and

Malkin112 have found that the active grain density, C(w), canbe written in terms of the radial wear as

CðwÞ ¼ C0ð1� FðwÞÞ ð2Þ

where w was the radial wear depth; C0 was the aerial packing

density, which was measured from a scanning electron micro-scope photography of the new wheel surface. F(w) was the nor-mal distribution function given by112

FðwÞ ¼ 1ffiffiffiffiffiffi2p

ps

Z ðxmax�wÞ

0

e�ðn�mxÞ2=ð2s2Þdn ð3Þ

where xmax was the maximum grain height; mx was the mean

value of the normal curve distribution of the grain height dis-tribution, and s was the corresponding standard deviation.

The theoretical active grain density during grinding can be

calculated when taking all of the factors mentioned intoaccounts. An example was provided in Fig. 31.112 Here thegrain size was 120 US mesh with a mean grain size of 64 lmand standard deviation of 21.3 lm.

Yu et al.117 presented a life expectancy model for electro-plated CBN wheels, based on non-uniform spatial distributionof grain wear and as a function of the grinding parameters,

grinding wheel geometry and topography, workpiece materialproperties, etc. At the same time, this model was also based ongrain pullout, wear mechanism, and the associated state of

grain damage. Single grain pullout experiments were con-ducted to assess the residual strength of the grain-wheel inter-face and the associated state of damage percolation.

5.2. Wear behavior and mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN

wheels

5.2.1. Wear behavior of monolayer brazed CBN wheels

As for the monolayer brazed CBN wheels (Fig. 32(a)), the pos-sible failure patterns of grains are illustrated in Fig. 32(b).3

Particularly, the grain pullout and shear of bond perhaps takesplace due to poor wettability of improper brazing alloy (suchas Ni–Cr alloy) on CBN grain surface, or lack in strength in

the alloy itself. Surely, when the appropriate brazing fillers(such as Ag–Cu–Ti alloy and Cu–Sn–Ti alloy, both of whichhave good wettability on the CBN grain surface) are applied,

grain pullout seldom occurs in the grinding practice.18,102

Additionally, partial breakage of grains (micro-fracture) maybe confined at tips due to presence of undesirable crystallo-

graphic defects inside the grain. Grain macro-fracture can alsohappen at the bond level3 due to the large brazing-inducedresidual tensile stresses at the junction region, the formationreason of which is mainly attributed to the substantial differ-

ence in the Young’s modulus and thermal expansion coeffi-cients of the brazing filler alloy, CBN grains and metallicwheel hub. Particularly, in grain fracture, cracks are initiated




Fig. 28 Grinding process with single grain designed by Rong et al.113

Fig. 29 The influencing factors on the bonding force.115

Fig. 30 Typical results of bonding force of single electroplated CBN grain obtained by Rong et al.115

16 W. Ding et al.


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Please cite this article in press as: Ding W et al. Review on monolayer CBN superabrasive wheels for grinding metallic materials, Chin J Aeronaut (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2016.07.003



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Fig. 31 Active grain density versus radial wheel wear of an

electroplated CBN wheel.112



25 October 2016

from any defect in the grain near the bond level and propagatealong the bond level through grain crystal-defects.

Furthermore, Ding et al.102 provided the variation of pro-trusion height of the brazed CBN grains with 80/100 US meshin grinding experiments of K424 nickel-based superalloy, as

displayed in Fig. 33. The wear tendency of the brazed wheelswas generally similar to that of electroplated wheels. Thecauses of three wear patterns, such as grain micro-fracture,

grain macro-fracture, and attrition wear, were also similar tothat of electroplated wheels. A great difference was that grainpullout did not happen in the tested conditions.

5.2.2. Wear mechanism of monolayer brazed CBN wheels

Similar to electroplated wheels as reviewed before, brazedCBN wheels benefit from strong metallic joining, in this case

by brazing and an additional Ag–Cu–Ti bonding, whichimproves significantly the resistance to grain pullout.102 Thebrazed grains were generally prone to breakage at the bondlevel under high load conditions, leaving a part of the grain

firmly integrated in the encapsulation of the bond (i.e. thebrazing alloy).3 This kind of premature failure of the brazedCBN wheel seriously affects its grinding capability. Because

the active brazing of CBN grains requires high heating temper-ature and a very protective environment or high vacuum, asubstantial imbalance in the thermal strain rates of the metallic

wheel hub, brazing filler alloy, and CBN grains is unavoidableduring the cooling stage.3 As a consequence, residual thermalstress is produced in the joint. Such brazing-induced residual

stresses, coupled with the grinding-induced stresses, are found

Fig. 32 Possible grain failure


to be the detrimental factor resulting in grain fracture duringgrinding.

Based on finite element simulation, Ding et al.118–120 inves-

tigated the grain facture from the viewpoint of the resultantstress evolution in the brazed CBN grain for six wear stagesduring grinding, as listed in Table 2. Additionally, a discussion

was also carried out on the effects of grain embedding depth,grain wear, bond wear, grain size, and grinding load on thestress distribution.119 With advancing grain and bond wear,

the effect of grinding force-induced stresses was generally weakin the grain bottom, while the corresponding effect of thebrazing-induced stresses was significant. Large magnitudes ofresultant compressive stresses ranging from �754 MPa to

�1243 MPa were produced in the grain vertex region and werethe primary factor for grain micro-fracture during grinding. Ingeneral, grain wear should be minimized, but certain micro-

fracture in the vertex region of a grain can enhance the sharp-ness of a grinding wheel. Large brazing-induced tensile stresseswere obtained in the grain-bond junction region, which

resulted in macro-fracture of the brazed grains at the bondlevel and reduced the wheel life significantly during grinding.

Furthermore, Ding et al.102 found that, though the work-

piece material temperature in the grinding zone was merelyabout 180 �C during creep-feed grinding of K424 nickel-based superalloy with a brazed CBN wheel, the grinding heatstill had an important effect on grain wear behavior owing to

the high temperature of the individual grain up to 500–600 �C.

5.3. Detecting techniques and quantitative characterization ofwheel wear

The techniques of detecting the wheel wear can be generallydivided into two groups: contact measurement and noncontact

measurement.17,110 One of the main problems in directlymeasuring wear of CBN grains is their small size, which makesthis task rather difficult. The most representative contact mea-

surement technique is the stylus profilometer, which uses a nee-dle in contact with the surface to be measured. Anothercontact-based measuring technique is the analysis of imprintsgenerated by the grinding wheel surface after pushing it against

carbon paper; however, this technique is generally used to cal-culate the number of grains but rarely measure the size of wearflats due to its low precision. As a general approach, the use of

replicas of the wheel (made with clay, plastic, or similar) isused a lot in research settings as it avoids wheel dismounting

patterns in brazed wheel.3




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Fig. 33 Wear patterns of brazed CBN grains versus accumulated removal material.102

Table 2 Contour maps of resultant stresses in brazed CBN grains at different wear stages during grinding.118

Only grain wear Both grain wear and bond wear

Stage I Stage IV

Stage II Stage V

Stage III Stage VI

18 W. Ding et al.


25 October 2016

or breakage.121 However, it might introduce further uncer-tainty on the measurement. The noncontact measurement

approaches applied include optical macroscopy, opticalmicroscopy, confocal profilometry, and scanning electronmicroscopy (SEM), and structured-light 3D scanner. Accord-

ing to the research carried out by Puerto et al.17, the optical


microscopy technique could offer the best trade-off betweentime and accurate results and even allows a pseudo-

automatization of the measuring process for the CBN wheel.Particularly, the complex changes in cutting edge shape can

be evaluated quantitatively using the fractal dimension, which

has been applied by Ichida et al.122 and Ding et al.123 to




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quantitatively evaluate the micro fracture behavior of CBNgrains. First, a reconstruction model of grain topographywas established through photographs taken with three-

dimensional (3D) optical video microscope. Then the relation-ship between 3D fractal dimension and the complicatedtopography change of the abrasive grains was investigated.

The fractal dimension of 3D surface profiles of cutting edgesformed by micro-fracture was usually higher than that of cut-ting edges formed by attrition wear. Moreover, an increase in

the wear flat due to attrition on the grain cutting edge resultedin a decrease of its fractal dimension. In particular, in thehigh-speed grinding experiments of Inconel718 nickel-basedsuperalloy with the monolayer brazed wheel, Ding et al.124

discovered that the wear process of the monocrystalline CBN(MCBN) grain cutting edges was, in order, attrition wear?large fracture? micro fracture? large fracture? attrition

wear, while that of the polycrystalline CBN (PCBN) graincutting edges was micro fracture? attrition wear? microfracture. Micro-fracture of PCBN grains occurred in locations

with large impact load from first contacts between the graincutting edges and the workpiece material. The fractal dimen-sion of MCBN wheel was 2.040–2.047, while that of the PCBN

wheel was 2.049–2.054, which indicated that the PCBN graincutting edge was finer than that of the MCBN counterparts.124

5.4. Effects of wheel wear on grinding process and results

5.4.1. Effects of wheel wear on grinding forces

Depending on the grinding conditions, only a small number of

abrasive grains on the grinding wheel surface come in contactwith the workpiece surface. Among this small number of activegrains, usually a small portion cut and form chips while the

other grains only plow or rub against the workpiece sur-face.97,101 For this reason, Aurich et al.64 pointed out thatthe grinding forces were usually distributed over a small range

of kinematic grains at the beginning of monolayer CBN wheellife. Afterwards, due to the fact that the wheel wear in roughgrinding would likely cause an increase in the number of kine-matic grains, and meanwhile a decrease in chip space volume,

the grinding forces were distributed over a large quantity ofabrasive grains at the end of wheel life. Generally, irregularengagement and wear conditions caused an unsteady

running-in of the grinding wheel and limited the possibilityto predict process behavior.64

Conventional composite-type alumina wheels are commer-

cially utilized for grinding low-carbon steel, in which severewheel loading can take place due to the formation of long chipsand adhesion tendency of the workpiece material with thegrains. However, the true nature of grain wear in a composite

wheel is affected by many factors and therefore hard to model.The truing and dressing conditions also affect the wear mecha-nisms, in particular directly after dressing.111 In comparison, in

monolayer wheels the factors on grain wear are reduced innumber.

Bhaduri et al.125 compared monolayer brazed CBN and

composite white alumina wheels. The experiments were con-ducted on AISI 1020 steel under dry conditions, with liquidnitrogen, and neat oil as cooling lubricant. The CBN wheel

was found to outperform the alumina wheels in terms ofgrinding forces and grain wear. The wear of the CBN wheelwas remarkably low when neat oil was applied. In contrast,


large-scale adhesion and breakage of grains in white aluminawheel were observed under a cryogenic environment. A lubri-cating agent like neat oil appeared to be more suitable and

resulted in better grinding performance than cryogenic coolingwhen grinding low-carbon steel.125–129

5.4.2. Effects of wheel wear on grinding temperatures

Upadhyaya and Malkin112 reported the thermal aspects ofgrinding with single-layer electroplated CBN wheels, whichwere not periodically restored by dressing or truing as in the

common case. The effect of wheel wear and fluid flow on thegrinding temperatures and energy partition was determinedthrough the grinding operation of AISI 52100 steel and

Inconel 713C nickel-based superalloys. Low energy partitioninto the workpiece materials, such as, 3–8% of the total grind-ing heat, can be obtained at temperatures below the fluid boil-

ing limit. Such low energy partition indicated that the shallowporosity on the wheel surface provided sufficient fluid to coolthe workpiece material at the grinding zone. Furthermore, theenergy partition results were analyzed in terms of a topograph-

ical analysis of the wheel surface and a thermal model whichaccounted for the removal of heat at the grinding zone byconduction to the abrasive grains and to the grinding fluid.112

Progressive wheel wear tended to increase the total wear flatarea mainly by increasing the active grain density at constantflat areas per grain. This tended to lower the grinding heat into

the workpiece materials by enhancing heat conduction to theabrasive grains and grinding wheels, to increase the grindingforces, and to generate smoother and more uniformly ground

surfaces.The electroplated CBN wheel with defined grain pattern

from Fig. 19 was used in dry grinding. The workpiece materialwas heat-treated steel AISI 4140H (42CrMo4V, DIN EN

10132-3) of (60 ± 2) HRC. As a side effect of higherworkpiece temperatures with high depth of cut, adhesion ofworkpiece material occurred on this prototype wheel

(Fig. 34).86 Thus, the friction between grinding wheel andworkpiece further increased and resulted in higher tempera-tures. However, the material adhesion did not damage the pro-

totype and even after many grinding operations without activecleaning of the grinding wheel surface the material adhesiondid not accumulate. Instead, a stationary self-cleaning processoccurred. Furthermore, material adhesions completely disap-

peared after grinding operations with comparatively low depthof cut, such as ap = 1 mm or 2 mm. The wear in dry grindingwas dominated by attrition wear of the grains and only a few

grain breakouts occurred.86

Chen et al.130 carried out dry grinding experiments ofTi–6Al–4V titanium alloy using monolayer brazed CBN

wheels with a coating of polymer-based graphite lubricant. Agreat reduction of grinding temperature, i.e., 42–47%, wasobtained with the coated wheel in comparison to the uncoated

counterpart.In summary, single-layer brazed or electroplated CBN

wheels offer a solution for the high heat production in grind-ing. As well known, chip formation in grinding usually

involves high specific energy compared to other machiningprocesses (such as milling and turning) due to large negativerake angles of the cutting edges of grains.131 Excessive friction

between chip-grain and chip-bond interfaces occurs when thechips flow between grains and workpiece surface. Especially




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Fig. 34 Material adhesion on grinding wheel.86

20 W. Ding et al.


25 October 2016

in dry grinding of metallic materials, this generates much heat,which has a harmful effect on workpiece surface integrity. Incontrast to the conventional grinding wheels, the single-layer

counterparts produce favorable chips during grinding metallicmaterials in ductile mode with fewer grinding forces and lowerspecific energy. At the same time, Pal et al.131 found that large

volume chips could not be accommodated in the small inter-grain spaces of electroplated CBN wheels due to their densegrain distribution and low grain protrusion. However, even

with a large chip load, the brazed CBN wheels worked effec-tively due to wider and more uniform spacing and larger pro-trusion of the grains.

5.4.3. Effects of wheel wear on ground surface quality

The wheel wear and change of active cutting edges always havea great influence on the ground surface quality. Some earlyinvestigations of the grinding process with electroplated

CBN wheels were mainly concerned with characterization ofthe grinding performance, in terms of the grinding powerand surface roughness.21 In subsequent studies, attention was

directed to identifying the wheel wear mechanisms and theinfluence of workpiece materials and grinding fluid.132,133

For example, Shi and Malkin13 carried out internal cylin-

drical grinding of hardened AISI 52100 steel (hardness HRC62) with electroplated CBN wheels. They analyzed how thewear of CBN grains affected the wheel topography and ground

surface roughness. Starting with a new wheel, the power wasgenerally found to increase with continued grinding, whichwas accompanied by a corresponding decrease in surfaceroughness to a steady-state value.1 The initial higher surface

roughness came from exposed grain tips.7 At the same time,dulling of CBN grains by attrition wear was high for a newwheel; the degree of grain dulling was restricted mainly by

grain fracture and pullout. Grain fracture and pullout con-tributed only little to the progressive increase in active graindensity, which caused a progressive decrease in surface rough-

ness. Furthermore, an uneven grain protrusion distributionincreased the resultant workpiece surface roughness. For thisreason, the average value and distribution of the grain count

as well as the protrusion height needs to be known to properlyselect a wheel and dressing strategy for a particularapplication.71

6. Modeling and simulation of grinding process and mechanism

with monolayer CBN wheels

Brinksmeier et al.134 reviewed the advances on modeling and

simulation of grinding processes, including physical processmodels (analytical and numerical models), empirical process


models (regression analysis, artificial neural net models), aswell as heuristic process models (rule based models). The mod-els are mainly used to predict process parameters such as

grinding force, grinding temperature, as well as surface topog-raphy and surface integrity.135–140 Particularly, Li andRong141,142 established a grinding process model based on

the time-dependent microscopic interactions, as displayed inFig. 35, which provided a quantitative description of the ‘‘in-side story” within the grinding zone through separation and

quantification of the six microscopic interaction modes, whichincluded grain-workpiece interface (consisting of three modes,such as cutting, plowing and sliding), bond-workpiece inter-face, chip-workpiece interface, and chip-bond interface.143

Further development of this model could include differentgrinding process kinematics, such as slot grinding, profilegrinding, or more efficient computation algorithms.144

As for the grinding mechanism, Ding et al.145 carried out afinite element analysis to investigate the effects of grindingspeeds and uncut chip thickness on chip formation during sin-

gle grain grinding of Inconel 718 nickel-based superalloy.Three factors, such as strain hardening, strain-rate hardening,and thermal-softening, were taken into accounts. Accordingly,a critical value of grinding speed was determined based on the

variations of equivalent plastic strain, von Mises stress, andgrinding forces. Similar experimental work was also conductedwith single diamond or CBN grains,146–150 which led to a dee-

per understanding of the grinding mechanism of metallicmaterials.

Additionally, an understanding of the grinding heat could

contribute to control effectively the thermal damage of theground metallic materials. In the thermal simulation of grind-ing processes, a widely used approach is to substitute numerous

cutting edges by a single moving distributed heat source of aspecific geometrical shape referring to the theory of Jaeger.151

This heat source can be moved across the workpiece accordingto the specific kinematics of the grinding process. Another

approach to determine the heat source distribution based ona geometric-kinematic simulation for internal traverse grindingwas presented by Schumann et al.62, who identified the ideal

geometrical interaction of workpiece and tool. The specificmaterial removal rate for each grain was calculated andaccumulated with respect to the contact zone resulting in a

three-dimensional (3D) thermal load distribution. This heatsource can be used in finite element simulations to determinethe thermal loads on the workpiece.62 In comparison to theclassical approach, the simulated temperature peaks happened

within the contact zone because of locally concentrated grainengagements, which have been confirmed true in high-speedgrinding experiments of 102Cr6 hardened steel (HRC 62–64)

when using a monolayer electroplated CBN wheel.




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Fig. 35 Framework of the grinding model provided by Li and Rong141.



25 October 2016

7. Application of monolayer CBN wheels in grinding of metallic

materials

7.1. Grinding of steel materials

Grinding of steel materials is complicated when the materialadheres to the grains leading to wheel loading and subse-quently high grinding temperatures, harmful residual stresses,

severe tool wear, and bad surface quality.152–157 MonolayerCBN wheels can be useful in this regard as they possessrelatively high grain protrusion (compared to conventional

composite wheels), which offers higher chip space and lesschance of wheel loading.15

Marschalkowski et al.158 presented a study on internal peelgrinding, using combined roughing and finishing in combina-

tion with the excellent cutting performance of electroplatedCBN wheels, to achieve the highest removal rates with highsurface finish. Vashista et al.159 investigated the role of process

parameters on grindability of AISI 1060 medium carbon steelwith particular emphasis on surface integrity. Grinding withminiature monolayer electroplated CBN wheels provided com-

pressive residual stresses throughout the experimental domainunlike conventional grinding, which can be attributed to a bet-ter temperature control capacity as the electroplated CBNwheel took away substantial part of grinding heat through

its better thermal conductivity. Meanwhile, an increase indepth of cut resulted in more grain elongation in the steeland higher surface microhardness due to higher mechanical

loads during chip formation. Xu et al.160 developed a preciseelectroplated CBN gear-honing cutter for hardened gears withnarrow tooth faces. The quality of the tooth face was

enhanced, noise decreased effectively and radial errorimproved with this innovative cutting tool. Similar work ongear honing tools was also carried out by Lv et al.161.

Chattopadhyay et al.12,30,162 reported the application ofbrazed CBN wheels in grinding steel materials, such as unhard-


ened 100Cr6 steel, IS 103Cr1 bearing steel (62 HRC), and high

speed steel (65 HRC). Improved performance of brazed wheelsover electroplated wheels was evident for high materialremoval rates and large stock removal.

7.2. Grinding of titanium alloys

Titanium alloys are broadly applied as the most commonstructural metallic material in the aerospace and defense

industry and other fields owing to their favorable mechanicalproperties and resistance to surface corrosion, even underhigh-temperature conditions.163 Unfortunately, the unique

physical and chemical properties contribute also to difficultiesin cutting and grinding titanium alloys.164

Shi and Attia165,166 carried out experimental studies on

grinding of titanium alloy with electroplated CBN wheels.They demonstrated that enhanced removal rates are achievableby wheel cleaning with fluids at high pressures. The specificmaterial removal rates of 8 mm3/mm�s in shallow cut mode

and 3 mm3/mm�s at a depth of cut as high as 3 mm in creep-feed mode were achieved without thermal damage and smear-ing of ground surfaces.166

Teicher et al.167 compared the grindability of Ti–6Al–4Valloy with brazed CBN and diamond grinding wheels underdifferent environments. Cryogenic cooling did not improve

the surface roughness for both CBN and diamond, but theapplication of oil or alkaline cooling lubricants gave the bestresults. Likewise, Yang et al.168 applied brazed CBN profilewheels to machine an aero-engine blade rabbet made of

Ti–6Al–4V. Good dimensional accuracy and favorable surfaceintegrity was achieved.

7.3. Grinding of nickel-based superalloys

With broader application of nickel-based superalloys in theaerospace industry, milling and turning operations can hardly




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Fig. 36 Thin-walled and honeycomb-structured components of

nickel-based superalloys ground with an electroplated CBN

wheel.19

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25 October 2016

meet the quality requirements due to short tool life, cuttingvibrations, and high machining forces.169–175 As an alternative

to defined cutting operations, Li et al.10 investigated high-speed grinding of an integrated impeller made of GH4169nickel-based superalloy (which is similar to Inconel718) with

an electroplated CBN wheel. Compared with the millingprocess, the profile error of blades was reduced by about50% and surface quality was improved. Zhao et al.176 carried

out grinding experiments of DZ125 directional solidifiednickel-based superalloy with an electroplated CBN profilewheel. High shape accuracy and good surface integrity was

obtained even at a high specific material removal rate of50 mm3/(mm�s).

Tian et al.19 developed an electroplated CBN wheel withminiature concave and convex asperities on its circumferential

surface to manufacture thin-walled and honeycomb-structuredcomponents made up of a nickel-based superalloy (HastelloyX), as displayed in Fig. 36. One of the principal challenges

while manufacturing honeycombs was their extreme sensitivitytowards cell distortion and burr formation in grinding.177 Sim-ilar to the advantages of intermittent grinding with slotted or

segmented wheels, grinding power and force were reduceddue to the miniature concave and convex asperities on thewheel circumferential working surface.19 Furthermore, burrsize was reduced owing to low grinding forces.

Creep-feed grinding has been expected to improve materialremoval rates and surface quality of components with complexprofiles. Ding et al.20 studied experimentally the effects of pro-

cess parameters (in particular wheel speed, workpiece speed,and depth of cut) on grindability and surface integrity ofK424 cast nickel-based superalloys during creep-feed grinding

with brazed CBN wheels. Low grinding temperatures of about100 �C were obtained though the specific grinding energy washigh with values up to 200–300 J/mm3 for nickel-based super-

alloys. Compressive residual stresses were produced in theground surface without thermal damage or cracks.20 Further-more, Li et al.45 and Ding et al.46 also evaluated the high-speedgrinding performance of brazed CBN wheels for Inconel718

alloy and obtained satisfactory surface quality.

8. Concluding remarks and outlook

This article comprehensively reviewed manufacturing and per-formance of monolayer electroplated and brazed CBN wheels.


Important aspects regarding the fabrication mechanism, graindistribution, dressing techniques, tool wear, and applicationtechnology were highlighted. Although great progress has been

made in recent years, there are still significant challenges formonolayer CBN wheels as follows:

(1) High-quality joining between CBN grains and wheelhub includes both, a strong bonding mechanism andlow damage to the grains. However, the current

electroplating and brazing techniques do not fully pro-vide these integrated advantages. For this reason, newjoining technologies between CBN grains and wheel sub-strates need to be developed.

(2) Grain distribution and working surface patterns have agreat influence on the grinding performance of mono-layer CBN wheels. However, current approaches have

not achieved the full potential. Grain distribution andworking surface patterns need to be optimized further,for example with the promising phyllotaxis theory

gained from biology.(3) The current investigation on grinding processes is based

on the average values of uncut chip thickness, which lim-

its greatly the ability to accurately predict and controlthe grinding results. It is necessary to characterize theactual surface topography of monolayer CBN wheelsand determine the actual distribution of uncut chip

thickness in grinding.(4) Traditional monocrystalline CBN grains used for mono-

layer CBN wheels do rarely self-sharpen but become dull

due to attrition in grinding, which decreases the grindingperformance. It is necessary to develop monolayerwheels with grain self-sharpening ability in order to

make full use of the grinding potential of CBNsuperabrasive grains.

(5) The current grinding model and simulation work for

monolayer wheel is still at the theoretical stage, and itsapplication potential is rather limited. In order to con-trol the grinding quality and increase removal rates ofmaterials, further development of grinding process mod-

els is necessary.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for

this work by the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (Nos. 51235004 and 51375235), the FundamentalResearch Funds for the Central Universities (Nos.

NE2014103 and NZ2016107).

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Ding Wenfeng is a professor and Ph.D. supervisor in the College of

Mechanical and Electrical Engineering at Nanjing University of

Aeronautics and Astronautics in China. His research interest includes:

grinding technology of difficult-to-cut materials, fabrication technol-

ogy of monolayer CBN superabrasive tools.

Linke Barbara got her German Diplom and Doctorate in Mechanical

Engineering at the RWTH Aachen University, Germany. She worked

with Prof. Fritz Klocke at the Laboratory for Machine Tools and

Production Engineering WZL from 2002 to 2010 on grinding tech-

nology and tooling engineering. Her PhD thesis in 2007 was about

dressing of vitrified bonded grinding tools. From 2010 to 2012, Bar-

bara was a research fellow at the University of California Berkeley at

Prof. David Dornfeld’s laboratory with a research grant from the

German Research Foundation (DFG). Since November 2012, Barbara

has been an assistant professor at the University of California Davis.

Her research interests include sustainable manufacturing, abrasive

machining technologies, and sustainability of 3D printing. In 2015, she

finished her Habilitation at the RWTH Aachen University. Barbara

received the F.W. Taylor Medal of the CIRP in 2009 and the Out-

standing Young Manufacturing Engineer award of the SME in 2013.




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