Technical Communication Grammar Review

Summer, SY 2012-13 Doc. No.: TC-1 Date: 12 April 2013

1) Tenses

Tense is the grammaticalisation of time reference, often using three basic categories of "before now", i.e. the past; "now", i.e. the present; and "after now", i.e. the future.1

Verb tenses are tools that English speakers use to express time in their language.2

The tense, or form, of a verb reflects the time when an action occurs. English has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. In the table below, the verb in parentheses in each example represents the progressive form of the verb, which indicates an ongoing action. 3

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense2 http://english.learnhub.com/lesson/6555-perfect-progressive-and-perfect-progressive-verb-tenses3 http://www.cayuga-cc.edu/pdf/academics/writingassistance/grammar_review.pdf

a) Perfect4

i) Present Perfect Tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present. This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.(1) Examples| Meaning |

(a) The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.%| At an indefinite time

(b) Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921. Continues in the present

ii) Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.

(1) Example:(a) By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

iii) Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.

(1) Example:(a) By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several

weeks waiting.b) Progressive

i) Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.(1) Example:

(a) The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.

ii) Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.(1) Example:

(a) The explorer was explaining the latest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.

iii) Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.

4 http://english.learnhub.com/lesson/6555-perfect-progressive-and-perfect-progressive-verb-tenses

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(1) Example:(a) Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next

week.

iv) Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

(1) Example:(a) The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where

profits would be larger.

v) Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

(1) Example:(a) Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many

extracurricular activities.

vi) Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

(1) Example:(a) By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-

European language family for more than 200 years.

c) Forms/Uses5

Simple Present

Affirmative She drinks.

Negative She does not drink.

Interrogative Does she drink?

Form I, you we they play | he, she, it plays

Uses

action in the present taking place once, never or several times

facts

actions taking place one after another

action set by a timetable or schedule

Present Progressive

Affirmative He is reading.

Negative He is not reading.

Interrogative Is he reading?

Form To be (in the simple present) + verb + ing

5 http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-tenses.php

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Uses

action taking place at the moment of speaking

action arranged for the future

Simple Past

Affirmative I cried.

Negative I did not cry

Interrogative Did I cry?

FormRegular verbs: Verb + ed | Irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by heart. This is a list of irregular verbs

Uses

action in the past taking place once, never or several times

actions taking place one after another

Past Progressive

Affirmative He was driving.

Negative He was not driving.

Interrogative Was he driving?

Form to be (in the simple past) + verb + ing

Uses

action going on at a certain time in the past

actions taking place at the same time

action in the past that is interrupted by another action

Present Perfect Simple

Affirmative They have slept.

Negative They have not slept.

Interrogative Have they slept?

FormHave / has + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past participle of irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by heart. This is a list of irregular verbs)

Uses

emphasis is on the result (not the duration)

action that started in the past & is still going on

action that stopped recently

finished action that has an influence on the present

Present Perfect Progressive

Affirmative He has been thinking.

Negative He has not been thinking.

Interrogative Has he been thinking?

Form have or has + been + verb + ing

Uses

putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result)

action that recently stopped or is still going on

finished action that influenced the present

Past Perfect Simple

Affirmative She had won.

Negative She had not won.

Interrogative Had she won?

Formhad + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past participle of irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by heart. This is a list of irregular verbs)

Uses

action taking place before a certain time in the past

sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive

putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration)

Past Perfect Progressive

Affirmative He had been waiting.

Negative He had not been waiting.

Interrogative Had he been waiting?

Form had + been + verb + ing

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Uses

action taking place before a certain time in the past

sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple

putting emphasis on the duration or course of an action

Future Simple

Affirmative You will win.

Negative You will not win.

Interrogative Will you win?

Form will + verb

Uses

action in the future that cannot be influenced

spontaneous decision

assumption with regard to the future

Near Future   (going to)

Affirmative He is going to watch TV.

Negative He is not going to watch TV.

Interrogative Is he going to watch TV?

Form to be (in the simple present) + going + to + verb

Uses

decision made for the future

conclusion with regard to the future

Future   Progressive

Affirmative She will be listening to music.

Negative She will not be listening to music.

Interrogative Will she be listening to music?

Form will + be + verb + ing

Uses

action that is going on at a certain time in the future

action that is sure to happen in the near future

Future Perfect

Affirmative He will have spoken.

Negative He will not have spoken.

Interrogative Will he have spoken?

Formwill + have + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past participle of irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by heart. This is a list of irregular verbs)

Uses action that will be finished at a certain time in the future

Future Perfect Progressive

Affirmative You will have been studying.

Negative You will not have been studying.

Interrogative Will you have been studying?

Form will + have + been + verb + ing

Uses

action taking place before a certain time in the future

putting emphasis on the course of an action

Conditional Simple

Affirmative We would relax.

Negative We would not relax.

Interrogative Would we relax ?

Form would + verb

Uses action that might take place

Conditional Progressive

Affirmative He would be writing.

Negative He would not be writing.

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Interrogative Would he be writing?

Form would + be + verb + ing

Uses

action that might take place

putting emphasis on the course / duration of the action

Conditional Perfect

Affirmative He would have written.

Negative He would not have written.

Interrogative Would he have written?

Formwould + have + past participle (past participle of regular verbs: verb + ed | Past participle of irregular verbs: forms differ and should be learned by heart This is a list of irregular verbs)

Uses action that might have taken place in the past

Conditional Perfect Progressive

Affirmative She would have been sleeping.

Negative She would not have sleeping speaking.

Interrogative Would she have been sleeping?

Form would + have + been + verb + ing

Uses

action that might have taken place in the past

puts emphasis on the course / duration of the action

2) Rules when we are allowed to shift in tensesa) Tense Shift6

i) Definition(1) Changing from one verb tense to another (usually from past to present, or

vice versa) within a sentence or paragraph.

(2) In prescriptive grammar, writers are cautioned to avoid unnecessary shifts in tense. Unmotivated shifts between present and past may obscure meaning and confuse readers.

ii) Examples and Observations:

(1) "The bridge was still open then, and I was up there one day mowing the grass alongside the road, just minding my own business, when I see something moving out of the corner of my eye." (C.J. Fisher, The Legend of Diadamia. AuthorHouse, 2005)

iii) Usage Tips: Avoiding Needless Tense Shifts(1) "What is an example of an unmotivated shift in tense in writing? One example

is starting a story in past tense and suddenly shifting into present tense: Last week I was walking along a street when this man walks up to me and says . . .(a) We do this in speech all the time, but in formal writing it's considered to

be an error." (Edward L. Smith and Stephen A. Bernhardt, Writing At

6 http://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/Tense-Shift.htm

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Work: Professional Writing Skills for People on the Job. NTC Publishing, 1997)

(2) "Tense places the action of the verb in time: Today I go. Yesterday I went. Tomorrow I will go. Different verbs in a sentence or paragraph may logically use different tenses to reflect actions at different times.(a) We will play tennis before we eat breakfast but after we have had our

coffee.(3) The tense you select to describe most of the actions in your paper is called

the governing tense. Once you establish it, do not use another tense without a good reason. . . .

(4) "The literary present tense is used to describe literature or art. If you use it, do so consistently." (Toby Fulwiler and Alan R. Hayakawa, The Blair Handbook. Prentice Hall, 2003)

(a) "It is common practice to analyze literary works in present tense. Thus, you would write, 'Pearl is a difficult child' rather than 'Pearl was a difficult child' in an analysis of Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter. If you are quoting a critic who has used a past tense verb in a particular sentence, you may change the tense of the critic's verb by typing the tense you wish to use in square brackets. This bracketed change of tense avoids an awkward verb tense shift in your text.

(5) "As a general rule of thumb, however, avoid changing the tense of verbs in the text of a literary work you are analyzing. (Linda Smoak Schwartz, The Wadsworth Guide to MLA Documentation, 2nd ed. Wadsworth, 2011)

b) Tense Shift7

i) Verbs are action words. “Tense” refers to the time when an action takes place: past, present, or future. Necessary tense shifts simply make it clear to your reader when actions have taken, are taking, or will take place. When you “shift tense unnecessarily,” however, it means you change the times when actions are taking place within a chunk of text in a way that doesn’t seem to make sense. Notice how the tense changes cause confusion in the following examples.

ii) Examples of confusing tense shifts(1) In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance

that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning is that having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In November 2004, however, changes in the Council’s membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.

7 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Unnecessary_tense_shift

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(2) While St. Cloud struggles with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

(3) Note: The best way to find unnecessary tense shifts is to read a piece of writing through one time just looking for tense and asking yourself whether each verb tense accurately reflects the time period it took place, takes place, or will take place in. Start by using a highlighter to mark each verb, and then ask yourself if the “time” is correct for each one.

iii) The correction:(1) In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance

that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning was that having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In November 2004, however, changes in the Council’s membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.

Note: (No reason exists to believe that those who then thought that three or more dogs in a household created a dangerous situation have changed their minds or that dogs' behavior in a group of three or more has changed. The composition of the council had changed, and the composition of the city council having changed, the city council voted differently).

(2) While St. Cloud struggled with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

if referring to a situation in the past -- or --

(3) While St. Cloud struggles with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertake several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

if referring to a current situation.

c) Shift in time frame8

8 http://www.slideshare.net/carolynhesse/inconsistent-verb-tense

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3) Conjunctions

a) Definition: In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated conj or cnj) is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.

The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).

Many students are taught that certain conjunctions (such as "and", "but", "because", and "so") should not begin sentences; although authorities such as the Chicago Manual of Style state that this teaching has "no historical or grammatical foundation".9

b) For a more detailed discussion, see file: Conjunctions_ccc.pdf

4) The Writing Process

a) The 5 Steps10:i) STEP 1: PREWRITING (THINK)

(1) Decide on a topic to write about.(2) Consider who will read or listen to your written work.(3) Brainstorm ideas about the subject.(4) List places where you can research information.(5) Do your research.

9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)10http://lewis.cpsb.org/faculty_pages/stacey.blanchard/THE%20FIVE%20STEPS%20OF%20THE %20WRITING%20PROCESS.htm

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ii) STEP 2: DRAFTING (WRITE)(1) Put the information you researched into your own words.(2) Write sentences and paragraphs even if they are not perfect.(3) Read what you have written and judge if it says what you mean.(4) Show it to others and ask for suggestions.

iii) STEP 3: REVISING (MAKE IT BETTER)(1) Read what you have written again.(2) Think about what others said about it.(3) Rearrange words or sentences.(4) Take out or add parts.(5) Replace overused or unclear words.(6) Read your writing aloud to be sure it flows smoothly.

iv) STEP 4: PROOFREADING (MAKE IT CORRECT)(1) Be sure all sentences are complete.(2) Correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.(3) Change words that are not used correctly.(4) Have someone check your work.(5) Recopy it correctly and neatly.

v) STEP 5: PUBLISHING (SHARE THE FINISHED PRODUCT)(1) Read your writing aloud to a group.(2) Create a book of your work.(3) Send a copy to a friend or relative.(4) Put your writing on display.(5) Illustrate, perform, or set your creation to music.(6) Congratulate yourself on a job well done!

5) The Method of Paragraph Developmenta) Paragraph Development by Detailb) Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrastc) Paragraph Development by Processd) Paragraph Development by Combinatione) Paragraph Development by Explanationf) Paragraph Development by Sequenceg) Paragraph Development by Evaluation

For the detailed discussion, please see file: “Methods of Paragraph Development_Villanueva blog.pdf”

6) Patterns of Organizationa) How are Organizational Patterns used in Academic Writing?11

11 http://valenciacollege.edu/wp/cssc/documents/OrganizationalPatternsinAcademicWriting.pdf

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i) The purpose of academic writing is to present a number of ideas that somehow fit together to make sense. Sometimes the amount of new concepts, new words, and facts can be very large and complex. Professors, textbook authors, and researchers use a framework or plan that helps to communicate their ideas clearly. There are several types of plans, called organizational patterns that can be identified in academic writing. They help the author to organize his or her ideas in a way that makes sense, and hopefully, they help you to understand the material being presented.

b) How to Identify Organizational Patternsi) Organizational patterns can be identified by what transitions or “signal words”

the author uses. Recognizing the type of pattern that academic writing is organized by can help the reader to put all the facts together and understand what the text is all about. The following tables will help you to identify different organizational patterns.

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7) Transitional Devicesa) There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between

ideas: using transitional expressions, repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference, and using parallel form.12

For a detailed discussion, see file: Coherence_Transitions between ideas.pdf

8) 4 Types of Discoursesa) From a psychoanalyst’s perspective13

i) Discourse of the Master - Struggle for mastery / domination / penetration. Based on Hegel's Master-slave dialectic

ii) Discourse of the University - Provision and worship of "objective" knowledge - usually in the unacknowledged service of some external master discourse.

iii) Discourse of the Hysteric - Symptoms embodying and revealing resistance to the prevailing master discourse.

iv) Discourse of the Analyst - Deliberate subversion of the prevailing master discourse.

b) From an echosera’s perspective14

i) There are many forms of written discourse, though they can typically be divided into four basic categories that cover most pieces of writing. Expository writing is a piece that is written to explain something or provide information about an issue, while descriptive writing presents a description of a particular thing through sensual language. Narrative discourse is typically a written work that

12 http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_discourses14 http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-written-discourse.htm

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tells a story, often with a basic structure that includes a beginning, a middle, and an end. An argumentative written discourse, on the other hand, is one that is meant to persuade someone with a particular idea or to argue a certain point of view.

ii) Most forms of written discourse are presented in a prose style, though poetry can be used effectively in some situations. One of the most common forms of discourse is expository writing, which presents information about an issue. An essay written as a comparison and contrast between two different things, for example, is typically a piece of expository written discourse. These works do not argue that one thing is better than another, but simply provide information about them.

iii) Descriptive writing is also quite common and, as the name suggests, describes a particular item, scene, or event. This type of written discourse often uses sensual language that appeals to a reader’s perceptions, such as smell and sight. A writer using this form of discourse typically tries to paint a mental image for a reader that allows him or her to more closely connect to what is described.

iv) Narrative written discourse typically refers to a piece of work that is created as a story. These works often have a fairly well established structure to them, which presents information and events as they happen through one of several different perspectives. Various characters are often included in this type of written discourse, and events commonly unfold to a satisfactory conclusion. Such works can be fictional or non-fictional, which means they are either invented works or narratives with a basis in real events and people.

v) There is also a form of written discourse often referred to as “argumentative,” which is used by a writer to attempt to argue a point. Political propaganda and literature is often written in this type of form to present an argument to a reader in order to make him or her think differently. Persuasive works are frequently written in a similar way, though they may be less clearly confrontational in nature and instead present a subtler argument. These types of written works are often created by a writer to persuade the reader into a certain mode of thinking, usually through the presentation of information from a particular perspective.

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