Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction...
Transcript of Review of the Literature on Community-Based Instruction...
Review of the Literature on Community-BasedInstruction across Grade Levels
Allison R. WalkerTemple University
Nicole M. UpholdIllinois State University
Sharon RichterAppalachian State University
David W. TestThe University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Abstract: As community-based instruction has been recognized as a variable leading to postschool success for allstudents with disabilities, early transition planning has become vital in students’ preparation for adulthood.Based upon the need and importance of students receiving community-based instruction, this literature reviewexamined 23 transition intervention studies to identify vocational, community, daily living, and recreationskills taught across grade levels using CBI. The majority of studies included in the review showed positive resultsfor all participants while more than half of the studies were conducted at the high school level. In addition,findings indicated mixed generalization and maintenance results. These findings suggest the need forpractitioners to use evidence-based strategies in the community across grade levels.
Adult outcomes for students with disabilitiesare dismal (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996; Gay-lord & Hayden, 1998; Wagner & Blackorby,1996). Findings from the original NationalLongitudinal Transition Study (NLTS) sug-gest that adults with disabilities are employedat lower rates than those without disabilities(Blackorby & Wagner; Wagner & Blackorby).Although the employment rate of youth withdisabilities increased by 2003, youth were notanymore likely to be competitively employed(Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005).
The NLTS data also show that youth withdisabilities do not live independently in thecommunity after high school (Brown, 2000;Gaylord & Hayden, 1998). Only one in eightyouth with disabilities lived independently twoyears after leaving high school and changes inliving arrangements did not occur between1987 and 2003 (Wagner et al., 2005). Studentswith disabilities are also not adjusting to thecommunity once they leave high school (Sam-ple, 1998). For example, only 25% of youth
with disabilities belonged to a communitygroup after high school (Wagner et al.).These findings indicate that there is still aneed to better prepare youth with disabilitiesto successfully transition from school to adult-hood.
Numerous studies have been conducted todetermine the variables that lead to betterpostschool outcomes for students with disabil-ities (e.g., Baer et al., 2003; Heal & Rusch,1995; Kohler, 1993; Phelps & Hanley-Maxwell,1997; Rabren, Dunn, & Chambers, 2002;Repetto, Webb, Garvan, & Washington, 2002;Sample, 1998). Variables that have been con-sistently identified as contributing to success-ful outcomes for students include paid workexperience while in school (Sample), employ-ment support from Vocational Rehabilitationand/or Mental Health/Mental Retardation attime of graduation (Rabren et al.), inter-agency collaboration (Kohler; Sample), workstudy participation, vocational education, andregular academics (Baer et al.) and commu-nity-based instruction (CBI; Repetto et al.).For example, Repetto et al. found that inter-agency characteristics, transition programs,services, and supports were positively corre-lated with increased numbers of students inpost-secondary education in 1997. Results in-
Correspondence concerning this article shouldbe addressed to Allison Walker, Temple University,Curriculum, Instruction and Technology in Educa-tion, Ritter Hall 362, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue,Philadelphia, PA 19122.
Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2010, 45(2), 242–267© Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
242 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
dicated that in 1997, 85% of school districtsincluded community training as part of theirtransition program and 90% of these districtsincluded life skills instruction. These resultsindicated that these experiences lead studentsto learn valuable knowledge and gain neces-sary supports to be successful after highschool.
CBI, also referred to as community-refer-enced instruction or life skills instruction, is aform of instruction in which the communityserves as the classroom (Kluth, 2000). Thepurpose of CBI is to teach students functionalskills in natural environments (Hamill, 2002).That is, instruction occurs in settings that arepractical and facilitate meaningful experi-ences so that students can practice skills inplaces they would most likely use them(Kluth). Some skills that have been taughtusing CBI include purchasing, pedestriansafety, riding a bus, and community socialskills (Beakley & Yoder, 1998; Burcroff, Ra-dogna, & Wright, 2003; Kluth). For example,students might be taught how to make pur-chases at a department store and restaurant.Further, students could learn pedestriansafety by crossing streets in their neighbor-hood or navigating the parking lot at a localmall. Students could also learn to read a busschedule and develop appropriate social skillsfor riding the bus. Providing instruction in thecommunity prepares students for life afterhigh school, promotes students’ ability tofunction independently, and enhances theirquality of life (Hamill).
As CBI has become a valuable componentof transition programs, early transition plan-ning (Agran, Snow, & Swaner, 1999; Cum-mings, Maddox, & Casey, 2000; deFur, 2003;Neubert, 2003; Sitlington, Frank, & Carson,1992) has been identified in the literature asan emerging variable leading to successfuloutcomes for students with disabilities. deFurstated that educational decisions made abouta student with a disability will impact his/herpostschool life. Decisions made in elementaryschool will affect programming in middleschool, which, in turn, affect decisions abouthigh school courses (deFur). Each subsequentdecision is impacted by previous educationalplanning decisions.
Brolin and Gysbers (1989) also indicatedthat early transition planning is essential for
all students with disabilities. Brolin and Gys-bers also consider career development, theprocess by which students become aware ofthe different careers available to them, to be amajor part of transition planning that shouldbegin as early as elementary school. As stu-dents move through their education, they be-come increasingly prepared for adulthood byexploring careers and building occupationalcompetencies that prepare them for the worldof work. Because successful adult outcomesfor students with disabilities depend on schoolprogramming, it is important that all deci-sions made about a student’s course of studyfocus on the transition from school to adultlife (Kohler, 1993). Since community-basedinstruction is one variable that leads to suc-cessful postschool outcomes (Fabian, Lent, &Willis, 1998), it stands to reason that it mightbe important for students to receive this typeof instruction at all levels of their education.Therefore, the purpose of this article is toreview the transition intervention literature toidentify the vocational, community, daily liv-ing, and recreation skills that have beentaught using CBI to students with disabilitiesacross grade levels.
Method
A comprehensive review of the literature wasconducted on interventions that taught func-tional life skills to students in the communitysince 1990, the year Individuals with Disabili-ties Education Act (1990) first stated thatwhen students reach age 16 they must havetransition services included on their Individu-alized Education Plans (IEP) to 2007. Usingthis start date, an electronic database searchusing Educational Resources InformationCenter (ERIC), MasterFILE Premier, and Ac-ademic Search Premier was conducted. First,search terms included full and truncatedforms of community based instruction, community,disability, vocational, daily living, community liv-ing, community participation, transportation, mo-bility, orientation, street crossing, pedestrian traffic,safety, grocery, shopping, math, budget, saving, ac-count, banking, ATM, money, laundry, cleaning,restroom, recreation, leisure, play, sport, movie, club,social skill, functional, academic, residential, home,emergency, hygiene, self-care, bath, health, mealpreparation, cooking, and dining. Second, the
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 243
reference lists of the articles included in thisreview were analyzed to determine additionalarticles. Third, Morse and Schuster’s (2000)literature review of grocery shopping skills,Lancioni and O’Reilly’s (2002) review of foodpreparation skills, and Xin, Grasso, Dipipi-Hoy, and Jitendra’s (2005) review of purchas-ing skills were analyzed. Fourth, authors alsoreviewed the literature map of transition re-search articles developed by Alwell and Cobb(2006). Finally, the first three authors con-ducted a hand search of the following jour-nals, Education and Training in DevelopmentalDisabilities, Career Development for Exceptional In-dividuals, Journal of Vocational Special Needs Ed-ucation, Journal of the Association for Persons withSevere Handicaps/Research and Practice for Per-sons with Severe Disabilities, Exceptional Children,Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabil-ities, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journalof Positive Behavior Interventions, Behavior Disor-ders, and American Journal on Mental Retarda-tion.
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
Articles included in the review: (a) were pub-lished in a peer reviewed journal from theUnited States; (b) were published after 1990;(c) reported quantitative results; (d) includedparticipants who were students in elementaryschool, middle school, high school, or an18-21 program; (e) included students who re-ceived instruction during school at a commu-nity setting, including articles that taught skillsat both school and the community; and (f)described studies that aimed to teach a func-tional skill in one of four domain areas, in-cluding vocational (e.g., work skills), daily liv-ing (e.g., grocery shopping), community (e.g.,eating at a restaurant), and recreation (e.g.,participating on a basketball team).
Each study was analyzed to determine thetype of skill being taught in the communityand the corresponding domain. For example,eating at McDonald’s was categorized as dailyliving if the skill being taught was purchasing(e.g., money handling skills) or community ifthe skill being taught was using a fast foodrestaurant (e.g., entering store, orderingfood, eating food). Since not all articles in-cluded both a grade level and age for partici-pants, grade levels were defined as follows: (a)
elementary school, including kindergartenthrough sixth grade (i.e., ages 5-11), (b) mid-dle school, including seventh and eighthgrades (i.e., ages 12-14), and (c) high school,including ninth through twelfth grades (i.e.,ages 15-21).
We excluded articles that examined the re-lationship between leisure/recreation skillsand personal skills, promoting achievement,or reducing inappropriate behaviors sincethese studies were not designed to directlyteach a leisure/recreation skill (e.g., youthdevelopment programs; Keller, Bost, Lock, &Marcenko, 2005). Studies were also excludedfrom this review if the instruction took placein the classroom and only generalizationprobes occurred in the community (e.g., Fred-erick-Dugan, Test, & Varn, 1991; Hutcherson,Langone, Ayres, & Clees, 2004).
Analysis of Literature
Twenty-three articles met the search criteria.The first two authors agreed on the inclusionof 95.8% of the articles based on the inclusioncriteria. Review forms were completed foreach article and included the following infor-mation: (a) authors and date; (b) purpose; (c)participant demographic information includ-ing grade, age, and disability; (d) setting; (e)domain and skill; (f) research design; (g) de-pendent and independent variables; and (h)results. Interrater reliability was conducted bythe first three authors for 20% of the articleson information included on these forms. Re-liability was established by adding the totalnumber of agreements and dividing this sumby the total number of possible responses.Disagreements in reliability were addressed bythe third author who reviewed the article inquestion to gain consensus on information onthe review forms among all authors. Reliabilityranged from 86.7% to 100%, with a mean of95.6%.
Results
Twenty-three studies met the inclusion crite-ria. Six (26.1%) studies were at the elementaryschool level, eight (34.8%) at middle school,and fourteen (60.1%) at high school (studiesmay have included more than one gradelevel). The domains included 10 (43.5%)
244 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
studies dealing with daily living skills, 8(34.8%) related to community skills, 4(17.4%) studies dealing with vocational skills,and 2 (8.7%) related to recreation skills[Rynders, Schleien, & Mustonen (1990) in-cluded two domains: vocational and recre-ation] (see Table 1).
The studies included 161 participants withages ranging from 5 to 21. Individuals in thestudies had a variety of disabilities, includingmental retardation (n � 20, 87.0%), autism(n � 4, 17.4%), multiple disabilities (n � 2,8.7%), orthopedic disability (n � 1, 4.3%),behavior and emotional disability (n � 1,4.3%), and traumatic brain injury (n � 1,4.3%).
Setting
The majority of studies taught skills at a com-munity site only (n � 15, 65.2%). However, afew of the studies included simulation in theclassroom either as a comparison to CBI (n �4, 17.4%) or before teaching the skill in thecommunity (n � 7, 30.4%). Alberto, Cihak,and Gama (2005) used video modeling andpicture prompts in the classroom before CBI.In Bates, Cuvo, Miner, and Korabek (2001)one group received community-based trainingonly to teach grocery shopping skills, whilethe other group received community-basedtraining after simulated instruction. Branham,Collins, Schuster, and Kleinert (1999) usedthree techniques to teach daily living skills, (a)classroom simulation plus CBI, (b) videotapemodeling plus CBI, or (c) videotape modelingplus classroom simulation plus CBI. Cihak,Alberto, Taber-Doughty, and Gama (2006)used static pictures and video prompting inthe classroom before instructing students inthe community.
Cihak, Alberto, Kessler, and Taber (2004)used four techniques to teach vocational skillsincluding (a) simulation only, (b) CBI, (c)simulation and CBI on consecutive days, and(d) simulation and CBI on the same day. Stu-dents were taught using all techniques overfour skills. Collins, Stinson, and Land (1993)compared classroom simulation plus CBI withCBI only. For classroom simulation activities,the teacher used materials similar to thosefound in the community. Cuvo and Klatt(1992) used three instructional methods,
flash cards in school setting, videotaped re-cordings in school setting, and naturally oc-curring signs in community to teach commu-nity-referenced sight words; all studentsreceived instruction with all three methods.Domaracki and Lyon (1992) taught studentsjanitorial and housekeeping skills in a simu-lated setting (i.e., special education facility)before teaching in a community setting. Next,Haring, Breen, Weiner, Kennedy, and Bed-nersh (1995) gave students videotaped train-ing on how to purchase items either before,after, or during in vivo training at differenttypes of stores in the community. Pattavina,Bergstrom, Marchand-Martella, and Martella(1992) used photos of streets to teach streetcrossing in the classroom before CBI to en-sure safety. Finally, Taber, Alberto, Hughes,and Seltzer (2002) taught students how to callfor assistance in the classroom before movinginstruction into the community.
Most studies were conducted at more thanone location (n � 15, 65.2%). The settingsincluded 10 studies (43.5%) at grocery stores(Alberto et al., 2005; Cihak et al., 2006; Bateset al., 2001; Berg et al., 1995; Cihak et al.,2004; Ferguson & McDonnell, 1991; Haring etal., 1995; Morse & Schuster, 2000; Taber et al.,2002; Taber, Alberto, Seltzer, & Hughes,2003), 4 studies (17.4%) on public streets(Branham et al., 1999; Collins et al., 1993;Pattavina et al., 1992; Taber et al., 2003), 3studies (13.0%) at department stores (Taberet al., 2002; Taber et al., 2003; Westling, Floyd,& Carr, 1990), 3 studies (13.0%) at shoppingmalls/centers (Berg, et al.; Cuvo & Klatt,1992; Taber et al., 2003), 2 studies (8.7%) atrestaurants (Bates et al.; Berg et al.), 2 studies(8.7%) at convenience stores (Haring et al.;Westling et al., 1990), 2 (8.7%) at bowlingalleys (Schloss et al., 1995; Vandercook, 1991),2 studies (8.7%) at home (Hall, Schuster, Wol-ery, Gast, & Doyle, 1992; Murzynski & Bourret,2006). One study each (4.3%) was conductedat each of the following settings: a (a) pool(Schloss et al.), (b) laundromat (Bates et al.),(c) on hiking and biking trails (Schloss et al.),(d) library (Taber et al., 2002), (e) publicrestroom (Bates et al.), (f) post office (Bran-ham et al.), (g) bank (Branham et al.), (h)hotel (Domaracki & Lyon, 1992), (i) camp(Rynders et al., 1990), (j) jobsite (i.e., foodpreparation facility; Davis, Brady, Williams, &
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 245
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246 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
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Review of Community-Based Instruction / 247
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248 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
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clas
sroo
msi
mul
atio
npl
usvi
deot
ape
mod
elin
gpl
usC
BI
resu
ltin
gen
eral
izat
ion
inco
mm
unit
yse
ttin
gsfo
rth
esk
ills
ofca
shin
ga
chec
k,cr
ossi
ng
ast
reet
,an
dm
ailin
ga
lett
er?
3pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hsc
hoo
l;A
ges:
14-2
0;C
ogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Post
offi
ces,
ban
ks,
and
stre
ets.
Mul
tipl
epr
obe
acro
ssbe
hav
iors
Cas
hin
ga
chec
k,cr
ossi
ng
ast
reet
,m
ailin
ga
lett
er(P
erce
nt
corr
ect
ofst
eps
perf
orm
edon
the
task
anal
yses
)
Con
stan
tti
me
dela
ypr
oced
ure
wit
hon
eof
the
follo
win
gte
chn
ique
s:(a
)cl
assr
oom
sim
ulat
ion
plus
CB
I,(b
)vi
deot
ape
mod
elin
gpl
usC
BI,
(c)
vide
otap
em
odel
ing
plus
clas
sroo
msi
mul
atio
npl
usC
BI
Eac
hst
uden
tsh
owed
anim
med
iate
incr
ease
inth
eta
rget
beh
avio
raf
ter
inte
rven
tion
.C
lass
room
sim
ulat
ion
plus
CB
Iw
asth
em
ost
effi
cien
tof
the
3te
chn
ique
s.G
ener
aliz
atio
n:
All
part
icip
ants
gen
eral
ized
the
skill
sto
diff
eren
tse
ttin
gsw
ith
100%
accu
racy
.
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 249
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Cih
ak,
Alb
erto
,K
essl
er,
Tab
er(2
004)
(Voc
atio
nal
)
To
exam
ine
the
impa
ctof
four
inst
ruct
ion
alsc
hed
ulin
gar
ran
gem
ents
(i.e
.,si
mul
ated
-on
lyin
stru
ctio
n,
com
mun
ity-
base
din
stru
ctio
non
ly,
com
bin
atio
nof
sim
ulat
edan
dC
BI
inst
ruct
ion
onth
esa
me
sch
ool
day,
and
com
bin
atio
nof
sim
ulat
edan
dC
BI
inst
ruct
ion
onco
nse
cuti
vesc
hoo
lda
ys)
onfu
nct
ion
alan
dvo
cati
onal
skill
s.
5pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hsc
hoo
l;A
ges:
17-1
9;M
oder
ate
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Sch
ool
reso
urce
clas
sroo
m,
loca
lgr
ocer
yst
ore
Mul
tipl
epr
obe
acro
ssst
uden
ts
Tas
k com
plet
ion
offu
nct
ion
alan
dvo
cati
onal
skill
s
Syst
emof
leas
tpr
ompt
sFo
urin
stru
ctio
nal
sch
edul
ing
arra
nge
men
ts,
incl
udin
g:(a
)si
mul
atio
n-o
nly
inst
ruct
ion
,(b
)C
BI,
(c)
com
bin
atio
nof
sim
ulat
ion
inst
ruct
ion
and
CB
Ion
con
secu
tive
days
,(d
)co
mbi
nat
ion
ofsi
mul
atio
nan
dC
BI
onth
esa
me
day
All
stud
ents
acqu
ired
,ge
ner
aliz
ed,
and
mai
nta
ined
the
four
skill
s.O
vera
ll,st
uden
tsex
hib
ited
hig
hes
tsc
ores
inth
esk
illta
ugh
tin
the
com
bin
atio
nof
sim
ulat
edan
dC
BI
sett
ing
onth
esa
me
day,
follo
wed
byth
esk
illta
ugh
tin
the
CB
I-on
lyse
ttin
g.St
uden
tsex
hib
ited
low
ersc
ores
onth
esk
illta
ugh
tw
ith
sim
ulat
edan
dC
BI
inst
ruct
ion
onco
nse
cuti
veda
ys.
Low
est
scor
esw
ere
iden
tifi
edfo
rth
esk
illta
ugh
tin
the
sim
ulat
ed-o
nly
sett
ing.
Mai
nte
nan
ce:
All
stud
ents
mai
nta
ined
100%
accu
racy
over
4w
eeks
.G
ener
aliz
atio
n:
All
stud
ents
gen
eral
ized
skill
ton
ewse
ttin
g.
250 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
Cih
ak,
Alb
erto
,T
aber
-D
ough
ty,
&G
ama
(200
6)
To
dete
rmin
eth
eef
fect
sof
stat
icpi
ctur
epr
ompt
sor
vide
opr
ompt
sta
ugh
tin
agr
oup
inst
ruct
ion
alfo
rmat
onth
eab
ility
ofst
uden
tsto
wit
hdr
awm
oney
from
anA
TM
and
purc
has
eit
ems.
6pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Mid
dle
sch
ool;
Age
s:11
-15
year
sol
d;6
Mod
erat
eco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies,
2A
DH
D(s
econ
dary
diag
nos
is)
Cla
ssro
oman
dgr
ocer
yst
ores
Ada
pted
alte
rnat
ing
trea
tmen
tsde
sign
Use
ofa
debi
tca
rdto
wit
hdr
aw$2
0U
seof
ade
bit
card
topu
rch
ase
two
item
s(P
erce
nt
ofco
rrec
tre
spon
ses,
num
ber
ofer
rors
,an
dn
umbe
rof
sess
ion
sto
acqu
isit
ion
)
Stat
icpi
ctur
epr
ompt
sor
vide
opr
ompt
s
All
stud
ents
acqu
ired
the
skill
sof
usin
ga
debi
tca
rdto
wit
hdr
awm
oney
and
purc
has
eit
ems.
No
diff
eren
ces
wer
efo
und
betw
een
the
stat
icpi
ctur
epr
ompt
san
dvi
deo
prom
pts
for
four
ofsi
xst
uden
ts.
Th
etw
ost
uden
tsw
ith
ase
con
dary
diag
nos
isw
ith
AD
HD
perf
orm
edbe
tter
wit
hpi
ctur
epr
ompt
s.M
ain
ten
ance
:A
llst
uden
tsm
ain
tain
edsk
ills
over
2w
eeks
.C
ollin
s,St
inso
n,
&L
and
(199
3)(C
omm
unit
y)
To
com
pare
invi
voan
dsi
mul
atio
npr
ior
toin
vivo
inst
ruct
ion
onst
reet
cros
sin
gan
dpa
yte
leph
one
use.
Exp
erim
ent
1:4
part
icip
ants
;H
igh
sch
ool;
Age
s:15
-19
year
sol
d;M
oder
ate
disa
bilit
ies
Exp
erim
ent
2:4
part
icip
ants
;E
lem
enta
ry;
Age
s:10
-11
year
sol
d;M
oder
ate
disa
bilit
ies
Cor
ner
ofth
est
reet
and
publ
icte
leph
ones
adja
cen
tto
stre
et
Exp
erim
ent
1&
2:M
ulti
ple
prob
ede
sign
acro
sssu
bjec
tsw
ith
aco
unte
rbal
ance
oftr
eatm
ents
and
skill
str
ain
ed
Safe
tysk
ills
–str
eet
cros
sin
gan
dpa
yte
leph
one
use
(Exp
erim
ent
1&
2:N
umbe
rof
unpr
ompt
edco
rrec
tre
spon
din
gof
step
sin
task
anal
ysis
Exp
erim
ent
1&
2:T
ask
anal
ysis
–pro
gres
sive
tim
ede
lay
Exp
erim
ent
1:A
llpa
rtic
ipan
tsin
crea
sed
num
ber
ofco
rrec
tre
spon
din
gaf
ter
inst
ruct
ion
,re
gard
less
ofta
skor
sett
ing.
Dat
adi
dn
otsu
ppor
tsi
mul
atio
nin
stru
ctio
npr
ior
toin
vivo
inst
ruct
ion
.M
ain
ten
ance
:T
hre
est
uden
tsm
ain
tain
edsk
illfo
ron
em
onth
.G
ener
aliz
atio
n:
Not
repo
rted
.E
xper
imen
t2:
All
part
icip
ants
incr
ease
dle
vel
ofre
spon
din
gaf
ter
inst
ruct
ion
.M
ain
ten
ance
:N
otco
mpl
eted
due
tola
ckof
tim
e.
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 251
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Cuv
o&
Kla
tt(1
992)
(Com
mun
ity)
To
com
pare
the
effe
cts
of3
inst
ruct
ion
alm
eth
ods
(flas
hca
rds
insc
hoo
lse
ttin
g,vi
deot
aped
reco
rdin
gsin
sch
ool
sett
ing,
and
nat
ural
lyoc
curr
ing
sign
sin
com
mun
ity)
onac
quis
itio
nof
com
mun
ity-
refe
ren
ced
sigh
tw
ords
.
6pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Mid
dle
sch
ool;
Age
s:13
-17
year
sol
d;5
Mod
erat
eco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies,
1M
ildco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies
Roo
mad
jace
nt
tosp
ecia
led
ucat
ion
room
and
com
mun
ity
(sch
ool
build
ing,
sch
ool
grou
nds
,an
dsh
oppi
ng
cen
ter)
Mul
tipl
eba
selin
eac
ross
stud
ents
Sigh
tw
ords
(9si
gns
-%of
corr
ect
resp
onse
s)
Con
stan
tti
me
dela
yG
roup
sof
3si
gns
wer
eta
ugh
tus
ing
each
inst
ruct
ion
alm
eth
od(fl
ash
card
sin
sch
ool
sett
ing,
vide
otap
edre
cord
ings
insc
hoo
lse
ttin
g,an
dn
atur
ally
occu
rrin
gsi
gns
inco
mm
unit
y)in
coun
terb
alan
ced
orde
rac
ross
part
icip
ants
.
Cor
rect
resp
onse
:A
ttai
ned
crit
erio
nof
100%
corr
ect
shor
tly
afte
rin
terv
enti
on.
Mai
nte
nan
ce:
5of
6st
uden
tsm
ain
tain
ed10
0%co
rrec
tre
spon
din
g(e
xcep
ton
est
uden
tw
ho
mis
sed
1si
gndu
rin
g1
prob
e)fo
r3-
5w
eeks
afte
rin
terv
enti
onen
ded.
6thst
uden
tn
eede
dre
trai
nin
g.
Dav
is,
Bra
dy,
Will
iam
s,&
Bur
ta(1
992)
(Voc
atio
nal
)
To
dete
rmin
eth
eef
fect
sof
audi
tory
prom
ptin
gta
pes
onfl
uen
cyof
perf
orm
ance
.
3pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hsc
hoo
l;A
ges:
16-2
0ye
ars
old;
2B
ED
,1
orth
oped
icim
pair
men
t
Com
mun
ity-
base
dfo
odpr
epar
atio
nfa
cilit
y
Mul
tipl
eba
selin
eac
ross
stud
ents
Filli
ng
salt
and
pepp
ersh
aker
sD
ryin
gan
dlin
ing
serv
ing
tray
s(S
hak
ers
–1⁄2
full,
num
ber
fille
dco
rrec
tly
lined
onco
llect
ion
tabl
eT
ray
dryi
ng
and
linin
g–n
umbe
rof
tray
sco
mpl
etel
ydr
yw
ith
liner
inpo
siti
onFl
uen
cy-N
umbe
rof
corr
ect
ofea
chta
skdi
vide
dby
dura
tion
ofta
sk)
Aud
itor
ypr
ompt
sin
ters
pers
edth
roug
hou
tm
usic
.
All
stud
ents
incr
ease
dfl
uen
cyon
cepr
ompt
sw
ere
intr
oduc
ed.
All
stud
ents
mad
en
oer
rors
.O
nly
1st
uden
tin
crea
sed
flue
ncy
ton
orm
ativ
era
teof
prod
ucti
on(4
shak
ers/
min
).
252 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
Dom
arac
ki&
Lyo
n(1
992)
(Voc
atio
nal
)
To
com
pare
the
effe
ctof
gen
eral
case
sim
ulat
ion
and
invi
voin
stru
ctio
non
jan
itor
ial
and
hou
seke
epin
gw
ork
skill
s.
4pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hSc
hoo
l;(n
oag
egi
ven
);M
oder
ate
and
seve
reco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies
Hot
elan
dre
stau
ran
tco
mpl
exan
dsp
ecia
led
ucat
ion
faci
lity
Mul
tipl
epr
obe
acro
ssbe
hav
iors
.
Jan
itor
ial
and
hou
seke
epin
gsk
ills
(Per
cen
tage
ofst
eps
perf
orm
edin
depe
nde
ntl
y)
Prom
ptin
gus
ing
agr
adua
ted
assi
stan
ceh
iera
rch
y
Sim
ulat
ion
trai
nin
g:A
llpa
rtic
ipan
tsin
crea
sed
perc
enta
geof
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly,
but
did
not
reac
hcr
iter
ion
.N
atur
alis
tic
trai
nin
g:St
uden
tsre
ach
edcr
iter
ion
and
took
12-1
5se
ssio
ns
tore
ach
.G
ener
aliz
atio
n:
Stud
ents
did
not
gen
eral
ize
skill
sto
an
ewse
ttin
g(p
erce
nta
geof
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly
ran
ged
from
1%to
65%
).
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 253
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Ferg
uson
&M
cDon
nel
l(1
991)
(Dai
lyliv
ing)
To
com
pare
the
rela
tive
effi
cacy
ofse
rial
and
con
curr
ent
sequ
enci
ng
stra
tegi
esin
teac
hin
ga
com
mun
ity-
base
dac
tivi
ty.
6pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hsc
hoo
l;A
ges:
16-1
8;M
oder
ate
tose
vere
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
3gr
ocer
yst
ores
Tw
o-le
vel
mul
tipl
eba
selin
eac
ross
subj
ect
Gro
cery
shop
pin
g(P
erce
nt
ofit
ems
corr
ectl
ylo
cate
din
gen
eral
izat
ion
prob
est
ores
)(T
opog
raph
yan
dfr
eque
ncy
ofsp
ecifi
cer
rors
mad
edu
rin
gge
ner
aliz
atio
npr
obe
sess
ion
)(N
umbe
rof
item
pres
enta
tion
sdu
rin
gtr
ain
ing
and
min
utes
ofin
stru
ctio
nto
crit
erio
n)
Con
curr
ent
and
seri
alse
quen
cin
g
Item
sco
rrec
tly
loca
ted:
Stud
ents
wh
ore
ceiv
edse
rial
sequ
ence
trai
nin
gon
aver
age
loca
ted
69%
ofth
eit
ems
inth
ege
ner
aliz
atio
npr
obe
stor
es.
Stud
ents
wh
ore
ceiv
edco
ncu
rren
tse
quen
cetr
ain
ing
onav
erag
elo
cate
d86
%of
the
item
sin
the
gen
eral
izat
ion
prob
est
ores
.E
rror
s:D
ata
show
edst
uden
tsh
adle
ssai
sle
erro
rsw
hen
they
rece
ived
the
con
curr
ent
sequ
enci
ng
inte
rven
tion
.It
empr
esen
tati
ons:
Stud
ent
tria
lsra
nge
dfr
om70
to12
5an
d14
0to
200
min
utes
ofin
stru
ctio
nin
the
seri
altr
ain
ing
phas
e.T
rial
sra
nge
dfr
om32
to29
0an
d60
to52
0m
inut
esof
inst
ruct
ion
inth
eco
ncu
rren
ttr
ain
ing
phas
e.
254 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
Hal
l, Sch
uste
r,W
oler
y,G
ast,
&D
oyle
(199
2)(D
aily
livin
g)
To
dete
rmin
eth
eef
fect
ofdy
adic
grou
pson
the
acqu
isit
ion
ofco
okin
gsk
ills.
4pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hSc
hoo
l;A
ges:
16-1
8ye
ars
old;
Mod
erat
eto
seve
reco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies
Kit
chen
ina
hom
eM
ulti
ple
prob
eac
ross
beh
avio
rs
Coo
kin
g(C
orre
ctre
spon
se:
inde
pen
den
tly
com
plet
ing
task
wit
hin
20s
ofpe
rvio
usst
epIn
corr
ect
resp
onse
s:In
itia
ted
step
wit
hin
4sbu
t(a
)di
dn
otco
mpl
ete
wit
hin
requ
ired
tim
e,(b
)co
mpl
eted
task
out
ofor
der,
or(c
)pe
rfor
med
inco
rrec
tm
otor
resp
onse
No
resp
onse
:D
idn
otin
itia
test
epw
ith
in4
s)
0-4
sco
nst
ant
tim
ede
lay.
Stud
ents
wor
ked
indy
ads
and
had
tope
rfor
mh
alf
ofth
eta
sks
requ
ired
for
the
cook
ing.
All
stud
ents
incr
ease
dco
rrec
tre
spon
ses
afte
rin
stru
ctio
n.
Th
eti
me
tocr
iter
ion
ran
ged
from
7to
22se
ssio
ns
abov
eth
em
inim
umre
quir
ed.
Har
ing,
Bre
en,
Wei
ner
,K
enn
edy,
& Bed
ner
sh(1
995)
(Dai
lyliv
ing)
To
dete
rmin
eth
eef
fect
ofvi
deot
ape
mod
elin
gw
hen
pres
ente
dbe
fore
,af
ter,
and
con
curr
ent
toin
vivo
shop
pin
gtr
ain
ing
onpe
rfor
man
cein
trai
ned
,pr
obed
,an
dun
trai
ned
stor
es.
6pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Ele
men
tary
,M
iddl
e,an
dH
igh
sch
ools
;A
ges:
10-1
6;Se
vere
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
san
dA
utis
m
Boo
ksto
res,
con
ven
ien
cest
ores
,dr
ugst
ores
,gi
ftsh
ops,
groc
ery
stor
es,
hob
bysh
ops,
and
reco
rdst
ores
Mul
tipl
epr
obe
acro
ssse
ttin
gs
Purc
has
ing
skill
s(P
erce
nt
ofta
skan
alys
isst
eps
wit
hco
rrec
tre
spon
din
gan
dcu
mul
ativ
en
umbe
rof
inde
pen
den
tpu
rch
ases
)
Mod
elin
gof
trai
nin
gco
ndu
cted
in3
way
s:(a
)in
vivo
inst
ruct
ion
follo
wed
byvi
deot
ape
trai
nin
g,(b
)vi
deot
ape
trai
nin
gfo
llow
edby
invi
voin
stru
ctio
n,
and
(c)
con
curr
ent
vide
otap
ean
din
vivo
inst
ruct
ion
All
part
icip
ants
show
edin
crea
ses
inth
epe
rcen
tof
corr
ect
step
son
the
task
anal
ysis
inth
ein
vivo
trai
nin
gph
ase.
Wh
enpa
rtic
ipan
tsre
ceiv
edin
vivo
trai
nin
gin
one
stor
ean
dvi
deot
ape
trai
nin
gin
1to
3ad
diti
onal
stor
es,
part
icip
ants
mad
em
ore
inde
pen
den
tpu
rch
ases
.M
ain
ten
ance
:A
llst
uden
tsm
ain
tain
edpu
rch
asin
gsk
ills
(no
tim
ere
port
ed).
Gen
eral
izat
ion
:A
llst
uden
tsge
ner
aliz
edsk
illto
an
ewse
ttin
gat
sam
era
teof
resp
ondi
ng
duri
ng
inte
rven
tion
.
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 255
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Mor
se&
Sch
uste
r(2
000)
(Dai
lyliv
ing)
To
exam
ine
the
effe
ctiv
enes
sof
invi
votr
ain
ing
wit
hco
nst
ant
tim
ede
lay
and
sim
ulat
ion
trai
nin
gus
ing
pict
oria
lst
oryb
ook
onth
eac
quis
itio
nof
groc
ery
shop
pin
gsk
ills.
10pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Ele
men
tary
sch
ool;
Age
s:5-
12ye
ars
old;
Mod
erat
eco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies
Gro
cery
stor
eM
ulti
ple
prob
eac
ross
stud
ents
Gro
cery
shop
pin
g(P
erce
nta
geof
step
spe
rfor
med
corr
ectl
y)
Con
stan
tti
me
dela
ySi
mul
atio
ntr
ain
ing
usin
gst
oryb
oard
toco
nst
ruct
sequ
ence
ofsk
ills
used
wh
ensh
oppi
ng
for
groc
erie
s
(2st
uden
tsdi
dn
otst
art
trai
nin
gpr
ogra
m)
6st
uden
tsre
ach
edcr
iter
ion
afte
rin
terv
enti
on.
Mai
nte
nan
ce:
6st
uden
tsm
ain
tain
edcr
iter
ion
ofcr
itic
alst
eps
6w
eeks
afte
rin
terv
enti
onen
ded.
Gen
eral
izat
ion
:6
stud
ents
gen
eral
ized
skill
sto
aun
ique
groc
ery
stor
ean
dpe
rfor
med
crit
ical
step
sof
TA
wit
h90
-100
%ac
cura
cy.
Mur
zyn
ski
&B
ourr
et(2
006)
To
com
pare
vide
om
odel
ing
plus
leas
t-to-
mos
tpr
ompt
ing
and
leas
t-to-
mos
tpr
ompt
ing
alon
eon
juic
e-m
akin
g,sa
ndw
ich
-m
akin
g,an
dsh
irt
and
pan
tfo
ldin
g.
2pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Ele
men
tary
sch
ool;
Age
s9
and
11ye
ars
old;
Aut
ism
Hom
ePa
ralle
l-tr
eatm
ent
desi
gn
Juic
e-m
akin
gSa
ndw
ich
-m
akin
gSh
irt
and
pan
tfo
ldin
g(N
umbe
rof
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly)
Lea
st-to
-mos
tpr
ompt
ing
wit
hvi
deo
mod
elin
gor
leas
t-to-
mos
tpr
ompt
ing
alon
e
Stud
ents
incr
ease
dth
en
umbe
rof
step
spe
rfor
med
corr
ectl
yac
ross
all
skill
saf
ter
inte
rven
tion
.St
uden
tsac
quir
edth
esk
ills
infe
wer
tria
lsw
ith
leas
t-to-
mos
tpr
ompt
ing
wit
hvi
deo
mod
elin
g.
Patt
avin
a,B
ergs
trom
,M
arch
and-
Mar
tella
,&
Mar
tella
(199
2).
(Com
mun
ity)
To
inve
stig
ate
ast
rate
gyto
teac
ha
stud
ent
tosu
cces
sful
lycr
oss
stre
ets
inth
eco
mm
unit
y.
1pa
rtic
ipan
t;M
iddl
esc
hoo
l;A
ge:
12;
Tra
umat
icbr
ain
inju
ry
Sch
ool
sett
ing,
and
stre
ets
inth
eco
mm
unit
y
AB
desi
gnC
ross
ing
stre
ets
inth
eco
mm
unit
y(N
umbe
rof
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly)
Ver
bal
and
visu
alpr
ompt
sC
orre
ctly
cros
sed
stre
etaf
ter
6w
eeks
ofin
stru
ctio
nM
ain
ten
ance
:M
ain
tain
edsk
illat
2,4,
and
16w
eek
chec
ks.
Gen
eral
izat
ion
:G
ener
aliz
edsk
illto
new
stre
ets
into
wn
.
256 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
Ryn
ders
,Sc
hle
ien
,&
Mus
ton
en(1
990)
(Voc
atio
nal
)(R
ecre
atio
n)
To
dete
rmin
eth
eef
fect
sof
anin
ten
sive
inte
grat
edca
mpi
ng
expe
rien
ceon
soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
and
skill
deve
lopm
ent.
3pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Ele
men
tary
sch
ool;
Age
s:9-
11ye
ars
old;
1A
utis
m,
2Se
vere
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Cam
p,in
clud
ing
lodg
es,
din
ing
hal
l,fa
rm,
gree
nh
ouse
,or
char
d,an
dbe
ach
.
Qua
si-
expe
rim
enta
l(p
re/p
ost)
Tab
lecl
eari
ng
Swim
min
gpr
epar
atio
n(S
ocia
lin
tera
ctio
ns:
(a)
appr
opri
ate
soci
albe
hav
ior
(en
gage
din
goal
-di
rect
edac
tivi
ty,
appr
opri
ate
use
ofm
ater
ials
)(b
)In
appr
opri
ate
soci
albe
hav
ior
(non
goal
-dir
ecte
dbe
hav
ior,
inap
prop
riat
eus
eof
mat
eria
ls,
not
part
icip
atin
gin
acti
vity
)(c
)In
itia
tin
gso
cial
inte
ract
ion
(tou
chin
g,ge
stur
ing,
voca
lizin
g,or
talk
ing
tope
er;
init
iati
onw
asin
tera
ctio
nbe
twee
n2
child
ren
wh
oh
adn
otin
tera
cted
for
prev
ious
3s)
(d)
Rec
eivi
ng
soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
(ch
ildis
touc
hed
,ge
stur
ed,
give
ndi
rect
ion
s,or
ques
tion
edby
peer
(in
tera
ctio
nco
ded
ifin
itia
tion
sw
ere
sepa
rate
dby
3s)
Soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
–rei
nfo
rcem
ent
ofap
prop
riat
ebe
hav
ior
and
con
tin
gen
tre
info
rcem
ent
ofpe
erso
cial
inte
ract
ion
sSk
ills
–tas
kan
alyt
icap
proa
ch(t
est-
teac
h)
–lea
ders
taug
ht
step
sth
atw
ere
not
com
plet
edin
depe
nde
ntl
yth
roug
hpr
ompt
ing
Soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns:
App
ropr
iate
beh
avio
rde
crea
sed
pre/
post
test
.Sk
ill:
Stud
ents
incr
ease
dn
umbe
rof
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly
from
pret
est
topo
stte
st.
How
ever
,si
gnifi
can
cew
asn
otte
sted
beca
use
ofsm
all
num
ber
ofpa
rtic
ipan
ts.
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 257
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Sch
loss
,A
lper
,Yo
ung,
Arn
old-
Rei
d,A
ylw
ard,
&D
uden
hoe
ffer
(199
5)(C
omm
unit
y)
To
inve
stig
ate
the
effe
ctiv
enes
sof
adi
rect
inst
ruct
ion
proc
edur
ein
volv
ing
mod
elin
gan
dgu
ided
prac
tice
onth
eac
quis
itio
nof
fun
ctio
nal
sigh
tw
ords
.
3pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Ele
men
tary
and
mid
dle
sch
ool;
Age
s:12
-14;
Mild
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Publ
icsw
imm
ing
pool
(dir
ect
inst
ruct
ion
),a
32-la
ne
auto
mat
edbo
wlin
gal
ley
(con
trol
),an
arca
de(d
irec
tin
stru
ctio
n),
ast
ate
park
hik
ing
trai
l(c
ontr
ol),
am
ulti
plex
thea
ter
(dir
ect
inst
ruct
ion
),a
mov
iere
nta
lch
ain
,a
Dep
artm
ent
of Con
serv
atio
nbi
ketr
ail
(dir
ect
inst
ruct
ion
),a
publ
icte
nn
isfa
cilit
y(c
ontr
ol),
and
apu
blic
lake
Para
llel
trea
tmen
tde
sign
:M
ulti
ple
base
line
repl
icat
ion
sac
ross
sigh
tw
ords
and
Alt
ern
atin
gtr
eatm
ent
to com
pare
inst
ruct
ion
alpr
oced
ures
Fun
ctio
nal
acad
emic
s(N
umbe
rof
wor
dsid
enti
fied
)
Tw
oin
stru
ctio
nal
con
diti
ons:
(a)
dire
ctin
stru
ctio
nw
ith
invi
vow
ord
fin
dw
hic
hin
clud
edve
rbal
inst
ruct
ion
,m
odel
ing,
guid
edpr
acti
ce,
and
feed
back
;(b
)co
ntr
olw
ith
invi
vow
ord
iden
tifi
cati
onw
hic
hin
volv
edth
eau
thor
sre
adin
gke
ypa
ssag
esto
part
icip
ants
duri
ng
are
crea
tion
alac
tivi
ty
Eac
hpa
rtic
ipan
tre
ach
edcr
iter
ion
of10
0%w
ith
inn
ine
wee
ksof
the
dire
ctin
stru
ctio
nco
ndi
tion
bein
gim
plem
ente
d.R
esul
tssh
owed
each
part
icip
ant
had
limit
edac
quis
itio
nof
the
sigh
tw
ords
wh
enth
eco
ntr
olco
ndi
tion
was
impl
emen
ted.
Mai
nte
nan
ce:
Eac
hpa
rtic
ipan
tm
ain
tain
edpe
rfor
man
ceth
roug
hou
tth
e4-
wee
km
ain
ten
ance
prob
e.
258 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
Souz
a&
Ken
ned
y(2
003)
(Dai
lyliv
ing)
To
incr
ease
ast
uden
t’s
soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
inco
mm
unit
yse
ttin
gsw
ith
inth
eco
nte
xtof
acti
viti
esan
dro
utin
esas
soci
ated
wit
hth
eIn
divi
dual
ized
Edu
cati
on/T
ran
siti
onPl
an(I
ET
P).
1pa
rtic
ipan
t;H
igh
Sch
ool;
Age
:20
;Se
vere
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Bus
&ca
fete
ria
Mul
tipl
eba
selin
eac
ross
sett
ings
/peo
pleSo
cial
skill
s(N
umbe
rof
soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
last
ing
15m
inut
esor
lon
ger
inea
chse
ttin
gan
dqu
alit
yof
inte
ract
ion
)
Proc
ess
wh
ich
incl
uded
:(a
)id
enti
fyin
ga
pers
onw
ith
out
disa
bilit
ies
wh
ofr
eque
nte
dth
ese
ttin
gw
hen
the
stud
ent
was
pres
ent,
(b)
appr
oach
ing
the
pers
onan
das
kin
gif
they
wou
ldlik
eto
mee
tth
est
uden
t,(c
)th
ete
ach
erin
trod
ucin
gth
epe
rson
wit
hou
tdi
sabi
litie
sto
the
stud
ent
and
disc
ussi
ng
poss
ible
sch
edul
edin
tera
ctio
ns,
(d)
sch
edul
ing
acti
viti
es,
tim
es,
and
days
inw
hic
hbo
thvi
site
da
part
icul
arse
ttin
g,(e
)te
ach
erm
onit
orin
gin
tera
ctio
ns
betw
een
the
stud
ent
and
the
pers
onw
ith
out
adi
sabi
lity
Incr
ease
sin
soci
alin
tera
ctio
ns
occu
rred
duri
ng
the
17w
eek
peri
odw
hen
the
inte
ract
ion
stra
tegy
was
impl
emen
ted.
Qua
lity
ofin
tera
ctio
nre
sult
edin
anin
crea
sin
gtr
end
betw
een
wee
ks13
and
17.
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 259
TA
BL
E1—
(Con
tinue
d)
Ref
eren
ce(D
omai
n)P
urpo
seP
arti
cipa
nts
Sett
ing
Des
ign
Skill
(DV
)IV
Res
ults
Tab
er,
Alb
erto
,H
ugh
es,
Selt
zer
(200
2)(D
aily
livin
g)
To
dete
rmin
eif
stud
ents
coul
did
enti
fyw
hen
they
wer
elo
stan
dth
enus
ea
cell
phon
eto
call
for
assi
stan
ce.
14pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Mid
dle
sch
ool;
Age
s:11
-14
year
sol
d;M
oder
ate
cogn
itiv
edi
sabi
litie
s
Sch
ool
Gro
cery
stor
e,pu
blic
libra
ry,
depa
rtm
ent
stor
e.
Con
curr
ent
mul
tipl
epr
obe
acro
ssgr
oups
Cal
ling
for
assi
stan
ce(P
erce
nta
geof
task
anal
ysis
step
spe
rfor
med
inde
pen
den
tly)
Five
-leve
lle
ast
intr
usiv
epr
ompt
ing
syst
emw
ith
tota
lta
skpr
esen
tati
on
All
stud
ents
wer
eab
leto
corr
ectl
ype
rfor
m80
%of
task
anal
ysis
afte
r3
sess
ion
sof
inte
rven
tion
atth
esc
hoo
l.W
hen
the
inte
rven
tion
mov
edto
the
com
mun
ity,
all
stud
ents
sust
ain
ed10
0%ac
cura
cy.
Gen
eral
izat
ion
:St
uden
tsw
ere
able
toca
llfo
ras
sist
ance
wit
ha
pers
onot
her
than
the
inve
stig
ator
.T
aber
,A
lber
to,
Selt
zer,
&H
ugh
es(2
003)
(Com
mun
ity)
To
dete
rmin
eif
stud
ents
coul
das
sist
anad
ult
wh
ore
cogn
ized
the
stud
ent
was
lost
and
use
spee
ddi
alto
call
for
assi
stan
ce.
6pa
rtic
ipan
ts;
Hig
hsc
hoo
l;A
ges:
14-1
8ye
ars
old;
Mod
erat
eco
gnit
ive
disa
bilit
ies
Seco
nda
rysc
hoo
lsan
dco
mm
unit
yse
ttin
gs(g
roce
ryst
ore,
disc
oun
tde
part
men
tst
ore,
mai
nst
reet
,an
dsu
burb
anm
all)
Mul
tipl
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260 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
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Review of Community-Based Instruction / 261
Burta, 1992), (k) bookstore (Haring et al.), (l)drugstore (Haring et al.), (m) gift shop (Har-ing et al.), (n) hobby shop (Haring et al.), (o)record store (Haring et al.), (p) arcade(Schloss et al.), (q) movie theater (Schloss etal.), (r) movie rental chain (Schloss et al.), (s)tennis courts (Schloss et al.), (t) public lake(Schloss et al.), (u) bus (Souza & Kennedy,2003), and (v) special education facility(Domaracki & Lyon).
Design
The majority of the studies used a single sub-ject design (n � 19, 82.6%). Of these, 10(52.6%) used multiple probe design, 5(26.3%) used a multiple baseline design, 2(10.5%) used an alternating treatments de-sign, 1 (5.2%) used a parallel-treatment de-sign, and 1 (5.2%) used a multiple baselineand alternating treatment design. The re-mainder of the studies used a quasi-experi-mental design (n � 3, 13.0%) or a multi-factormixed design (n � 1, 4.3%).
Skill/Dependent Variable
Results showed a variety of dependent vari-ables across the four domain areas (i.e., voca-tional, daily living, community, and recre-ation). Purchasing grocery items was the mostcommon dependent variable (n � 6, 26.1%).Safety skills were measured in four studies(17.4%). Three studies each (13.0%) mea-sured purchasing non-grocery items andcleaning (e.g., janitorial skills, housekeepingskills, and clearing a tray after eating). Com-munity-referenced sight words and using adebit card to withdraw money were taught intwo studies each (8.7%). Cashing a check,planning and preparing a meal, purchasing ina restaurant, mailing a letter, dressing, foldingshirts and pants, social skills, using a Laundro-mat, juice and sandwich making and leisureskills (e.g., riding a bicycle, bowling, playingtabletop games, horseshoes, and pinball),weremeasured in one study each (4.3% each). Onestudy (4.3%) measured job skills (i.e., fillingsalt and pepper shakers and lining trays) on awork site.
Independent Variable
Fourteen studies (60.9%) used prompting toteach the target skill. Four studies (17.4%)used constant time delay to teach the targetskill. Modeling was used in two studies (8.7%)to teach the target skills. One study used pro-gressive time delay (4.3%) and one study(4.3%) used direct instruction. One study(4.3%) used concurrent and serial sequencingand one study used contingent reinforcement(4.3%). One study (4.3%; Souza & Kennedy,2003) introduced the participant to an indi-vidual to increase social interactions. Threestudies (13.0%) used two methods to teachskills. Rynders et al. (1990) used contingentreinforcement and task analysis to teach twodifferent skills, including social skills and tableclearing. Next, Alberto et al. (2005) used pic-ture prompts and video modeling to teachcommunity skills. Murzynski and Bourret(2006) used least-to-most prompting withvideo modeling to teach daily living skills.
Results
The interventions resulted in increases in thetarget skill. All studies showed positive resultsfor all participants, except for two studies.Morse and Schuster (2000) stated that twostudents out of eight did not reach criterion asa result of the intervention. Domaracki andLyon (1992) indicated that all students in-creased the target skill, but students onlyreached criterion in the naturalistic trainingphase, not the simulation training phase. It isalso important to note that the Davis et al.(1992) study showed increases in the targetskill, but only one student met the normativeproduction rate.
Twelve studies (52.2%) collected generali-zation measures. Nine of these studies(75.0%) had participants generalize the skillat a new site, two (16.7%) measured general-ization with a new person, and one (8.3%)measured generalization with new materialsand motoric movements and at a new site(Berg et al., 1995). Ten of the 12 studies(83.3%) that measured generalization hadpositive results (Berg et al.; Branham et al,1999; Cihak et al., 2004; Collins et al., 1993;Ferguson & McDonnell, 1991; Haring et al.,1995; Morse & Schuster, 2000; Pattavina et al.,
262 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
1992; Taber et al., 2003; Vandercook, 1991).One study had mixed results (Bates et al.,2001), while students in one study did notgeneralize the skill (Domaracki & Lyon,1992). Finally, 11 studies (47.8%) collectedmaintenance data, ranging from 1 week to 20weeks. All studies showed positive mainte-nance results, except for Cuvo and Klatt(1992) where one of six students did notmaintain the skill.
Discussion
Results from the 23 intervention studies pro-vide additional evidence that students withdisabilities can learn skills in natural environ-ments (Phillips, Reid, Korabek, & Hursh,1988; Wehman, 1990). The studies includedin this literature review span from 1990 to2006 and reveal that various skills such as pur-chasing items, grocery shopping, and bankingskills can be taught in the community. Resultsshowed daily living skills as a common domainin which students were taught functional lifeskills in the community. For example, Bran-ham et al. (1999) used a time delay procedureto teach students of high school age banking,street crossing, and mailing skills in the com-munity. As a result, each participant showedan increase in the target behavior as well asgeneralized the skill to different settings. Sim-ilarly, Berg et al. (1995) used training andprompting to teach middle and high schoolstudents how to order and purchase items invarious settings in the community such as theshopping mall and grocery store. Resultsshowed that students increased the number ofsteps performed independently and that sev-eral students were able to maintain the skills.Additionally, recreation, community, and vo-cational skills were also taught across gradelevels. For instance, Davis et al. (1992) usedauditory prompting to teach the vocationaltask of filling salt and pepper shakers to stu-dents in a community-based food preparationfacility. Findings showed that students wereable to increase their fluency of performingthis task after auditory prompting tapes wereintroduced.
Although the studies included in this reviewspan from 1990 to 2006, the results are similarto previous literature reviews. According to ameta-analysis conducted by Xin et al. (2005),
researchers found 9 out of 28 studies providedin vivo instruction, with a median of 87% non-overlapping data (PND) points. In addition,Browder and Grasso (1999) conducted a liter-ature review of studies that taught money skillsto students with mental retardation. Resultsshowed that of the 43 studies reviewed, 74% ofthe studies implemented the instruction inthe classroom and the community or imple-mented instruction in the classroom and con-ducted probes in the community. However,only a few studies taught all skills in the com-munity. Overall, results showed that studentswith varying levels of mental retardation couldlearn the skills to make purchases indepen-dently.
Limitations
Although evidence has shown that CBI is ef-fective in teaching functional skills, results ofthis literature review should be viewed withcaution due to several limitations. First, sincethe purpose of the review was to look at stud-ies that taught skills to students in the com-munity, the exclusion criterion resulted ineliminating any studies in which adults werethe only participants. There have been severalstudies that taught functional skills to adults incommunity settings (e.g., Taylor & O’Reilly,2000; Test, Howell, Burkhart, & Beroth,1993.) It is possible that these skills could betaught to students with disabilities duringcommunity-based instruction. A second limi-tation to the current review was only studies inwhich participants were affiliated with aschool were included. For example, Arnold-Reid, Schloss, and Alper (1997) included 3high school aged participants who lived in agroup home. The study was conducted in thegroup home and therefore was not includedin the current review. Finally, studies includedin this review only dated back 15 years. Thisdate was selected since it was the first time thatfederal law mandated transition services to beincluded on IEPs.
Implications for Future Research
The purpose of this review was to determinethe extent of research using community-basedinstruction across grade levels. The majority ofthe studies (n � 14) were conducted at the
Review of Community-Based Instruction / 263
high school level, while eight studies were atthe middle school level, and six studies were atthe elementary school level. These results in-dicate a need for additional research with stu-dents in the primary and middle grades. Ad-ditionally, students with mental retardationwere most common in terms of disability cat-egory (87.0%) across the studies included inthis review. Therefore, there is a need for CBIstudies in which participants with other dis-abilities are included. Finally, of the 23 stud-ies, 10 taught skills in the daily living domain,8 in the community domain, 4 in the voca-tional domain, and 2 in the recreation do-main area. The large number of studies in thedaily living domain demonstrates a need formore research in the vocational, community,and recreation domain areas in a communitysetting.
In addition, results showed that slightlymore than half (52.2%) of the studies col-lected generalization data. In order to helpfacilitate students learning and increase theirability to use their skills in different settings,with different people, or with different items,students should be taught these skills in thecommunity and generalization probes shouldbe administered to determine their ability todraw from their newly acquired skills. Finally,since less than half (48%) of the studies col-lected maintenance data, it would be benefi-cial if future researchers included mainte-nance data in their studies. Particularly, asfunctional life skills are intended to help stu-dents gain the skills needed to help thembecome independent adults, students whohave these skills are likely to be more success-ful in the real world.
Implications for Practice
The findings of this review offer practitionersmany ideas for teaching functional skills in thenatural environment and in providing addi-tional simulated instruction across the voca-tional, daily living, community, and recreationdomain areas. Furthermore, skills may betaught to students ranging in age from child-hood to adulthood. Specifically, more teach-ers can teach elementary-aged students skillsin the community. For example, teachers canteach social skills to elementary age studentsin recreational settings such as on the play-
ground during recess. There also appears tobe a need for practitioners at the middleschool level to teach job skills. Further, re-search suggests that practitioners at the ele-mentary, middle, and high school levels teachsafety skills.
Results of this literature review show that ofthe 23 studies included in this review, 15(65.2%) were published before the passage ofNo Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2001. Theresult of this mandate has encouraged morestudents with disabilities to access the generalcurriculum. According to Wagner, Newman,and Cameto (2004), NLTS2 data showed 21percentage point decrease in the number ofstudents with disabilities taking courses in thespecial education setting. Because of the im-portance of students with disabilities accessingthe general curriculum, students may not betaught functional skills which have been doc-umented in the literature as leading topostschool success (Spooner, Dymond, Smith,& Kennedy, 2006). Additionally, teachers mayface challenges such as a lack of (a) commu-nity resources to design these experiences, (b)administrative support, or (c) manpower toprovide instruction. Therefore, teachers mayneed to refer to literature reviews such as thisone for examples of previous researchers whohave used evidence-based strategies to effec-tively conduct community based instruction. Itis also important to note that although thepurpose of this literature review was to identifythe skills taught in the community acrossgrade levels, practitioners may teach pre-req-uisite skills in the classroom prior to teachingthe intended skill in the community. For ex-ample, if a teacher wanted to teach purchas-ing skills to a student that is unfamiliar withthe value of coins he/she may teach the stu-dent the values of each coin in the classroomprior to teaching purchasing an item in thecommunity. These and other techniques willhelp facilitate students’ acquisition of skillsand knowledge that are essential to their suc-cess after high school.
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264 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-June 2010
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Received: 9 December 2008Initial Acceptance: 11 February 2009Final Acceptance: 1 July 2009
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