REVIEW OF LITERATURE - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/74019/11/11_chapter...

Review of literature 2015

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Survey and disease occurrence

Survey report

Lakshmi, 1964 reported that survey of seed borne fungal infection of C.

Lindemuthianum on Dolichus lablab. The fungal infection on seed ranged

between 15.20 to 81.00 % and it is also affected to the seed weight. Varma and

Upadhyay (1973) reported seed weight loss due to infection of fungi i.e. 22.4 to

61.7 %. Zate et al. (1976) also observed seed borne fungal diseases.

Sanathkumar, (1999) reported that in Bangalore districts survey and found that the

chilli varieties Gauribidanur, Byadagi and pant C-2 showed anthracnose diseases

infection.

Leah et al. (1999) Served bacterial and fungal seed-borne disease on

potato. Israel imported potato seeds from Northern Europe and plantings in spring

season. Most of the seed defected by the Erwinia carotovora, Streptomyces

scabies, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp. survey conducted during 1998 and

most of the pathogen reported first time. Soft rot diseases detected at 7 %

maximum level and 65 % at maximum level. 95.4 % lot shows dieses-free but

37.3 % shows low diseases. Survey shows that most of the pathogen was soil

borne. Dimitros et al. (2006) Served root-rot of sugar beet during the summer and

autumn in 2004 at Larissa, Thessaly region in central Greece. Total 76 field of

beet were studied and 5-10 diseased roots were observed in each field. PDA

method was used for isolation and Rhizoctonia solani and Phytopthora cryptogea

were isolated. Rhizopus stolonifer, Fusarium spp., Scerotium rolfsii and

Rhizoctonia violacea also isolated from field. Braithwaite et al. (2006) served that


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sub-tropical nursery of plant. Survey conducted during 2003 and 2004 Sample

analyzed in laboratory as well as in field and fungi identified different charters.

Survey showed that range of fungal pathogen identified from plant. These fungi

were shown effect on biodiversity well as economy of New Zealand.

Karadimos and Karaoglanidis (2006) conducted survey during the summer

and autumn of 2004 of sugar beet fields in the field of Larissa, Thessaly region,

with plants showing symptoms of root rot diseases. He found the causal agents of

root rot diseases. In total, 76 sugar beet fields were studied and 5—10 diseased

roots were identified from each field. Fungus species isolations by PDA showed

that two main fungal pathogens causing root rot were Phytophthora cryptogea and

Rhizoctonia solani. Isolated were isolated in 46 % of the fields and the latter in 38

% of the fields. 10 out of 76 sampled fields more than 2 fungi related to root rot

diseases were isolated successfully. In addition, Rhizopus stolonifer, Fusarium

spp., Scerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia violacea were isolated in 14 %, 7 %, 4 %

and 1 % of the fields. In large surveyed fields only one fungus was isolated and

only in a few of them more than one fungus identified.

Soares et al. (2008) served bio-control agent of Ipomoea carnea from

Brazil during research period. Ipomoea carnea also called morning glory which is

originated from tropical America. It is very toxic for cattle but ornamental in

Brazil. It is exotic for Brazil and becoming an aggressive wetland ecosystem. But

very few workers works on it in Brazil on mycobiota Coleosporium ipomoeae and

Puccinia putai only fungi observed on the plant in Brazil as attacking fungi.

Result shows twenty-one fungal pathogens were isolated and identified especially

from Ipomoea carnea fungi was the best potential for bio-controlling agent for

Ipomoea carnea. Soaclres et al. (2008) Served bio-control agent of Ipomoea


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carnea from Brazil during research period Ipomoea carnea also called as morning

glory which is originated from tropical America. It is very toxic for cattle but it is

ornamental in Brazil. It is exotic for Brazil and becoming an aggressive wetland

ecosystem. But very few workers work on it in Brazil on mycobiota

Coleosporium ipomeae and puccinia puta only fungi observed on the plant in

Brazil as attacking fungi. Result shows that 21 fungal pathogen were isolated and

identified specially from Ipomoea carnea. Fungi were the best potential for bio-

controlling for Ipomoea carnea. Watve et al. (2009) surveyed that leaf spot

infection on Jatropha causal organism C. gloeosporiods. Survey takes place during

2005 on the Jatropha plantation at Biodiversity cum Genomic Valley Park of Dr.

Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Agricultural University, Dapoli.

Maria et al. (2011) reported that crop survey of field in Manitoba on root

diseases from 33 different localities. Report also shows foliar diseases survey at

45 location. They assessed anthracnose, rust and white mould severity and

infection on plant tissue. They collected pod (infected sample) for fungal isolation

and confirm that the disease symptoms. EL-Mougy et al. (2011) served fungal

diseases affecting vegetables cultivating in Egypt. ARE repotted that root and

shoot fungal diseases at two different growth stage of the plant. Cucumber,

pepper, tomato, associated with fungal pathogen especially flowering period.

Damping–off, root rot, white rot, wilt, downy and powdery mildew, anthracnose,

and early and late blight were occurred on vegetables. Pytheium spp., Fusarium

spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina spp., Sclerotinia spp., Sclerotium rolfsii,

Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicilliumspp., and Trichoderma spp., was

isolated from rhizosperic soil. Biological controlling agent and green pesticides

will be available in future as a commercial product. Mishra et al. (2012) served


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some fungal diseases on egg plant due to creeper rate and maximum availability

of egg plant important crop in India. Several fungi affecting to age plant during

cultivation and also reduce the yield and quality of fruits.

Manjunath et al. (2012) surveyed intensive roving during kharif (2010) and

(2011) for 2 years and observed severity of foliar infection of diseases in southern

Karnataka. They found that diseases ranged 23.26 % to 47.54 % and highest in

infection noted in Mysore district (55.42 % and 26.68 %). Minimum infection

recorded in Ramnagar district 25.69 % and 9.92 % respectively. Massoud et al.

(2013) served and reported that is species from genera from fruit and vegetables

by using PDA medium. Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus

ochraceus were isolated and second most importent fungi isolated viz.

Acremonium, Alternaria, Fusarium and penicillium. They also studied cellulose

production by CMC agar plate method for better known ability of fungi. El-

Mohamady et al. (2014) have been served of root and foliar fungal diseases and

he observed that some root rots foliar and other diseases can become severe very

fast and use strict sanitation procedures for germinating seed and growing

transplants to diagnose all problems promptly. Diseases, insect, nutritional, and

growth problems also include and remove all diseased leaves, fruits, or entire

plants to avoid disease frequency. Same procedures was recommended for all

growing vegetables and crops to decrees the risk of introducing pathogens,

minimize disease severity and to lessen dependency on labeled fungicides.

Biological control agents including pesticides that will may be commercially

available all over market in the future.

Konaiah and Sreeramalu (2014) have been survey on cropping systems in

Cuddapah District of varied regions mandals in different seasons based on


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symptoms and pathogen nature. He found that Morphology of isolate was studied

in order to identify the taxonomy of the identified fungus. Commercial and

vegetable crops observed significantly high severity of the diseases with low yield

in the mandals. Main emphasis of writer is on studies of preliminary Survey of

fungal crops in the cuddapah district of AP (India). El-Mohonady et al. (2014)

served that foliar fungal diseases of tomato in Egypt and ARE studied either root

or shoot systems fungal diseases of plant. Root-rot, Damping off, wilt, blight were

observed during survey. Rhizospheric and flowering growth stage infected sample

were collected from same location. Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia

solani Trichodema harzianum, Trichodema viride, Trichodema hamatam,

Aspergillus spp. Penicillium spp. which was associated with root. Fusarium spp.

associated with root. Fusarium spp. occurred maximum compare them

Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium respectively. Hare et al. (2014) reported that fungal

diseases of Cuddapah distinct of Andhra Pradesh. Study evaluated that cropping

system and various regions. Fungi identified by symptoms and pathogen nature

during survey. During survey farmers gives information about fungal diseases and

commercial vegetables crops observed significant disease severity. Survey

resulted that Cuddapah distinct suffered from major disease problem in crops and

farmers take precautions and necessary action for controlling the fungal disease.

Occurrence

Soybean anthracnose or pod blight was first reported by Hepperly et al.

(1983) in China. Lambert et al. (1969) reported fungal disease in first time on

Soybean seed imported from Taiwan in India. Fungi occur in all area where

Soybean grown and it was reported by Pantnagar Nene et al. (1972), Verma and


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Upadhyay (1973) and Agrawal and Gupta (1989) found fungal diseases first time

in Madhya Pradesh (MP).

Isolation of the fungal pathogen

Wan Zainun Nik (1980) isolated fungal pathogen associated with seed of

14 cultivars comprising 16 samples of Soybean and 27 species. Frequently

isolated fungi i. e. Botryodiplodia theobromae, Colletotrichum dematium,

Diaporthe phaseolorum, Choanephora cucurbitarum, Fusarium equiseti, F.

fusarioides, F. moniliforme, F. semitectum, Macrophomina phaseolina,

Myrothecium roridum, and Phoma sorghina. Isolated included other species is

Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Nigrospora, Odulisporium,

Penicillium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Zygosporium etc.Treated Seeds were with

fungicides is a higher germination in vitro compared to the control. Benomyl

eliminated most of the pathogenic fungi association of Soybean. Lim (1980)

reported brown spot severity and yield reduction in Soybean which is caused by

Septoria glycines. By inoculating Soybean plant at different growth stages of

brown spot epidemics. Rg-Rs shows higher infection rates in both cultivars when

at late growth stages. Williams was higher diseased compare to wells in 1978.

Brown spots seventy similar in plots of wells and Williams at corresponding

growth stages. Pataky et al. (1980) reported that controlling brown spot of

Soybean. The effect of benomly applied at different (3) reproductive stages on

Septoria brown spot. During 2 year studies apparent brown spot infection

lowered in plots of inoculated following benomyl sprays at R1, R2, R6 Soybean

stages. During early and mid-reproductive stager may increase yield when brown

spot severe but potential yield was high.


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Vesper et al. (1983) found that Verticillium wilt in Soybean Verticillium

nigrescens isolated from flower and pods of Soybean. Eight difference were

selected for isolation at severe stage at disease development 0.36 % incidence in

pod range was highest in 3.5 week after initial pod set and gradually decline

maturity when cotton occur grown repeatedly the fungus incidence was highest.

Fungi isolated from soil where moisture percents was maximum Verticillium

nigrescens isolated specially from the pedicel flower but rarely occurred from

other parts of flower. Verticillium nigrescens not affect to discoloration or wilt on

Soybean but it discard number of pod on infracted plants. Verticillium nigrescens

also differed to Weight of pods. Benomyl application reduces infection near about

50.90 %. Trapero-Lasas et al. (1985) reported that fungal wilt and root rot of

chickpea. Survey were shown observations severely affected by wilt and root rot

of Soybean. Wilt and yellowing were the most prevalent. Fusarium oxysporum, F.

solani, etc associate with the wilt and reddish pigmented and cortical collar rot

Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum introduce non-vascular yellowing and

black collar rot on Soybean. Most severely affected chickpea and cultivar were

not pathogenic to cultivar JG-62 was very susceptible to with. Cubeta et al. (1985)

studied that fungi association and interaction with Bacillus Subtilis on Soybean.

Both species isolated from Soybean was tested antagonistic 26 species of fungi

associated with Soybean which is isolated by PDA and antagonism were checked

out suspension of Bacillus Subtilis was use on Soybean seed and reduce infection

causes by Phomopsis spp. further suspension sprayed on Soybean plant and result

observed significantly reduce Phomopsis infection on pod.

Mintor et al. (1985) observed Fusarium wilt or Soybean associated with

nematode and root rot in corn in this research intercropping of Soybean and corn


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were studied with nematode and disease problem of irrigation field nematode

control by ethylene Di- bromide, phenamiphos and aldicarb were equally effective

and increasing yield. The residual effect showed on yield of nematicides for 3

year of Soybean and 1 year of for corn. Fusarium wilt shower less sever in all

nematicides field them control field. In this study strongly indicated that Fusarium

wilt expression of Soybean influenced by nematodes will reduce severity of

disease. Anderson (1987) reported isolation fungi from stem and root of Soybean.

They isolated thirteen genera of fungi from stem and root of fungi from stem and

root Soybean i.e. Corynespora cassiicola, Fusarium oxysporum, Phytophtora

megasperma, Phthium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Thielaviopsis basicola etc.

Erdman and Fordyce (1989) evaluated that and focus on especially nutritional

significance of soya product as a human consumption. In this reviewed study the

impact of consumption of soya product on range of about health issue revived and

discussed in this specially article with this protein quality, growth promoting

effect of protein from soya product. Also studied allergies in children,

hypocholesterolemic effects of protein and fiber, effects of soy products upon

glucose tolerance and the bioavailability of zinc and iron from Soybean product

also mention. Rizwi et al. (1995) served that 2 year duration to identify fungi

associated with Soybean seedling 52 and 66 location was selected for Survey and

fungi isolated from infected parts of Soybean. In 1993 and 1994 Rhizoctonia

solani 27.5 % and 27.3 % in 1994 as well as Fusarium spp. Phythium and

Phytopthora were observed in 1993 and 1994. Seed decay fungus also isolated

viz. Phomopsis, Stolonifer, Trichoderma, Fusarium, Phythium etc. were isolated

and identified by standard method pathogenicity test were applying for further

confirmation.


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Wrather et al. (1997) reported estimation of loss of Soybean by disease in

top 10 Soybean producing countries. 10 countries were selected for studies during

1994 major Soybean disease occur in these countries so far objective was to

documented and recent changes in the severity Soybean disease. Heterodera

glycine was causes major yield loss in 10 Soybean producing counties. Brown

spot and charcoal rot also severe disease for Soybean. 14.99 million Metric tons

yield loss during 1994 by disease which is $ 3.31 Billion loss. Plant, disease

diagnosis clinic sample, Varity trial data, information from workers, crop

consultant reports etc methods was used for disease estimation. Patkowska (2003)

studied that micro organism effect on phyllosphere parts of Soybean. In 1998-

2000 years study was conducted on Soybean. In this study leaves and pod of

Soybean were analyzed. 778 fungi were isolated from the infected parts of

Soybean. Within pathogen fungi viz. Fusarium spp. and Phomopsis spp.

frequently isolated during study. Acremonium, Cladosporium, Penicllium of

Trichoderma was isolated which is included in saprophytes. Number of micro

organism isolated from the healthy parts of Soybean.

Pimentel et al. (2006) observed that of identification and colonisation of

endophytic fungi from Soybean under different environmental condition. Fungi

were isolated and observation found that dematiaceous and nondematiaceous

genera. In this research work sample collected from two different conditions one

was field and second was greenhouse. Qualitative and quantitatively analyzed

forty different fungal species and number of isolates were decrees in greenhouse

condition and increases in field. Arshad et al. (2006) reported that. Stored Seed of

economical important crop sunflower, Soybean, chickpea, maize, nice etc. and

fungi isolated from above crops. Fungal genera were isolation viz. Alternaria


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alternata, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Drechslera, Curularia, Cercospora,

Macrophomina and Cladosporium. Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium also

associated with storage condition of seeds. Benlate, Topsin-M, Anvil, etc.

fungicides were used against fungi. Ida Chapaval et al. (2006) reported that

endophytic fungi from Soybean under different environmental condition. 297

endophytic fungi were isolated from 1728 leaf and Stem collected from 20 and 40

days after germination of Soybean directly in the field and greenhouse condition.

Isolated pathogen belongs to eight group and six dematiaceous genera. Alternaria,

Cladosporium, Cruvularia and Drechslera etc. genera were studied along with

Soybean. Qualitative and quantitative differences in type and number of obtained

from field and greenhouse. Difference not found in the number of fungi isolates

from leaves and stems. Number of isolates decreased as the plants aged maximum

fungi were found in tissues near the soil.

Medic-pap et al. (2007) work out in assessment of seed of python-pathogen

on Soybean originated from Vojvodina province and 75 % seed lot from both

years 2001-2002. Seed inhibiting fungi were isolated on morphological and

cultural characteristic in considerable amount of seed but it is not infected with

phyto-pathogenic fungi. Phomapsis/Diaporthe genera of fungi Fusarium was the

most isolated pathogenic fungi in 2001 and 2002 from different species found in

both year. Facultative parasites fungal genera of Alternaria, aspergillus

Penicilliumetc was occurred in much more in Soybean half seed lot. Abida et al.

(2008) found that ICARDA Syria and NARC Pakistan i.e. chickpea were

evaluated under green house condition temperature adjusted from 8-240C and

humidity maintain above 80 % during 2006. Source of genetic resistance against

collar rot incited by sclerotium rolfsii and isolated sclerotium rolfsii from the


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chickpea crop directly from field with this maintain pure culture on PDA.

Genotype near about 25 type displayed moderately tolerate and resistant response

and other genotype highly susceptible to disease collar rot. Resistance source can

further exploited in breeding for development to resistance for disease of

commercial cultivars. Broders et al. (2009) found that new fungal species from

Soybean new Pythium special isolated from Soybean. Pythium delawarii is

germinated by zoospores and pathogenic on Soybean causing disease damping-off

especially on seedling.

Li. x. et al. (2009) found that grouping of fungal disease in use

quantitatively describe 34 Soybean fungal diseases in the United States 10

ecological character of pathogen were used and these characteristics includes

optimum temperature for disease development. Observation significantly pattern

were identified for same characteristic i.e. Pathogen dispersal, Soybean rust,

downy mildew, leaf spot similarly co-efficient. Cluster analysis identified two

major clusters with high significant level (P > 0.95) During 1996 to 2005 loss the

Soybean yield in US and geographical distribution range of Soybean rust include

most US Soybean production. Yield loss in US Minimum in north but moderate

in the south in US. Egberongbe et al. (2010) reported that seed grown in sterilized

and unsterilized soil. Trichoderma harzianum were inoculums in green house

compare their proximate analyses Soybean gives higher percentage of Crude Fiber

(3.66 %), carbohydrates (50.00 %) ash (4.53 %) in sterilized soil. Soybean gives

higher percentage crud protein (30.11 %), oil (12.93 %) etc in sterilized. Khodke

et al. (2010) found that the root rot and collar root or Soybean. It is important

disease occur specially in Vidarbha and Marthwada region of Maharashtra.

Fungicides apply on seed and soil and bio-agent and its combination effectively


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for increasing seed germination. Soybean seed germination achieved by applying

temperature (Thiram + Carbendazim + Trichoderma @ 3+1+4 g/kg) lower yield

obtained by control i.e. 15.70 q ha-1 while highest i.e. 22.50 q ha-1 in T7.

Ikechi–Nwogu et al. (2012) found that evolution of growth media for

cultivation of fungus. Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger Penicillium

chrysogenum, Aspergillus terrus, Aspergillus glaucus , Fusarium oxysporum were

isolated by standard bolter method from food material potato dextrose, Soybean

dextrose, groundnut dextrose, broth were used for fungal isolation and screening

the suitability for fungal cultivation. Fungi were isolated after 7 days incubation

period at 27 ± 1 0C. Soybean dextrose broth significantly higher than groundnut

dextrose broth but both broths contain different vital component (vitamin and

minerals) for fungal growth. Kakde et al. (2012) reviewed and concluded about oil

seed mycoflora origanised and present in various sections as like groundnut;

safflower, sunflower and Soybean are most of the major seed-oil yielding crop in

India as well as Maharashtra cultivated in kharif and rabbi seasons. In different

storage condition are not properly arrange and microbes as like viruses, bacteria,

fungi etc attacks on this and decreasing quality and longitivity of seed. Fungal

pathogen infected oil seed and various abnormalities occurring due to infection

such as discoloration, damage, shrunken seed, undersized, rotted seed, and

germination ability of seed reducing.

Diniz et al. (2013) isolated fungi from emergence field or Soybean. During

this study seed health quality was evaluating and seedling emergence or field.

Different Soybean curvier were selected, seed harvested of different periods,

Soybean were harvested at different growth condition as like is days, 30 days and

result were observed Significantly increase of fungi infection at is to 30 days.


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Phomapsis, Fusarium and Epicoccum increases after reproductive stage of

Soybean seedling emerge in the field was negatively affected at 30 days after

reproductive stage. Fabio et al. (2013) reported that pathogen and field emergency

of Soybean to harvested delay. Study aimed that evaluation of seed quality of

eight cultivars of Soybean subjected to different harvest period. R8, R8 +15 day,

and R8 + 30 days harvested stages seeds were collected and observed health test

and seedling emergency in field. After R8 stages fungi increases highly after 15

and 30 days especially Fusarium spp. phomopsis spp. and Epicoccum spp.

Reproductive stage R8 harvested seed after 30 days seeding emergency was

reduced. In relation to fungi Soybean cultivar had different performance, cultivars

affect by fungi very less but highest seedling emergency percentage. Belewu et al.

(2013) reported that effect of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum on

Jatropha curcas kernel cake. West Africa dwarf sheep were used to evaluate the

fungal blend effect Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenumi. Three

treatments with Soybean cake were gives. Dry matter was used for sheep fed.

Crude protein, crude fiber was significantly improvement was shown.

Sharma et al. (2013) reported that foliar blight of Soybean was major

fungal disease. Rhizoctonia solani was the disease causing organism isolate from

the aerial part of Soybean in Tarai regions of Uttara Khand. Near about 6

Rhizoctoina solani species were isolated and characterized on the basis at cultural

and physiology as like colony diameter, growth color etc. PDA was used for

isolation of and isolated fungi were grown on different five broth medium for

fresh and phytotoxic effect were check by using culture filtrates. Rhizoctonia

anamorph referred. Ramesh et al. (2013) found that Soybean mycoflora

associated with seed from different region of Karnataka. MARS Raichur sample


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showed discoloration was observed as fallow (30.0 %) Shrivelled seed 2.0 %,

broken seed 2.0 % and healthy seed shows very low percent (47.0 %). By using

Agar plate method 11 fungi were isolated Successfully Macrophomina

Phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Phoma

spp. and sclerotinia sclerotiorum were isolated from Soybean seeds frequently.

Fusarium solani F. moniliformae, Rhizophus spp., Botrytis cinerea and

Cercospora kikuchi isolated but less frequently. MARS Raichur recorded

maximum mu mycoflora, (50.0-52 %) sample collected from market and

minimum from field (15-5-27.5 %). Maetrese et al. (2013) reported that isolation

of fungal pathogen and aflatoxin detection by ELISA methods from soy milk

fungi was isolated from five randomly collected commercial soy milk and

frequently isolation fungi viz. Aspergillus and Fusarium, Aspergillus flavus

produce aflatoxin at high level toxic producers. In agriculture industry aflatoxin

contamination in milk is very serious problem and economic loss but comfortable

only few studies have made about aflatoxin contamination in this research to

examine identification of aflatoxin on milk sample by using ELISA technique 0.7

ppb aflatoxin amount showed highest range in milk sample. 0.5 ppb was excess

level in food and drug administration in table. In aflatoxin contamination result

must have to be verified and analyzed in case of milk produce isolated fungi and

its molecular identification match with databases search and improved software

tools for better understanding of biosynthesis of aflatoxin.

Sharma et al. (2014) reviewed that status Trichoderma research in India.

Trichoderma known as world wild for bio-controlling of other fungal microbial

community and widely exploited in industry as a source of enzyme. In India

researcher is working on various aspects Trichoderma Viride diversity ecology the


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application. 110 groups of different university working on 15 different

Trichoderma spp. and published near about 460 research paper. Trichoderma

Viride and Trichoderma harzianum used 87 different crops and 70 soils borne and

18 foliar diseases. Trichoderma species know to produce different type of enzyme

which plays an important role in antagonistic activity against pathogen quality

formulation of Trichoderma and field success are the major issues which need to

be further explored intensively. Oluwagbenga et al. (2014) fungi isolations from

the Dioscorea rotundata (YAM) and sample collected from the market.

Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Mucor recemosa, Botryodiplodia

thoehromae and macrophomina phaseolina isolated from sample. Most prevalent

fungi Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus isolated. Captan, Dithane Mus,

Difloatan and Benlate fungicides were used against the isolated fungi as

controlling agent. Captan and Dithane was highly effective on all isolated fungi.

Potentialities of fungicides were occurred on post harvest fungi of Dioscorea

rotundata.

Pathogenicity of fungal pathogen

Mandeep and Munshi (2003) proved pathogenicity by different cultural

media on disease development and reported PDA produce highly mycelial growth

of fungi compare to Czapek-Dox-Agar. Rathaiah and Sharma (2004) reported

pathogenicity of fungi of anthracnose on mungbean by using PDA method.

Begum et al. (2008) isolated fungi and proved pathogenicity and its effect on

Soybean seed quality by using standard artificial inoculation. Report shows that C.

truncatum enable to produce latent infection without showing any visible

symptom. They also found that pathogenicity of fungi on Soybean more virulent

under greenhouse condition than that of field.


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Zabalgogeozcoa et al. (2008) studied pathogenicity of endophytic fungi to

Ornithodoros erraticus and Ornithodoros moubata. They examine pathogenicity

of endomorpathogenic fungi and resulted effective against argasid ticks. Xue

Allen et al. (2010) reported that pathogenicity of Pythium causing damping-off of

Soybean. They selected two Soybean cultivars and twenty four Pythium species

for pathogenicity and prove it. Al-sadi et al. (2012) reported pathogenicity of

fungi associated with root disease. Fungi isolated from date palm root. Study

showed that twenty one fungal species were pathogenic. Hossain et al. (2015)

found that pathogenicity of Fusarium spp. associated with rice in South Africa.

pathogenicity check of the three different fungal species isolated from rice plant

F. anthophilum F. fujikuroi were able to showing bakanae symptoms of rice and

prove pathogenicity.

Enzyme activity

Carcia-Garrido et al. (2000) found that hydrolytic enzyme ability of my

mycorrhizal fungi. Soybean root associated with Arbuskular Mycorrhizal (AM)

and plant root colonize with AM was observed. Glomus mosseae was the AM

species colonize with the Soybean root and hydrolytic enzyme activity shows in

association of root. Fungal mycelia colonized with Soybean root and shows

hydrolytic activity. AM fungi was affecting root and influence plant growth. Heck

et al. (2002) reported that Soybean residue used for the production of celluase and

xylanase production. In Brazil Soybean produce very large amount and Soybean

residual were used as enzyme production material. Five strains among 87 isolated

bacteria were selected for cellulose and xylanase production. Bacillus subtilis

identified and obtained for the maximum specific cellulose activity. Proteases

association was affected to the loss of cellulas and xylanase production. Micro


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organisms and cultivation process have great potential showed by results.

Sukumaran et al. (2005) reported that application and challenges of microbial

cellulase production in various industries. Utilization of biomass for fuel

production and cellulase was obtaining better yield. In future genetic engineering

will provide support to cellluase production to the enzyme. This review shows that

the current knowledge about cellulase production and industrial application as

well as improving the process of economy of enzyme. Metabolite engineering of

enzyme incase the specific activities, process tolerance and stability medium the

enzyme activity shows maximum 40 0C and pH 6.0.

Sae-Lee Nisa (2007) found that production of cellulase and xylanase by

palm kernel meal. Aspergillus wentti, A. niger, A. oryzae, Trichoderma reesei,

Penicillium spp. were used for the enzyme activity. Palm kernel meal (PKM)

substrate was used for the enzyme production. Specific activity shown by A.

wentii but during fermentation of PKM, cellulase and xylanase enzyme activity

observed high. PKM was suitable for production of mannanase than cellulase and

xylanase at high content of mannan as inducer. Kutateladze et al. (2009) reported

pectinase produces fungi applying and screening. Active fungal species were

selected from the culture thermophilic, alkali acidopilic and halophilic.

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, Trichoderma, Rhizopus, sporotrichum etc genera

were selected as an active enzyme producer. Aspergillus and Penicillium was the

dominant pectinase producer genera. Physiological and biochemical studies and

investigations were selected strain. Penicillium canescens shows highest pectinase

activity at 27 0C and pH 4.0 but Aspergillus niger optimization nutrient Ramos et

al. (2010) studied that pectolytic enzyme isolated from Colletotrichum truncatum

by Soybean. Colletotrichum truncatum is the common fungi causing anthracnose


25

in Soybean and it was isolated from infected part of Soybean from different

location. Polymethyl galacturonase (PGM) activities were detected by using

medium. PGM peak activity shows the day maximum growth. Banu et al. (2010)

studied production and characterization of pectinase isolated from the Penicillium

chrysogenum. Fungi was isolated from the municipal waste soil and grown on

pectin containing medium (YPSS). Penicillium chrysogenum produce enzyme at

pH 6.5, temperature 35 0C by using sources, ammonium sources and nitrogen

sources. Penicillium chrysogenum was produce highest enzyme at pH 6.5 and

temperature 50 0C.

Gautam et al. (2011) reported that optimization for the production of

cellulase by fungi. Study evaluated that reduce the cost of cellulase production

and using alternative carbon source. Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma sp. was

the novel cellulase produced fungi. MSW, peptone, and yeast extract was the best

ingredient for the enzyme production. Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma sp was

give advantages for enzyme production because rate of these both fungi is higher

than other fungi. Microbial engineering technique biochemical and genetic

employing will be required to make useful for cellulase production by the fungi.

Brindha et al. (2011) reported that tomato spoilage casing fungi and these fungi

showing cellulase enzyme activity. Various fungal diseases reduce quality of

tomato but this fungus is a good source of hydrolytic enzyme. Different fungi

isolated from the spoiled tomato. Aspergillus spp. produce highest amylase

enzyme at 72 hrs of incubation period. Cellulase produce maximum at 72 hrs by

Trichoderma spp. and these enzymes have industrial application. Akhter et al.

(2011) studied that pectinase produced by the culture of Aspergillus niger. Seven

fungal strain were used for the solid state fermentation IM-6 strain of Aspergillus


26

niger was effective for pectinase production. After 7 days incubation at 40 0C

temperature maximum activity in 1.42.44. Nitrogen source ((NH4)2SO4) were used

for enzyme production 1.69 %. Peptone also useful but peptone was not cost

effective. Wheat bran and potato starch use as a substrate medium. Result showed

that 9.68 % pectin was found and pectinase production was optimum in 98.43.

IM-6 strain of Aspergillus niger shows outstanding pectinase producer during 40

0C for 7 days incubation period.

Gilna et al. (2011) reported that cellulase activity by Aspergillus fumigutes

from mangroves soil. Aspergillus fumigutes isolated by the swa dust as a substrate.

pH, temperature, nitrogen source was the optimized for callulase enzyme

production. CMCase assay were used with culture filtrate for enzyme activity.

Physical factor and supplementation of nutrient factor optimize the cellulase

production. Iftikhar et al. (2011) studied that Penicillium chrysogenum used for

the biosynthesis Lipase in culture condition. Production of lipase was the main

aim of this investigation and Penicillium chrysogenum used for the lipase activity.

Lipase activity obtained at 28 0C after 72 hrs with 1 ml inoculums level but

Almond, Soybean, Sunflowers were used for the lipase production. Nitrogen and

carbon Sources were used for maximum enzyme production. 67.77 ± 0 155 U/ml

shows maximum production but yeast extract were optimized as the best addition.

Chancharoonpong et al. (2012) reported that enzyme production by Aspergillus

oryzae on Soybean koji. Aspergillus oryzae is the koji mould provides large

amount of enzyme. Study aimed that application for acceleration fish sauce

fermentation because Soybean koji contain 60 % was used substrate. PDA method

was used and mycelium of Aspergillus oryzae detect under SEM. Aspergillus


27

oryzae observed and SEM were formed after 48 hrs and highest activity of

enzyme also observed at this stage.

Sri Lakshmi et al. (2012) reported that cellulase production by fungi

isolated from forest soil. Four fungi were isolated which is belongs to the genus

Aspergillus and Penicillium. These fungi were tested for cellulase production by

degrading cellulose. Fungi isolated three Aspergillus spp. was observed maximum

zone of hydrolysis. FPA (Filter Paper assay) were used for the cellulase enzyme

activity. Fungal culture filtrates also determine soluble Sugar and extracellular

protein. Nayebyyazdi et al. (2012) reported that cellulase activity of some soil

borne fungi. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) medium were used as source for

enzyme production. Trichoderma reesei shows highest enzyme activity in CMC

media but Rhizoctonia solani showed lowest enzyme activity. Jurick et al. (2012)

studied application of the 2- cynoacetamide method for cellulase enzyme activity.

Cellulase is the major component present on our planet. Bio-fuel produced by the

cellulose degradation for global carbon cycle. Cellulase assay method was

developed in this study. Cellulose use as the substrate and detect the fungal

enzyme activity. Hussaina et al. (2012) studied celluloytic enzyme activity which

isolated by soft rot filamentous fungi. Paecilomyces variotii was the fungal

species isolated and used for cellulase production. Cellulose is a small subunit of

sugar and it hydrolyzed by hydrolytic enzyme produced by the fungi. Study

showed that callulase activity of soft rot wood degrading by Paecilomyces

variotiii (103-7 stain) CMC, cellulose, glucose, and sucrose medium used with the

czapeak dox brought and nitrogen sources were used at different temperature and

pH and incubation period. Culture filtrates of fungi were used for enzyme assay.


28

Singh Kirti (2013) reported that lipase enzyme from endophytic. Lipase

production depends on carbon sources and Soybean oil. Leptosphaerulina spp.

shows negative effect by glucose. Leptosphaerulina spp. studied for the industrial

production of lipase. Lipid biotechnology documented that lipase in fungi on

vegetable oil. Alkalophilic and thermophilic lipase have few reports on mold

fungi. Leptosphaerulina spp. exploited for commercial use of lipase and use for

the making a washing powder. Sharada et al. (2013) reviewed that cellulase

enzyme production which hydrolyzed cellulosic biomass which is produced by the

microorganism. cellulase isolates from the agro west and solid state fermentation.

Cellulase produced by the fungi for degeneration of cellulose. This enzyme using

in industries is a major group industrial enzyme. Present review shows that

cellulase production by bacteria and fungi. Many researchers conducted for

enzyme activity using substrate like pumpkin oil cake, orange waste, sugarcane

biogases, rice bran etc. Hoa et al. (2013) reported that cellulase and pectinase

enzyme production by Aspergillus oryzae. Surface methodology using for enzyme

isolated and application of enzyme is a broad industrial level. Cellulase and

pectinase examined by Aspergillus oryzae under solid state fermentation. Soybean

residue was good nutrients for Aspergillus oryzae for Cellulase and pectinase

production. pH, temperature and incubation period of optimum condition for

Aspergillus oryzae produce Cellulase and pectinase activity. Enzyme activity

increased significantly as compared than traditionally one-at-a-time optimization.

Present research resulted that Soybean residue is a cheap substrate for production

of cellulase and pectinase.

Coffman et al. (2013) reported that carbohydrates production by

Trichoderma ressei isolated from soy-based medium. Trichoderma ressei shows


29

higher cellulase enzyme activity. Enzymatic activities produce large proportion

that may reduce the value and usefulness of the soy-based medium. Sivakumaran

et al. (2014) reported that celluloytic enzyme activity of fungi. They studied

21differant fungal pathogen isolated from saw dust, sprinking soil and decaying

wood which cultured on medium. Celluloytic enzyme activity was take place by

filter paper assay and DNS reagent technique. Result showed that highest activity

was 42.61 FPU/ML observed by Helminthosporium. Considerably enzyme

activity was found in Trichoderma spp. and Asppergillus spp. EL-Said et al.

(2014) reported that phytopathogenic fungi production of cellulase. 50 infected

sample of broad bean were collected and 45 fungal species isolated from 23

genera. Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium etc 45 genera were

commonly occurred on broad bean. C1 and Cx enzyme activity moderate on 2 and

3 species of fungi but remaining species were low activity. Alternaria citri and

Cochliobolus spicifer was recorded maximum cellulase production for C1.

Alternaria alternata and Alternaria citri shows highest enzyme activity for Cx

enzyme at 8 days incubation period and 30 0C temperature with pH 6 in medium

of carboxymethel cellulose and sodium nitrate.

Lekh et al. (2014) reported that cellulase production and characterization

by soil microbes. Totally degradation takes place of cellulose component by

applying fungi which is secreting hydrolytic enzyme and produce ethanol as well

as organic acids. Cellulase contributes 50 % cost of hydrolysis due to low specific

enzyme activity. Enzyme potentially use in industries as like food beverages,

textiles, laundry, paper production etc. Cellulase produced by microorganism and

obtaining of this cellulase is the main aim of the much more researchers.

Mohamadi et al. (2014) reported that pectinase enzyme activity of Trichoderma


30

ressei. Pectinase enzyme produced for the industrial application for enzyme

compound advantages. Study was shown that direct mutation in the genome of

fungi Trichoderma ressei and increased the enzyme activity. 21 mutants were

isolated and enzyme activity studied with Trichoderma ressei. Three replicate

were randomly experimented. SPSS software was used for the statically analysis.

T. r M. 13 and T. r M. 15 shows highly active for enzyme production and near

about 50 % isolates mutant by gamma- rays.

Bajaj et al. (2014) reported agriculture residue for cellulase production

from Sporotrichum thermophile. They produce Eco-friendly bio-ethanol by

celluase using Saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass. Fungi isolated

(Sporotrichum thermophile) successfully from agriculture residue in this research.

Highest production of enzyme takes place by cotton cake. Temperature near about

80-90 0C shows highest enzyme activity compare than optimum temperature (60-

70 0C) pH 3.6 was recorded for stability of cellulase activity. Cellulase have

potential for lignocellulosic biomass transformation. Gupata et al. (2015) reported

that callulase production by fungi and its application. Research highlights the

production of cellulase enzyme and utilization of enzyme as refining agent for

security paper. 23 fungal species were isolated from soil collected from the near

wood based paper mill. Cellulase producing fungi were optimizing the production

in respect to pH, temperature and incubation period. Research resulted that near

about 26 % energy conservation potential during refining and strength property of

the paper.


31

Toxin production

Yeh et al. (1980) reported that effect of fungi on seed germination.

Chaetomiun cupreum was isolated from Soybean of three locations in 1979 zone

of inhibition developed between Chaetomiun cupreum, Fusarium spp.

Experimental fungi were isolated by using water agar mixed culture method.

Culture filtrate was mixed with water agar and medium autoclaved. Alternaria

spp. Shows delay in Soybean seed. Nahed et al. (2008) studied that pathogenic

fugal culture filtrate on seed germination and seedling growth. Healthy seed of

Soybean were socked in culture filtrate in 25, 50, 75 and 100 % concentration of

4, 8, and 12 day old culture filtrate of Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum,

Penicillium spp., and Rhizoctonia solani. Result found that culture filtrate age

significantly reduction in seed germination. Aspergillus niger, Fusarium

culmorium, Penicilliumspp., and Rhizoctonia solani lost ability to phytotoxicity by

sterilization.

Girish et al. (2009) reported that culture filtrate of Phomopsis azadirachtae

which is infecting neem plant. Phytotoxicity of culture filtrate were check because

these fungal species almost loss 100 % of neem fruit. Crude phytotoxin (CP) was

used with methanol and chloroform extract. TCL shows four phytotoxic

compounds were exposure to UV 500 and 1000 ppm of extract in hr bit seed

germination. Phomopsis azadirachtae culture filtrate have toxic compound.

Jalander et al. (2011) reported that C.F of Fusariurm oxysporum on seed and

seedling growth of pegeonpea. Infected sample were collected from different

varities of Cajanus cajan and culture filtrate use against seed germination shoot

and root length. Results noted that varity BDN -708 increased seed germination


32

90 % and root length 2-31 cm as well as shoot 1.85 cm compare than other

varieties.

Shirurkar et al. (2012) found that Effect of aflatoxin on seedling and seed

germination. Screenings was isolated and confirm fungal species Aspergillus

flavus for aflatoxin production. Maize variety was used for the observing crude

aflatoxin effect. Treatment was gives to maize of 5 hrs and grown in pot.

Germination, root, shoot length and chlorophyll content were observed effect

compare with control. Germination was highly inhibited by aflatoxin because

Maize seeds were sensitive. Total chlorophyll contains and seedling length

inhibits aflatoxin. Jalander et al. (2012) studied that effect of fungal culture filtrate

on seed germination. Cajanus cajan were used for the isolation of fungi viz.

Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus nidulans. Isolated fungal

culture filtrate investigated against seed germination and seedling growth.

Aspergilllus species secrete secondary metabolites inhibit seed germination, root

and shoot length of some cereals and pulses. But Aspergilllus niger shows effect

than Aspergilllus flavus and Aspergilllus nidulans. Chatage et al. (2013) studied

that phytotoxic activity of fungi. Culture filtrate was assayed for phytotoxic

activity and fungi grown on Richard’s medium Culture filtrate affected cereals,

pulses, of and vegetables by toxin and shows inhibitory effect. Bipolaris

tetramera shows 10 % on sorghum and 90 % toxic effect on sunflower.

Xiong Yiwen et al. (2013) reported that toxin production by culture filtrate

of Fusarium virguliforme causing sudden death syndrome of Soybean. Soybean

dextrose broth (SDB) observes better than potato dextrose broth (PDB). Because

fungi were grown on 6, 10 and 14 day compare than PDB (18 and 22 days). Soy

milk medium was very effective for growth and reproduction of nine Soybean


33

fugal pathogen. Rao et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate’s effect on seed

germination and seeding growth of Jawar. Culture filtrates were used viz.

Penicillium nordicum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium verrucosum,

Penicillium commune, Penicillium citrinum and Penicillium digitatum. This was

more significant for inhibition of the seed germination. This Penicillium species

pathogenicity was also inhibiting varying seedling growth by using water agar

method. Theses fungal culture use as toxicant and effect shows inhibition in

radical 10-87 % and leaf growth 20.86 %. HPLC and TLC screened mycotoxin

viz. ochratoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, rubratoxin citrinin, patulin, penitrern etc.

Result also shows non-toxicant species of Penicillium observed significant effect

on growth of seeds.

Sharam et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

used on seed germination and seedling on Indian mustard. Twenty-five isolates

were isolated from collected sample of Brassica grown in nine state of India.

Richard’s liquid medium was used for isolation. Result shows that compare to the

control, culture filtrate of all fungi inhibit seed germination and length of radical.

Strain SR. 15 and SR 03 were significantly reducing seed germination. SR 19

shows higher seed germination. Garuba et al. (2014) found that culture filtrate

effect on seed germination and leaf anatomy of maize. Seven days old fungal

culture of filtrate of Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum were used for

the experiment. Before planting seed were socked in culture filtrate for 12 hrs.

Blotter paper method was used for the germination. Aspergillus niger and

Penicillium chrysogenum culture filtrate shows 65.33 % and 79.67 % leaf area

showed difference compare than controlled condition.


34

Bio-efficacy

Jose et al. (2007) reviewed that active antifungal substance from natural

sources. Now a day fungi increased the capacity to resistance against the

antifungal compound. It must be control with the medicinal plant extract therapy.

Article studied that natural source as antimycotic agent. Abdelhamid et al. (2008)

reported that the Soybean associated weed affected by weed management and also

shows effect on growth, nodulation and yield. Research conducted in Egypt

during 2006-2007. Percentage reduction in dry matter non-weed treatment was

98.3 %, 92.64 % and 96.9 % respectively. Result showed that three herbicides

were higher than recommended markedly decreased number but application of dry

nodules as well as root significantly increased. Mukherjee et al. (2011) reported

that plant extract use against the mycelial growth of Colletotrichum

gloeosporides, botanicals were used viz. tobacco leaf, keora seed, gaint Indian

milky, garlic and ginger at different concentration growth was inhibited but

increases with concentration of botanicals. 74.35 % was observed highest mycelia

growth in 70 % garlic extracts. But 50 % and 60 % concentration shows better

effect than treatment.

Kakde et al. (2011) studied that storage fungi and its effect on changes in

oil seeds as well as bio-efficacy. Qualitative and quantitative storage mycoflora

were studied and biochemical changes observed during suitable condition. They

observe nutritional changes as like reducing sugar, crude fat, and crude fiber by

infestation of fungi. Reducing sugar and fat content inhibited by storage fungi

which are Alternaria diaonthicola, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium oxysporum,

Fusarium equiseti Macrophomina phaseolina and Rhizopus stolonifer storage

fungi increasing fiber content by fungi. Curularia lunata, Macrophomina


35

phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizopus stolonifer and Penicllium digitatum,

Eucalyptus angophoroides found antifungal activity against storage fungi.

Ramjagath et al. (2011) reported that onion leaf blight controlled by botanical and

bio-control agents. Alternaria alternata causing leaf blight on onion and its

control by the plant extract and plant oil. 22.22 % disease intensity controlled by

using 3 % concentration of neem oil. Acorus calamus rhizome extract 10 % inhibit

disease intensity near about 34.78 %. Rajput et al. (2011) found that effect of

neem product on seedling of shisham, neem oil, neem seed decoction; leaf extract

etc. products were used for the growth of seedling of shisham. 5 % and 15 %

concentration were used and spray; direct mixing etc methods were employed on

seedling. Neem leaf extract was showed 19.000 and 27.667 cm compare then

central which were 0.332 and 0.7669 respectively. Significantly inhibit on by

neem product in growth of shishamn seedling. Result indicated that neem product

was potential for management of shisham dieback.

AL-Ani et al. (2012) studied that Rhizobium japonicum use as biological

controlling agent of root rot disease of Soybean. Soli borne pathogen Fusarium

solani and Macrophomina phaseolina was reduced by using Rhizobium

japonicum. Culture filtrates were used for inhibition or fungal growth on PDA

medium and compare with control. Controlling agent culture suspension was

adding in the soil which was pre-infected by Fusarium and Macrophomina in pot

and inhibits root rot disease. Result showed that Rhizobia would be very

important element in root rot disease management. Jagtap et al. (2012) reported

that Colletotrichum trunctum causing anthracnose or pod blight Soybean. Nine

aqueous leaf extract and four species of Tichoderma were used against the

Colletotrichum trunctum and found significant inhibition on fungal pathogen.


36

Tichoderma viride recorded 18.33 mm coaly diameter inhibition, garlic recorded

highest growth inhibition 81.82 % tulsi 65.17 % and onion 60.31 % respectively.

Result also recorded maximum inhibit on of disease intensity 40.73 % pod

infection 75.73 %. Gurjar et al. (2012) reported that plant extract use in disease

management. Chemical fungicides create more sever ecological problem.

Recently world gives attention towards the exploitation of plant products as a

chemo-therapeutants, for dieses control in plants. Now a day’s some Pyrethroids

and neem product available in market as commercial product. Some of the

aromatic compound and volatile oils shows significant reduction in fungal growth

plant product use in agricultural as organic food production which is very valuable

in market and good for human consumption.

El-Samawaty et al. (2013) reported that Fusarium spp. causing seeding and

damping-off cotton controlled by the plant extract. There were four plat used as a

controlling agent viz. cinnamon (Cinnamoum Zeylanicum), clove (Syzygium

aromaticum), garlic (Allium sativum) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) against 10

selected Fusarium spp. causing cotton diseases. Soil infestation technique were

used for confirmation of Fusarium spp. pathogenicity result indicated that same

isolates were found to be virulent on inoculated cultivar but other were virulent on

one of the tested cultivars. All applying plant extracts shows inhibition on

Fusarium growth and efficacy of all plant extract was increased. 20 %

concentration of garlic were used and inhibition shows 80 % against Fusarium

spp. 94 % inhibition shows by 4 % concentration of clove but both clove and

garlic were effective on the controlling Fusarium growth in vitro. Pal et al. (2013)

reported that enhancing Soybean seed germination by using plant extracts and

Trichoderma harzianum. Research was resulted that potential of garlic and


37

turmeric extract at 0.25 %, 0.05 % and Trichoderma harzianum enhancing seed

germination of Soybean. Where 82.0 % ranged germination shows by control

where 98 % enhanced seed germination by plant extracts. Turmeric enhances 93

% germination Trichoderma harzianum + kaolin also enhancement germination

not only in Soybean but also various crops. Lakshmeesha et al. (2013) studied

antifungal activity of medicinal plants on seed borne pathogen Macrophomina

phaseolina of Soybean. JS-335 verities were infected by Fusarium spp,

Macrophomina spp, pythium spp., Aspergillus spp. etc was on important pathogen

causing different type of diseases more than 500 hosts. Damping-off of Soybean

was causing 50 % yield loss. Result showed that botanical extract screened

totaling 10 samples but Datura metel methanol extract was very effective against

Macrophomina phaseolina. Secondary metabolites were the soluble in methanol

extract. Hence menthol extract of Datura metel was showed good result compare

than chloroform extract.

Yalba et al. (2013) reported that biological control of charcoal root rot

disease of Soybean. Soybean root and seedling disease causing agent

Macrophomina phaseolina Tichoderma harzianum use as potential bio-control

agent were evaluated against Soybean disease. Researchers showed that high

capability of antagonists reduce for next season of this disease. AL–Rahmah et al.

(2013) reported that methanolic extract of plants were used against fungi isolated

by tomato. Lantana camara, Salvadora persica, Zingiber officinale etc. five

methanolic plant extract were used against Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium spp.

and Rhizoctonia solani, causing agent of damping-off. Lantana camara were not

very effective against fungi except P. aphanidermatum. 8 ppm was effective plant

extract to attain the same effect. Potentially effective and environmentally safer to


38

control damping-off. Belkar et al. (2013) reported that root rot and collar rot of

Soybean control by antagonistic micro organism. Bio-agent show inhibition of

collar rot and root rot on seed treatment. Pseudomonas fluorescens +

Bradyrhizobium japonicum + P. striata shows combined affect i.e. 8.86 %, 13.33

% and 20.00 % respectively. Day Utpal et al. (2013) studied that effect of

botanicals, bio-agent and indigenous teleology knowledge (ITK’S). Puccinia

sorghi was evaluated under in vitro condition. Botanical Neemazol F 5 % shows

significantly inhibition in spare germination (6.55 %) but Nimbicidine shows 6.85

%.

Rathod et al. (2013) studied that control of seed borne disease on Soybean;

seed borne fungal pathogen isolation method used which is recommended by

ISTA. Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. fumigatus, Alternaria tenuis, Fusarium

oxysporum, Penicillium notatum etc. fungal pathogen isolated from Varity; Durga

of Soybean. Effects of different fungicided were examined as well as effect of

seed germination also evaluated. Devi et al. (2013) studied that antifungal

propertied of plant against brown leaf spot of rice. Drechslera oryzae was the

causal organism of brown leaf spot of rice which was control by using aqueous

extract of local medicinal plant. Different concentrations were used such as 5 %,

10 %, 15 % and 20 % against mycelial growth of fungi in vitro. Result indicated

that plant extract shows inhibition such as Acorus calamus 20 % concentration on

shows 80 % reduction which was higher disease controlling agent. Kadam et al.

(2014) reported that reaction of turmeric cultivars of leaf blight caused by

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Hexaconazole, propiconazole, mancozeb etc.

were used for inhibition of sporulation of fungi in vitro. There for twenty cultivars


39

were screened for the disease reaction but local varieties shows better effect such

as sudarshana, suguna, suranjana to the leaf blight.

Taware et al. (2014) reported that bio-efficacy of botanicals against

Alternaria carthami agent of safflower diseases. Eleven plants extract were

evaluated against Alternaria carthami at 10 %, 15 % and 20 % concentration.

Alternaria racemosus showed inhibition 19.26 and 62.47 noted A. sativam and D.

metal shows 49.87 % and C. longa 46.91 % but all tested botanicals were found

antifungal activity. Omorusi et al. (2014) reported that inhibitory effect of leaf

extract against root pathogen Chromolaena odorata (stain weeds) Ocimum

gratissimum (shrubby basil) Cymbopagon giganteus (lemon grass) were selected

for extraction and antifungal activity evaluated on fungi viz. Fusarium

moniloforme, Rigidoporus lignosus and Trichoderma. Stain weed shows inhibition

on growth of Fusarium maximum and slightly control in Aspergillus as well as

Trichoderma. Abo-Elyousr et al. (2014) studied that effect of compst on Soybean

root rot with treatment of Trichoderma harzianum. Plant compost and animal

compost with Trichoderma were used for controlling Soybean root rot.

Trichoderma No. 1 was the most effective with 50 % of compost. Individually use

of compost with Trichoderma was shoed inhibit on of Rhizoctonia root rot of

Soybean.

Jagtap et al. (2014) reported that anthracnose pod blight of Soybean

controlled by leaf extract. Study conducted during 2009-2010 and couched

infected sample and isolated Colletotrichum trunctum. Nine leaves extract and

four Tichoderma were found effect and four Tichoderma spp. were found

effective against. Result shows that significant inhibition in leaf extract garlic

shows inhibition 81.82 % Tulsi 65.17 % onion 60.31 % shows great effecting to


40

fungal species. Enyikwa et al. (2014) reviewed that efficacy of plant-derived

pesticides for control post harvest rot fungi. Postharvest disease causing fungi is

the main damaging agent which is losing agricultural product. Agricultural

economy loss by fungi near about 40 % it was also affected to the developed

nation. Rots and tubers were affected by the fungi as well as bacteria. Fungi

especially affected to the rots and tubers viz. Aspergillus, Fusarium

Colletotrichum, Macrophomina, Penicillium, Rhizopus etc. Physical, biological

and chemical techniques were used for disease controlling but recently plant based

pesticides also use for disease controlling. Biological method is better than

chemical controlling method because chemical residue remain in the crop which is

very harmful to mammals as well as human being. Recently same plant shows

anti-fungal effect of many tropical plants. In this review they highlights to the

different bio-control technique and bio-efficacy of plants to controlling fungi.

Antagonistic Activity

Elad et al. (1980) isolate of Trichoderma harzianum able of control

mycelia of the wheat bran preparation of T. harzianum enlarged growth of bean

Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani was isolated from a soil naturally plants

in a non-infested soil and it prohibited S. rolfsii more capably than infected with

those pathogens. In culture, T. harzianum grew improved than conidial suspension

of the same antagonist. An un-inoculated wheat bran rolfsii and invaded its

mycelium below development situation unfavorable to the preparation improved

infection frequency. In naturally diseased soils, wheat pathogen; e. g, high

pentachloronitrobenzene concentrations, elevated pH bran preparations of T

harzianum inoculums considerably decreases levels. In greenhouse environment,

incorporation of diseases caused by S. rolfsii or R. solani in three field


41

experiments with the wheat-bran inoculums preparation of T harzianum in

pathogen-infested beans, cotton, or tomatoes, and they considerably improved the

yield of soil significantly reduced bean diseases caused by S. rolfsii, R. solani, or

beans. Both, but its bio-control ability was inversely associated with heat. Begum

et al. (2008) reported that antagonistic activity of selected fungi and bacteria

against Colletotrichum trunctum potentially antagonistic activity were studied

against the Colletotrichum trunctum which was isolated from Soybean.

Colletotrichum trunctum strongly inhibit the growth by using antagonistic such as

Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum hence artificially induced the T. virens and

T. harziamun no inhibitory effete was observed on seed as well as seedling. But

both antagonistic species were enhancing the seed germination. Sharma et al.

(2010) mycelial development rate, colony character and sporulation outline of ten

fungal isolates, developed on three dissimilar culture media viz., Potato Dextrose

Agar (PDA), Czapek’s Dox + Yeast Extract Agar and Lignocellulose Agar

(LCA) were experiential later than seven days of incubation at 25±1°C. The

colony diameter, culture character such as texture, surface and reverse coloration,

zonation and sporulation of selected test fungi were really influenced by the kind

of growth medium used. LCA exhibited moderately privileged mycelial

development in six test fungi, while all the ten isolates exposed important

sporulation on this culture medium. Penicillium sp. and Acremonium kiliense

exhibited maximum colony growth on PDA, even as Chaetomium funicola and

Fusarium oxysporum showed maximum growth on CYA medium.

M. Seema et al. (2012) The effectiveness of four fungal and one bacterial

bio-agents viz, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, Aspergillus niger,

Penicillium spp. and Bacillus subtilis were evaluated in vitro state adjacent to the


42

tobacco sore shin pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani. In the double culture examine, the

proportion inhibition of growth by T. viride, T. harzianum, , A. niger, B. subtilis

and Penicillium spp. on R. solani were 70%, 67%, 57%, 50% and 44%. Everyone

the antagonists concealed the configuration of Sclerotia. The unstable metabolite

studies revealed that T. viride and T. harzianum showed 50% and 40% inhibition

in mycelial growth respectively. This resulted in the decrease of the mycelial

development of the R. solani. Gajera et al. (2012) In vitro potentialities of seven

species of Trichoderma were evaluated aligned with phytopathogen

Macrophomina phaseolina by double culture method. The highest development

inhibition of test pathogen was observed by antagonist T. koningi (74.3%)

followed by T. harzianum (61.4%) at 7 days after inoculation. Expansion

inhibition of test fungus was sustained with maximum 14.7% increases in T4

(85.2%) followed by 6.8% increase in T1 (65.6%) antagonists during 7 to 14.

Microscopic examination showed that these two antagonists were capable of

overgrowing and degrading M. phaseolina mycelia, coiling around the hyphae

with apressoria and hook-like structures. The exact behavior of cell wall

degrading enzymes- chitinase, β-1, 3 glucanase, protease and cellulase were tested

during different incubation period. The antagonist T. koningi MTCC 796 induced

higher chitinase and protease action at 24 h incubation while β-1, 3 glucanase

actions was elevated 1.18 fold during 72 to 96 h. Total phenol was formed

considerably higher in culture supernatant of T. koningi MTCC 796 antagonist

followed by T. hamatum NBAII Tha and T. harzianum NBAII Th at 48 h

incubation. Development prohibit of pathogen during antagonism was absolutely

associated with coiling pattern of antagonists at 14, and induction of chitinase, β-

1, 3 glucanase and total phenol content. Choudhary et al. (2012) the original


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potential of bio-agents and their antagonistic potential against phytopathogen viz:

Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt of lentil, a disease common in Bihar. In this

investigate work nineteen isolates of Trichoderma were isolated and these were

attributed to three species viz. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma viride and

Trichoderma koningii. Efficacy of these bio-antagonists was investigated in in

vitro surroundings by employing double culture method and liquor culture filtrate

analyze. The outcome of in vitro dual culture testing revealed that among the

different isolates of Trichoderma isolate-5 and 7 of Th, 2 and 18 of Tv and isolate

9 of Tk were found to be more efficient amongst all, as they showed better

antagonism against the tested phytopathogen. The isolate Th-5 caused highest

inhibition (82.8%) followed by Th-7 (82.3% ), Tv. Metabolites extracted from

liquor culture filtrates also depicted approximately the same trend of advantage as

mentioned in double culture i.e. the similar isolates additional proved its better

potentiality when compare with rest, Th-5 with superior bio-antagonistic potential.

Patil et al. (2012) efficient in vitro screening tests of three Trichoderma

species for antagonism against Pythium species isolated from Lycopersicon

esculentum (Mill root rot infection) mutually with its diffusible and unstable

metabolites production ability, which in turn mycoparasitic abilities. This informs

its assortment as the most capable candidate for the bio-control of isolated

Pythium pathogens. Action with the antagonist in inconsistent culture method

resulted in a notable decrease in conditions of percent inhibition of pathogens.

Trichoderma species by using diffusible and volatile metabolites against test

pathogen, unstable metabolites gives the majority satisfactory and important

results as compared to the diffusible metabolites, which can be further exploited

can bio-control tool for seed disease. Shrikrushna et al. (2014) reported that


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antagonistic activity against Rhizoctonia bataticola. Soybean plant pathogen was

isolated which is Rhizoctonia bataticola controlled by using antagonistic and

increase crop protection. Totally 48 actinobacterial were isolates by spread plate

method from saline belt of distinct double culture method was used for checking

antagonistic activity. Among 48 isolate only 11 species of an actinobacterial

shows antagonistic activity. Totally 8 isolates shows more effective activity

against Rhizoctonia bataticola. Salahuddin et al. (2014) in vitro potential of two

isolates of T. harzianum (T1, T2) were evaluated against seven soil borne

pathogenic fungi isolates (Acremonium spp. , Alternaria spp. , Aspergillus spp.,

Penecillium spp. , Pythium spp. , Rhizoctonia spp. and Verticillium spp.) in double

culture method and during production of unstable inhibitors at two incubation

periods (5 and 7 days)and non-volatile inhibitors together at four incubation

periods (3, 6, 9 and 12 days) and dissimilar concentrations (25, 50, 75 and 100%)

were investigated to assess their effects on mycelia. T2 isolate showed maximum

inhibitory outcome of mycelial development of pathogens (45.99%). Maximum

result noticed in Alternaria-T2 interaction (51.18%). Result of unstable

metabolites at 7 day seems to be additional efficient on mycelial growth of all

pathogens than the 5 day periods. Variability surrounded by the collection periods

of T2 cultural filtrates and the fungal pathogens was evident. Usually

concentration (100%) of T2 isolate had maximum growth decrease in all

pathogens.

Gautam et al. (2014) Trichoderma comprises of a number of fungal strains

that act as biological agent. Genus Trichoderma is efficient as bio-control agent

against fungal and bacterial pathogen. Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma

harzianum grows quickly in culture and simply isolated. In present research a


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variety of agro-waste substrates medium were used to verify growth of

Trichoderma spp. All these substrates medium, highest increase of T. viride was

originate on sugarcane bagasse and T. harzianum exhibited highest growth on

wheat medium. T. viride control 75 % mycelial growth of Fusarium moniliforme

and 45 % of Fusarium sacchari. T. harzianum control 70% growth of Fusarium

moniliforme and 55% of Fusarium sacchari. Leelavathi et al. (2014) studied

undertaken in order to evaluate the antimicrobial action of T. harzianum by well

dispersal method and MIC determination. They create or free diversity of

compounds that induce localized or universal responses which explains its lack of

pathogenicity to plants. The culture broth extract of T. harzianum in SDA media

was investigated for antimicrobial action. Study undertaken in vitro conditions T.

harzianum showed antimicrobial on the majority of the test organisms, both

bacteria and fungi. The smallest inhibitory concentration of T. harzianum on

fungal isolates ranges from 100 150 µl/ml and for bacterial isolates ranges from

50 100 µl/ml of media. A. niger and A. clavatus between fungal isolates and

Proteus among bacteria was resistant to antimicrobial action of T. harzianum

extract. The outcome of the study point out that T. harzianum is a source of eco-

friendly bio-control agent against the pathogenic microbes. Fatima et al. (2015)

oomycete, Phytophthora infesting is considered one of the majority significant

pathogens of potatoes and tomatoes universal. Total of 38 Phytophthora infesting

isolates were obtained from leaves, tubers and stems of diseases crops of potato

and tomato in dissimilar regions of the North West of Algeria in 2010, 2011 and

2012. Trichoderma species are among significant antagonists of plant pathogenic

fungi. The key reason of this study was to assess the bio-control potential of


46

native Trichoderma harzianum. Antagonistic actions as well as competition and

colonization against Phytophthora infesting with an inhibition rate of 86%.

Soybean research workers works on the different aspects of Soybean crop

worldwide. Related to the fungal disease earlier research workers was reported

different diseases causing fungal pathogen showing in following table no. 1

Table no. 1. Fungal diseases of Soybean

Sr.No.

Fungal Pathogen OccurOn

Name OfDiseases

Reported By

1 Alternaria spp. Leaf Alternaria leafspot

Hesseltine C. W et al(1977)

2 Colletotrichum truncatum Pod Pod blight Wong, C.F.J. et al(1983)

3 Colletotrichum dematium F.truncatumGlomerella glycinesColletotrichum destructivum

Leaf andpod

Anthracnose Backman, P. A. et al(1982)Hartman, G. L. et al(1986)

4 Arkoola nigra Leaf Black leaf blight Walker, J. et al (1986)

5 Thielaviopsis basicolaChalara elegans Root

Black root rot Lee, M., et al (1977)Mondal A. H et al(2004)

6 Septoria glycinesMycosphaerella usoenskajae

Leaf Brown spot Young, L. D. et al(1978)Pataky J. K. et al(1981)

7 Phialophora gregata= Cephalosporium gregatum

Stem Brown stem rot Anne E. DorranceDennis R. Mills (2008)

8 Macrophomina phaseolina Root Charcoal rot Ma, J., Hill, (2010)

9 ChoanephorainfundibuliferaChoanephora trispora

Leaf Choanephoraleaf blight

C. W. Hesseltine(1961)


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10 Rhizoctonia solaniThanatephorus cucumerisPythium aphanidermatumPythium debaryanumPythium irregularePythium myriotylumPythium ultimum

Root rot Damping-off Bradle, Carl A.(2002)Nelson, B. (1996)Grau, C. R. (1979)

11 Peronospora manshurica Foliarpart

Downy mildew Lim S. M. et al (1984)

12 Drechslera glycines Podblight

Drechslerablight

Dunleavy J. M. (1966)

13 Cercospora sojina Leaf Frogeye leafspot

Mian, R et al (2009)

14 Fusarium spp. Root Fusarium rootrot

Maria Mercedes DiazArias et al (1012)Martinelli, J.A et al(2004)

15 Mycoleptodiscus terrestris Root Mycoleptodiscusroot rot

Deborah A. Samac et al(2009)

16 Neocosmospora vasinfectaAcremonium spp.

Stem Neocosmosporastem rot


17 Phomopsis spp. Seed Phomopsis seeddecay

Li, S., et al (2010)S. S. Aye et al (2009)

18 Phytophthora sojae Stem Phytophthoraroot and stemrot

Takuma Sugimoto et al(2012)Jutaosun et al (2014)

19 Phyllosticta sojaecola Leaf Phyllosticta leafspot


20 Phymatotrichopsisomnivora,Phymatotrichum omnivorum

Root Phymatotrichmroot rot


21 Diaporthe phaseolorumPhomopsis sojae

Pod andstem

Pod and stemblight

Xue, H. Q., et al (2006)

22 Microsphaera diffusa Leaf Powderymildew

Mignucci J. S. et al(1978)

23 Cercospora kikuchii Seed Purple seed stain Walters H. J. et al(1980) Pathan M. A. etal (1989)


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24 Pyrenochaeta glycines Leaf Pyrenochaetaleaf spot

Datnoff L. E et al(1987)

25 Pythium aphanidermatumPythium debaryanumPythium irregularePythium myriotylumPythium ultimum

Seedling Pythium rot Dunleavy J. M. (1966)

26 Cylindrocladium crotalariaeCalonectria crotalariae

Stem Red crown rot Overstreet, C. et al(1988)

27 Dactuliochaeta glycines= Pyrenochaeta glycinesDactuliophora glycines

Leaf Red leaf blotch= Dactuliophoraleaf spot


28 Rhizoctonia solaniThanatephorus cucumeris

Leaf Rhizoctoniaaerial blight

-----

29 Rhizoctonia solani Rootstem rot

Rhizoctonia rootand stem rot

Fenille, R.C. et al(2003)

30 Phakopsora pachyrhizi Leaf Rust Twizeyimana, M., et al(2009)

31 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Stem Sclerotinia stemrot

Mueller, D. S. et al(1999)

32 Sclerotium rolfsiiAthelia rolfsii

Stem Southern blight(damping-offand stem rot) =Sclerotiumblight


33 Fusarium solaniF. glycines

Wilt Sudden deathsyndrome


34 Corynespora cassiicola Leafspot

Target spot Avozani, A. (2014)

35 Cercospora kikuchii Leaf CercosporaLeaf Blight

Wan Zainun Nik.(1980).

36 Phakopsora pachrbizi Leaf Soybean rust Hartman G. L.

37 Verticillium nigrescens StemRot

Wilt Vesper S. J. (1983)

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