Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical ... · Urgent reversal of warfarin Vitamin...

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CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical procedures Rachel Curtis, BScH Alexandra Schweitzer, MD Janet van Vlymen, MD Received: 1 December 2014 / Accepted: 16 March 2015 / Published online: 7 April 2015 Ó Canadian Anesthesiologists’ Society 2015 Abstract Purpose Patients treated with warfarin for therapeutic anticoagulation present a challenge for the perioperative management of urgent and emergent surgery. Anticoagulation must be reversed prior to most surgical procedures to prevent intraoperative bleeding. The purpose of this module is to review the options for urgent reversal of warfarin anticoagulation and the indications for each reversal agent. Selection of the appropriate agent is important to reduce unnecessary complications of treatment and to achieve optimal reversal of anticoagulation. Principal findings When urgent surgery is required for patients taking warfarin, intravenous vitamin K 1 should be used for procedures that can be delayed for six to 12 hr. Vitamin K 1 results in the activation of existing clotting factors rather than requiring the synthesis of new proteins, which allows for its relatively rapid onset of action. Intravenous vitamin K 1 acts more quickly than oral administration, with reversal of anticoagulation occurring within six to 12 hr vs 18-24 hr, respectively. If surgery cannot be delayed, prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) should be given, and intravenous vitamin K 1 should be infused concurrently to ensure sustained reversal of anticoagulation. The duration of action of both PCCs and plasma is six hours due to the short half-life of factor VII. Prothrombin complex concentrates contain small amounts of heparin and are contraindicated in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Plasma should be used only if PCCs are unavailable or are contraindicated. Conclusion Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation can be achieved in a safe and timely manner when the appropriate agent is selected and administered correctly. Objectives of this Continuing Professional Development (CPD) module: After reading this module, the reader should be able to: 1. Identify the options for emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation; 2. Describe the dose, onset, and duration of action of agents that reverse warfarin anticoagulation; 3. List potential complications and contraindications of agents that reverse warfarin anticoagulation; 4. Choose the optimal agent for emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation, considering the timing of the operation and the risks and benefits of each agent. Despite increasing use of novel agents, warfarin remains the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulant in clinical use. A recent analysis of prescribing trends following regulatory approval for the newer agents showed that warfarin still accounted for over 75% of all the oral anticoagulants used. 1 Warfarin is indicated to reduce the risk of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation, mechanical heart valves, and deep venous thrombosis, among other indications. Therefore, as the population ages, the use of anticoagulants, including warfarin, is projected to increase substantially. Patients treated with warfarin for therapeutic anticoagulation present a challenge for the perioperative R. Curtis, BScH Á A. Schweitzer, MD Á J. van Vlymen, MD (&) Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Queen’s University, 76 Stuart St., Kingston, ON K7L 2V7, Canada e-mail: [email protected] 123 Can J Anesth/J Can Anesth (2015) 62:634–649 DOI 10.1007/s12630-015-0366-3

Transcript of Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical ... · Urgent reversal of warfarin Vitamin...

Page 1: Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical ... · Urgent reversal of warfarin Vitamin K 1 (phytonadione) In situations where prompt reversal of warfarin anticoagulation

CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgicalprocedures

Rachel Curtis, BScH • Alexandra Schweitzer, MD •

Janet van Vlymen, MD

Received: 1 December 2014 / Accepted: 16 March 2015 / Published online: 7 April 2015

� Canadian Anesthesiologists’ Society 2015

Abstract

Purpose Patients treated with warfarin for therapeutic

anticoagulation present a challenge for the perioperative

management of urgent and emergent surgery.

Anticoagulation must be reversed prior to most surgical

procedures to prevent intraoperative bleeding. The

purpose of this module is to review the options for urgent

reversal of warfarin anticoagulation and the indications

for each reversal agent. Selection of the appropriate agent

is important to reduce unnecessary complications of

treatment and to achieve optimal reversal of

anticoagulation.

Principal findings When urgent surgery is required for

patients taking warfarin, intravenous vitamin K1 should be

used for procedures that can be delayed for six to 12 hr.

Vitamin K1 results in the activation of existing clotting

factors rather than requiring the synthesis of new proteins,

which allows for its relatively rapid onset of action.

Intravenous vitamin K1 acts more quickly than oral

administration, with reversal of anticoagulation

occurring within six to 12 hr vs 18-24 hr, respectively. If

surgery cannot be delayed, prothrombin complex

concentrates (PCCs) should be given, and intravenous

vitamin K1 should be infused concurrently to ensure

sustained reversal of anticoagulation. The duration of

action of both PCCs and plasma is six hours due to the

short half-life of factor VII. Prothrombin complex

concentrates contain small amounts of heparin and are

contraindicated in patients with heparin-induced

thrombocytopenia. Plasma should be used only if PCCs

are unavailable or are contraindicated.

Conclusion Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation can be

achieved in a safe and timely manner when the appropriate

agent is selected and administered correctly.

Objectives of this Continuing Professional Development

(CPD) module:

After reading this module, the reader should be able to:

1. Identify the options for emergency reversal of warfarin

anticoagulation;

2. Describe the dose, onset, and duration of action of

agents that reverse warfarin anticoagulation;

3. List potential complications and contraindications of

agents that reverse warfarin anticoagulation;

4. Choose the optimal agent for emergency reversal of

warfarin anticoagulation, considering the timing of the

operation and the risks and benefits of each agent.

Despite increasing use of novel agents, warfarin remains

the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulant in clinical

use. A recent analysis of prescribing trends following

regulatory approval for the newer agents showed that

warfarin still accounted for over 75% of all the oral

anticoagulants used.1 Warfarin is indicated to reduce the

risk of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial

fibrillation, mechanical heart valves, and deep venous

thrombosis, among other indications. Therefore, as the

population ages, the use of anticoagulants, including

warfarin, is projected to increase substantially.

Patients treated with warfarin for therapeutic

anticoagulation present a challenge for the perioperative

R. Curtis, BScH � A. Schweitzer, MD � J. van Vlymen, MD (&)

Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine,

Queen’s University, 76 Stuart St., Kingston, ON K7L 2V7,

Canada

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Can J Anesth/J Can Anesth (2015) 62:634–649

DOI 10.1007/s12630-015-0366-3

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management of urgent and emergent surgery. In order to

prevent significant intraoperative bleeding, anticoagulation

must be reversed prior to most surgical procedures. Unlike

the newer agents, the anticoagulant effect of warfarin can

be readily reversed. Selection of the agent(s) used to

achieve this reversal should be based on a careful

evaluation of the potential complications and adverse

effects and the time and resources available to correct

the anticoagulation. Intravenous vitamin K1, frozen

plasma (FP), and, more recently, prothrombin complex

concentrates (PCCs) are available options to reverse

warfarin therapy. Understanding the indications, dosage

guidelines, onset and duration of action, as well as the

potential adverse effects associated with each of these

agents is essential for providing safe and timely reversal of

warfarin-induced anticoagulation.

Warfarin

Vitamin K is essential for the activation of clotting factors

II, VII, IX, and X, as well as the anticoagulant proteins,

protein C and protein S.2 Vitamin K oxide reductase is an

enzyme that recycles oxidized vitamin K to its reduced

form after it has participated in the carboxylation of several

blood coagulation proteins (Figure). As an orally

administered vitamin K antagonist, warfarin inhibits

vitamin K-dependent synthesis of the biologically active

forms of these clotting factors. This results in incomplete

molecules that are not active in the coagulation cascade. As

warfarin interrupts vitamin K recycling and does not

directly antagonize the action of vitamin K, the

pharmacologic action of warfarin is reversed by

administration of exogenous vitamin K1 (phytonadione).

Warfarin has high bioavailability and is rapidly

absorbed after oral administration, reaching a peak

concentration within 90 min.3 It has an elimination half-

life of 36 hr and is almost entirely eliminated by

metabolism, with only trace amounts excreted in the

urine. The dose-response relationship of warfarin is

influenced by genetic and environmental factors,

including use of medication and dietary factors. Warfarin

therapy is complicated by numerous potential drug

interactions that affect absorption and clearance and by

patient-specific variations in dosage that must be

appropriately titrated and monitored. The anticoagulant

effect of warfarin is the result of inhibition of synthesis of

new clotting factors and the natural degradation of existing

factors. The initial anticoagulant effect is from the decrease

in factor VII, which has a short half-life of six hours.

Nevertheless, full anticoagulation requires a decrease in all

of the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors and can take

several days due to the long half-life (60 hr) of factor II.

The anticoagulant intensity of warfarin therapy is

monitored using the international normalized ratio (INR),

a standardized measure based on the ratio of the patient’s

prothrombin time and the normal mean prothrombin

time.2,4 The target INR for most indications is 2.5 (range,

2.0-3.0), with 3.0 (range, 2.5-3.5) used as the target for

therapeutic anticoagulation for mechanical heart valves.2

Treatment with warfarin presents a clinical challenge, as

there is a narrow therapeutic interval between ideal

prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic disorders

and the potential for serious hemorrhage and bleeding.

The reversal of warfarin therapy may also be

challenging due to confusion regarding the optimal agent

to use as well as the most appropriate dosage and timing of

administration. Nevertheless, in patients who require

temporary interruption of warfarin prior to an elective

surgery, it is recommended that warfarin be stopped five

days prior to surgery.5 This time frame is dictated by the

elimination half-life of 36 hr. In patients at high risk for

thromboembolic complications, it may be necessary to

bridge anticoagulation by using subcutaneous low

molecular weight heparin or intravenous unfractionated

Figure Site of action of warfarin and vitamin K. Vitamin K oxide

reductase is an enzyme that recycles oxidized vitamin K to its reduced

form after it has participated in the carboxylation of several blood

coagulation proteins. Warfarin blocks the activity of the enzyme

preventing activation of these proteins. As warfarin interrupts vitamin

K recycling and does not directly antagonize the action of vitamin K,

the pharmacologic action of warfarin is reversed by administration of

exogenous vitamin K1 (phytonadione)

Site d’action de la warfarine et de la vitamine K. L’enzyme vitamine

K epoxyde-reductase recycle la vitamine K oxydee, la ramenant a sa

forme reduite apres sa participation a la carboxylation de plusieurs

proteines utiles a la coagulation. La warfarine bloque l’activite de

l’enzyme, empechant l’activation de ces proteines. Puisque la

warfarine interrompt le recyclage de la vitamine K sans en

antagoniser directement l’action, son action pharmacologique peut

etre neutralisee par l’apport de vitamine K1 exogene (phytonadione)

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heparin coordinated with the interruption in warfarin

therapy.5,6

Although a mildly elevated INR (\ 1.8) is not predictive

of an increased risk of bleeding with surgical procedures, a

lower target INR is recommended for certain procedures

where bleeding into a confined space could lead to

complications.7 For example, the American Society of

Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine recommends that

the INR must be normalized before initiation of a neuraxial

block and \ 1.5 for removal of an epidural catheter.8

Similar targets are suggested for warfarin-associated

intracranial hemorrhage.9 Nevertheless, warfarin may not

need to be interrupted for many minor dental,

dermatological, and ophthalmological procedures due to

the low risk of bleeding.10

Urgent reversal of warfarin

Vitamin K1 (phytonadione)

In situations where prompt reversal of warfarin

anticoagulation is necessary, waiting the usual five days

for the anticoagulant effect of warfarin to dissipate is not an

option. Administration of vitamin K1, a fat-soluble

substance found primarily in leafy green vegetables,

results in activation of existing clotting factors rather

than requiring the synthesis of new proteins, allowing for

its relatively rapid onset of action.2 Although a clinical

effect of vitamin K1 may be seen within two hours, the

maximum effect is generally not achieved until after

24-36 hr.2,11 The intravenous route has been shown to act

more quickly than oral administration, with reversal of

anticoagulation occurring within six to 12 hr vs 18-24 hr,

respectively.12

Oral administration of vitamin K1 is the preferred route

for patients with warfarin therapy of mild to moderate

intensity (elevated INR\ 3.0) without major bleeding and

for surgical procedures that can be delayed for 24-36 hr.4

For urgent surgical procedures that can be delayed for six

to 12 hr, the anticoagulant effect of warfarin can be

effectively overcome with vitamin K1 10 mg iv.13,14

Intravenous administration of vitamin K1 is reported to

cause anaphylaxis in three in every 100,000 patients and is

recommended to be given by slow infusion at a maximal

rate of 1 mg�min-114,15 It is unclear if this reaction is due

to the vehicle, a polyethoxylated castor oil, or the vitamin

itself. Vitamin K1 should not be given subcutaneously due

to the potential for an unpredictable and delayed response,

and intramuscular injection is not recommended due to the

risk of intramuscular hematoma in anticoagulated patients.2

Rapid reversal of the effects of warfarin is often required

in emergent situations involving significant bleeding or

when immediate surgery is deemed necessary and it is not

possible to wait for vitamin K1 to exert its effect. In these

circumstances, PCCs or FP may be used to rapidly reverse

warfarin-induced anticoagulation. The two choices should

not be considered interchangeable, however, as there are

unique risks, dosing requirements, and indications for the

use of each of these products.

Prothrombin complex concentrates

Prothrombin complex concentrates represent a highly

purified concentrate of coagulation factors prepared from

pooled normal plasma that has undergone virus reduction.

The concentration of clotting factors in PCCs is

approximately 25 times greater than that available in

plasma, allowing for it to be administered in small volumes

of fluid. A single dose of PCC is 40 mL (1,000 IU),

whereas an adult dose of FP is 10-15 mL�kg-1, translating

to 4 units of plasma with a total volume of

approximatley1,000 mL. All PCCs include factors II, IX,

and X; however, 4-factor PCCs also contain clinically

relevant levels of factor VII and result in a more reliable

correction of the INR when compared with 3-factor

concentrates.16 The duration of effect of PCCs is

approximately six hours due to the short half-life of

factor VII. Octaplex� and Beriplex�, the PCCs discussed

in this module, are the two 4-factor PCCs approved for use

in Canada.9 Both products are human plasma derivatives

that have undergone treatment for viral, bacterial, and

parasite inactivation and removal. The clinical effect of the

two products is similar, and there is no recommendation of

one product over the other for reversal of warfarin-induced

anticoagulation.9,16 Nevertheless, there are differences

between Octaplex and Beriplex regarding the formulation

and virus inactivation as well as the recommended infusion

rates (Table 1).

Indications for PCCs

The approved indications for PCCs in Canada include: 1)

rapid reversal of warfarin therapy or vitamin K deficiency

in patients exhibiting major bleeding manifestations, and 2)

rapid reversal of warfarin therapy or vitamin K deficiency

in patients requiring urgent surgical procedures within six

hours.9,17,18 There is insufficient evidence to recommended

their use in pediatric or pregnant patients, and they are not

indicated for surgical procedures that can be delayed for six

to 12 hr. The reversal of anticoagulation with PCCs is

temporary and decreases after six hours due to the short

half-life of factor VII. Therefore, it is recommended that

vitamin K1 10 mg iv be administered concurrently with

PCCs in order to activate existing clotting factors and

sustain the reversal effect. Vitamin K1 achieves a clinical

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effect at six hours, which is when the PCC effect begins to

diminish.

Dose of PCCs

The dose of PCCs varies considerably both in clinical use

and in the published literature. This variability is partly due

to the target INR to be achieved as well as the attempt to

balance bleeding with thrombotic risks. In 2008, the

Canadian National Advisory Committee on Blood and

Blood Products recommended a standardized single dose of

1,000 IU (40 mL) regardless of INR or weight.19

Nevertheless, this was known to be a conservative dose

that was intended to minimize thrombotic complications

and ensure adequate national inventory. Revised guidelines

from this committee published in 2011 included INR-based

dosing, and the most recent recommendations from 2014

included dosing based on INR and body weight (Table 2).9

Of importance, the manufacturer’s recommendations aim

to normalize INR to \ 1.2 by fully correcting factor

levels;17,18 however, normal hemostasis does not require

factor levels to be fully corrected, and a range of target INR

values of 1.2-1.7 may be appropriate depending on the

clinical situation. The most recent guidelines from the

National Advisory Committee recommend dose-banding

using the patient’s INR and weight with a target INR of 1.5

and a maximum PCC dose of 3,000 IU (120 mL).9 The

INR should be checked 10-30 min after the infusion is

complete to ensure adequate INR correction has been

obtained. A subsequent dose of PCC may be necessary,

especially if a standard single dose was initially given.20

Prothrombin complex concentrates may be administered by

direct intravenous push, syringe pump, or minibag at the

maximum infusion rate of 8 mL�min-1 for Beriplex and

1-3 mL�min-1 for Octaplex.17,18

Contraindications

In addition to factors II, VII, IX, X, and anticoagulant

factors Protein C and S, both Octaplex and Beriplex

contain small amounts of heparin. Therefore, PCCs should

not be given to patients with heparin-induced

thrombocytopenia (HIT), albeit, there is a lack of clinical

evidence that the administration of PCCs leads to the

development of HIT.16 These products may increase the

risk of thromboembolism and are not indicated for patients

with disseminated intravascular coagulation or a recent

history of thrombosis or myocardial infarction. The

products should be used with caution in these

circumstances and only after a careful assessment of the

patient-specific risks and benefits.

In a pharmacovigilance study of Beriplex, the ratio of

thrombotic events to total infusions was 1:31,000.21

Moreover, the authors could not isolate these events to

the administration of the PCC, and noted that there were

pre-existing and concomitant conditions that likely played

a role in the thromboembolic events. A recent meta-

analysis found that thromboembolic complications

Table 1 Characteristics of prothrombin complex concentrates available in Canada17,18

Characteristic Beriplex� Octaplex�

Formulation Lyophilized Freeze Dried

Other Clinically Relevant Components Heparin

Human antithrombin III

Human albumin

Sodium citrate

Heparin

Sodium citrate

Viral Inactivation Process Pasteurization

Nanofiltration

Solvent/Detergent

Nanofiltration

Viral Transmission No reported cases Four early cases of seroconversion with

no clinical symptoms for parvovirus B19

Infusion Rate 8 mL�min-1 Initially 1 mL�min-1

2-3 mL�min-1

Not Recommended Surgery that is not urgent

Massive transfusion

Recent myocardial infarction

High risk for thrombosis

DIC

Coagulopathy from liver disease

Surgery that is not urgent

Massive transfusion

Recent myocardial infarction

High risk for thrombosis

DIC

Coagulopathy from liver disease

Contraindication Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia

DIC = disseminated intravascular coagulation

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occurred in 1.8% of patients treated with 4-factor PCCs,

but these adverse events could not be isolated to the use of

PCCs.22 These results suggest a low risk of

thromboembolic events with the use of PCCs.

The safety of PCCs has been investigated thoroughly,

especially in comparison with FP. Transfusion-associated

lung injury (TRALI) and transfusion-associated circulatory

overload (TACO) are important potential consequences

of plasma transfusion. Prothrombin complex concentrates

are not associated with these complications because of

the small fluid volume required and the removal of

the antibodies responsible for TRALI during the

manufacturing process.23 Furthermore, due to rigorous

measures for virus removal, PCCs likely harbour a lower

risk of disease transmission than FP. The manufacturing of

PCCs includes both viral inactivation (solvent/detergent for

Octaplex and pasteurization for Beriplex) as well as virus

removal by nanofiltration. The solvent/detergent method

used in the manufacturing of Octaplex has been shown to

be effective against enveloped viruses (e.g., human

immunodeficiency disorder, hepatitis B, hepatitis C) but

may have limited effectiveness against non-enveloped

viruses such as parvovirus B19. In a large review of the

safety of PCCs, the only reported virus transmissions were

four cases of parvovirus B19 seroconversion occurring

shortly after Octaplex was introduced for clinical use.22

Nevertheless, plasma collected for fractionation is

currently screened for parvovirus B19 by nucleic acid

testing, and there have been no further reports of

seroconversion. There have been no cases of virus

transmission linked to Beriplex, and the viral inactivation

with the pasteurization process used in its preparation is

effective against both enveloped and non-enveloped

viruses.21,22

In addition to investigating the safety profile, there have

been numerous studies exploring the efficacy of PCC use

vs FP. In a randomized controlled trial comparing 4-factor

PCC to FP in patients with an elevated INR of C 2.0

experiencing an acute major bleeding event, PCC treatment

was shown to be non-inferior to FP at achieving effective

hemostasis and was found to be superior over FP in rapid

INR reduction.24 One hour after the start of infusion, 69%

Table 2 Prothrombin complex concentrates - dose banding using weight and INR9

Weight (kg) PCC dose if INR >6 (40 units·kg-1)

PCC dose if INR 3-6 (30 units·kg-1)

PCC dose if INR 2-2.9 (20 units·kg-1)

35-37 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL) 500 IU (20 mL)

38-41 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL)

42-43 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL)

44-56 2,000 IU (80 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL)

57-58 2,500 IU (100 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL)

59-62 2,500 IU (100 mL) 2,000 IU (80 mL) 1,000 IU (40 mL)

63-68 2,500 IU (100 mL) 2,000 IU (80 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL)

69-75 3,000 IU (120 mL) 2,000 IU (80 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL)

76-87 3,000 IU (120 mL) 2,500 IU (100 mL) 1,500 IU (60 mL)

88-91 3,000 IU (120 mL) 2,500 IU (100 mL) 2,000 IU (80 mL)

92-112 3,000 IU (120 mL) 3,000 IU (120 mL) 2,000 IU (80 mL)

113-136 3,000 IU (120 mL) 3,000 IU (120 mL) 2,500 IU (100 mL)

≥137 3,000 IU (120 mL) 3,000 IU (120 mL) 3,000 IU (120 mL)

INR = international normalized ratio; PCC = prothrombin complex concentrate

Dose for target INR approximately 1.5

Note that doses are rounded to the nearest multiple of 500 units (20-mL vial)

638 R. Curtis et al.

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(68/98) of patients in the PCC group had an INR of B 1.3

vs no patients in the FP arm. In addition, the PCC group

had fewer adverse events related to fluid overload than the

FP group, 4.9% (5/103) vs 12.8% (14/109), respectively.

Similarly, in a retrospective cohort study of FP vs Octaplex

for anticoagulation reversal in the emergency department,

the investigators found that the PCC resulted in faster

reversal of warfarin with fewer adverse events, including

heart failure and death, when compared with FP.25

Frozen plasma

Frozen plasma may be derived either from random donor

plasma frozen within 24 hr of collection or through

apheresis donors frozen eight hours after collection.26

The two products are clinically indistinguishable with

similar levels of coagulation factors and both are generally

referred to as FP. The current indications for use of FP are

for the treatment or prevention of clinically significant

bleeding due to a deficiency of one or more plasma

coagulation factors (e.g., massive transfusion, disseminated

intravascular coagulation) or for patients with diseases

requiring plasma exchange (e.g. hemolytic uremic

syndrome).26 Frozen plasma is indicated only for the

urgent reversal of warfarin therapy if PCCs are not

available or are contraindicated.7,20 Table 3 summarizes

the characteristics of PCCs and FP.

Similar to PCCs, the duration of effect of FP is limited

by the short half-life of factor VII (approximately six

hours). As a result, the effect of FP diminishes after six

hours, and vitamin K1 10 mg iv should be administered

concurrently to sustain the reversal of anticoagulation by

activation of existing clotting factors. Frozen plasma

should be given only if surgery is anticipated to begin

within six hours after administration.4 Although FP is used

in urgent situations, it should be noted that FP must be

thawed for up to 30 min before use, and it requires ABO

blood typing which results in an inherent delay in

treatment.26

As FP replaces necessary clotting factors, it has been

used historically to reverse warfarin therapy. Nevertheless,

there are a number of potential complications associated

with this indication for FP. Frozen plasma administration

requires large volumes because it contains such a low

concentration of coagulation factors. It is not necessary to

replace 100% of the clotting factors for adequate

hemostasis. The literature suggests a target of 30-40% of

factor levels, which corresponds to an adult dose of FP of

10-15 mL�kg-1.8,26 Nevertheless, the amount of FP

required to normalize the INR may be significantly

greater depending on the baseline and target INR.27 This

standard dosing regimen translates to 4 units of plasma

with a total volume of approximately 1,000 mL and with

no guarantee of adequate reversal. Holland et al. developed

a mathematical predictive model to predict the volume of

FP likely to achieve a target INR, assuming no significant

change in the synthesis or destruction of clotting factors.28

He calculated that 1,500 mL of FP would be required to

reduce the INR from 3.0 to 1.7 in an adult patient;

however, if the target INR were 1.3 (commonly used as the

target for neuraxial anesthesia), an additional 2,000 mL of

FP would be necessary. Nevertheless, it may not be

possible to achieve an INR of 1.3 even with very large

volumes of FP because the measured INR of FP itself can

be elevated. In a study examining the effect of FP

transfusion on mild elevations in INR, results showed

that only trivial decreases were achieved regardless of the

number of units of FP tranfused.29 The volume of FP

required to reach a target INR of B 1.3 is significantly

greater than would be necessary if the goal were a more

modest target of INR 1.5-1.7. This drastic difference in the

volume (2,000 mL) of FP required should be considered.

The potential volume overload caused by the use of FP

may manifest itself in serious complications such as

TACO. Plasma-induced TACO has been estimated to be

drastically underreported, and the prevalence may be

significantly higher than commonly thought.30 Even

without the potential adverse effects related to the

volumes of fluid required in FP, the time necessary to

prepare and complete the infusion safely may result in a

lengthy duration of treatment. Other risks related to FP

transfusion, such as TRALI, pathogen transmission, and

severe allergic reactions, should also be weighed as risks

when considering the use of FP.27,30

Table 3 Comparison of prothrombin complex concentrates and

frozen plasma4,9,26,34

Characteristic Prothrombin

complex concentrate

Frozen plasma

ABO grouping Not required Must be ABO

compatible

Viral inactivation Inactivated No inactivation

Coagulation

factor content

Standardized Variable

Preparation time 5 min 30-40 min

Volume – standard

dose

40 mL (1,000 IU) 1,000 mL

(15 mL�kg-1)

Administration time 5-15 min As clinically tolerated

Duration of Action 6 hr 6 hr

Risk of TRALI No Yes

Risk of TACO No Yes

Approximate Cost $720.00 /

1,000 IU PCC

$156.00 / 4 units FP

FP = frozen plasma; TACO = transfusion-associated circulatory

overload; TRALI = transfusion-associated lung injury

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Despite published guidelines for FP transfusion, a recent

five-day audit of FP utilization in 76 hospitals in Ontario

found that, overall, only 29% of patients transfused with FP

received optimal therapy, including both the correct dose

and the appropriate indication for use.31 The most common

inappropriate uses for FP were for patients with an INR

\ 1.5 or when administered to patients for warfarin

reversal in the absence of bleeding. The most frequent

indications for FP were to correct INR before surgery or for

warfarin reversal. Furthermore, the most common dose

administered to patients was 2 units, which is half the

recommended adult dose. The audit uncovered the reality

that a significant portion of patients in Ontario receiving FP

were exposed to the risks of plasma while not receiving the

maximum benefit due to incorrect dosing.

Although FP is often used for emergent reversal of warfarin

therapy, it is not considered the optimal treatment.7,27

Available literature supports the use of PCCs as the superior

choice to FP for urgent reversal of warfarin anticoagulation,

recommending that FP be used only when no coagulation

factor concentrates are available or are contraindicated.26,32,33

The most recent recommendations from the Canadian Society

for Transfusion Medicine for ‘‘Choosing Wisely Canada’’, a

campaign designed to help physicians and patients engage in

conversations about unnecessary tests and treatments,

includes the recommendation not to transfuse plasma to

correct a mildly elevated INR\ 1.8 before procedures.7 They

note that a mildly elevated INR is not predictive of an

increased risk of bleeding, but more importantly, transfusion

of FP has not been shown to change the value significantly.

In circumstances where the target INR is lower (e.g., neuraxial

anesthesia), FP is unlikely to be effective. Although guidelines

clearly recommend PCCs for safe and effective reversal

of warfarin therapy in emergency cases, a lack of knowledge

and education has resulted in the continued inappropriate

use of FP.

Conclusion

The strategy for the urgent reversal of warfarin in

anticoagulated patients should be to use the method that

balances the most rapid correction with the lowest risk

profile. Table 4 summarizes the recommendations for

warfarin reversal. In circumstances where surgery can be

delayed for six to 12 hr, vitamin K1 10 mg iv is the

treatment of choice. For urgent surgical procedures that

cannot wait six hours, PCCs should be given with

consideration for dosing based on the patient’s INR and

weight. The INR should be checked within 30 min of

administration to ensure appropriate reversal. Guidelines

recommend PCCs over FP because of the reduced total

volume, decreased time of infusion, faster preparation,

more rapid INR correction, and improved safety profile.

Frozen plasma is not indicated for reversal of warfarin

anticoagulation unless PCCs are unavailable or

contraindicated. The duration of effect of PCCs and

plasma is based on the short half-life (six hours) of factor

VII, and vitamin K1 10 mg iv should be given concurrently

for sustained reversal of anticoagulation.

Clinical scenario

You are asked to perform a preoperative consultation on

Mrs. BA, a 68-yr-old female admitted with a bowel

obstruction. Conservative management has been

unsuccessful, and she will need an exploratory laparotomy

in the next 24 hr. She has a medical history of coronary

artery disease, atrial fibrillation, and chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease. She takes warfarin and her international

normalized ratio is 2.8. The remaining blood work and vital

signs are within normal range. She weighs 60 kg.

Instructions for completing the continuing professional

development (CPD) module:

1. Read the current article and the references indicated in

bold.

2. Go to: http://www.cas.ca/Members/CPD-Online and

select the current module (Reversal of warfarin anti-

coagulation for urgent surgical procedures).

3. Answer the multiple choice questions regarding the

case scenario.

4. Once you have entered all of your answers, you will

have access to experts’ explanations for all the possible

choices.

5. Participants may claim up to four hours of CPD for a

total of eight credits under Section 3 of the CPD

program of the Royal College of Physicians and

Surgeons of Canada.

Table 4 Summary of recommendations for reversal of warfarin

anticoagulation

Urgency of surgical

procedure

Recommendation for

reversal of warfarin

Emergent 0-6 hr PCC based on patient’s weight and INR

Vitamin K1 10 mg iv slow infusion

Urgent 6-12 hr Vitamin K1 10 mg iv slow infusion

Able to delay 24-36 hr Vitamin K1 10 mg orally

INR = international normalized ratio; PCC = prothrombin complex

concentrate

640 R. Curtis et al.

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La neutralisation del’anticoagulation induite parla warfarine lorsd’interventionschirurgicales urgentes

Resume

Objectif Lorsqu’un patient recoit de la warfarine afin de

parvenir a une anticoagulation therapeutique, sa prise en

charge perioperatoire en cas de chirurgie urgente ou

tres urgente est un defi. L’anticoagulation doit etre

neutralisee avant la plupart des interventions

chirurgicales afin de prevenir les saignements

peroperatoires. L’objectif de ce module est de passer

en revue les options qui existent pour neutraliser de

facon urgente l’anticoagulation induite par la warfarine

ainsi que les indications de chaque agent. Le choix d’un

agent adapte est important afin de reduire les

complications inutiles du traitement et de parvenir a

une neutralisation optimale de l’anticoagulation.

Constatations principales Lorsqu’une chirurgie

urgente est necessaire pour un patient traite avec de la

warfarine, on recommande d’administrer de la vitamine

K1 par voie intraveineuse pour toute intervention qui peut

etre retardee de six a 12 h. La vitamine K1 entraıne

l’activation des facteurs de coagulation existants plutot

que de provoquer la synthese de nouvelles proteines, ce

qui explique son delai d’action relativement court. La

vitamine K1 par voie intraveineuse agit plus rapidement

que si elle est administree par voie orale, la

neutralisation de l’anticoagulation survenant dans les

six a 12 h plutot que dans les 18-24 h. Si on ne peut

retarder la chirurgie, il convient d’administrer des

concentres de complexe prothrombique (CCP), et la

vitamine K1 devrait etre simultanement perfusee par voie

intraveineuse pour garantir une neutralisation prolongee

de l’anticoagulation. En raison de la courte demi-vie du

facteur VII, la duree d’action des CCP et du plasma est de

six heures. Les CCP contiennent de faibles quantites

d’heparine et sont contre-indiques chez les patients

atteints de thrombocytopenie induite par l’heparine. Il

ne faut recourir au plasma que si les CCP ne sont pas

disponibles ou s’ils sont contre-indiques.

Conclusion La neutralisation de l’anticoagulation par la

warfarine peut etre realisee de facon securitaire et

opportune lorsque l’agent adapte est choisi et administre

de la bonne maniere.

Objectifs de ce module de developpement professionnel

continu (DPC):

Apres avoir lu ce module, le lecteur devrait etre en mesure

de:

1. Nommer les diverses facons possibles de neutraliser en

urgence l’anticoagulation par la warfarine.

2. Decrire le dosage, le delai et la duree d’action des

agents qui neutralisent l’anticoagulation par la

warfarine.

3. Enumerer les complications et les contre-indications

potentielles des agents qui neutralisent

l’anticoagulation par la warfarine.

4. Choisir le meilleur agent pour neutraliser d’urgence

l’anticoagulation induite par la warfarine en tenant

compte du moment opportun de l’operation et des

risques et avantages de chaque agent.

Malgre l’utilisation croissante de nouveaux agents

innovants, la warfarine demeure l’anticoagulant oral le

plus prescrit dans la pratique clinique. Une analyse recente

des tendances de prescription faisant suite a l’approbation

reglementaire de nouveaux agents a montre que la

warfarine etait toujours le principal anticoagulant oral

utilise, representant 75 % de tous les agents anticoagulants

oraux prescrits.1 La warfarine est indiquee pour reduire le

risque de complications thromboemboliques chez les

patients atteints de fibrillation auriculaire, ayant des

valves cardiaques mecaniques ou une thrombose veineuse

profonde, entre autres indications. Par consequent, et etant

donne le vieillissement de la population, on prevoit que

l’utilisation d’anticoagulants, y compris la warfarine,

augmentera considerablement.

Lorsqu’un patient recoit de la warfarine afin de parvenir

a une anticoagulation therapeutique, sa prise en charge

perioperatoire en cas de chirurgie urgente ou tres urgente

est un defi. Afin de prevenir d’importants saignements

peroperatoires, il faut neutraliser l’anticoagulation avant la

plupart des interventions chirurgicales. A l’inverse des

agents plus recents, l’effet anticoagulant de la warfarine est

facile a neutraliser. Le choix de l’agent utilise pour la

neutralisation doit se fonder sur le temps et les ressources a

disposition pour corriger l’anticoagulation, apres une

evaluation minutieuse des complications et effets

secondaires nefastes potentiels. La vitamine K1 par voie

intraveineuse, le plasma frais congele (PFC) et, plus

recemment, les concentres de complexe prothrombique

(CCP) constituent des options disponibles pour neutraliser

un traitement a la warfarine. Il est essentiel de bien

comprendre les indications, les directives posologiques, le

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delai et la duree d’action ainsi que les effets secondaires

potentiels associes a ces agents si l’on souhaite neutraliser

l’anticoagulation induite par la warfarine de facon

securitaire et opportune.

La warfarine

La vitamine K est essentielle a l’activation des facteurs de

coagulation II, VII, IX et X, tout comme les proteines

anticoagulantes, soit la proteine C et la proteine S.2

L’enzyme vitamine K epoxyde-reductase recycle la

vitamine K oxydee, la ramenant a sa forme reduite apres sa

participation a la carboxylation de plusieurs proteines

impliquees dans la coagulation (figure). En tant

qu’antagoniste de la vitamine K administre par voie orale,

la warfarine inhibe la synthese des formes biologiquement

actives de ces facteurs de coagulation qui dependent de la

vitamine K. Il en resulte des molecules incompletes qui ne

sont pas actives dans la cascade de coagulation. Comme la

warfarine interrompt le recyclage de la vitamine K et

n’antagonise pas directement son action, l’action

pharmacologique de la warfarine est neutralisee en

administrant de la vitamine K1 exogene (phytonadione).

La warfarine beneficie d’une biodisponibilite elevee et

est rapidement absorbee apres une administration orale,

atteignant une concentration maximale dans les 90 min

suivant l’administration.3 Elle presente une demi-vie

d’elimination de 36 h et est presque entierement eliminee

par le metabolisme; seules des quantites negligeables sont

excretees dans l’urine. La relation dose-reponse de la

warfarine est influencee par des facteurs genetiques et

environnementaux, notamment par l’utilisation de

medicaments et des facteurs dietetiques. Le traitement a

la warfarine est complique par de nombreuses interactions

medicamenteuses potentielles qui affectent son absorption

et son elimination, ainsi que par des variations

posologiques specifiques a chaque patient; par

consequent, le dosage doit etre titre et surveille de facon

adaptee. L’effet anticoagulant de la warfarine est le resultat

d’une inhibition de la synthese de nouveaux facteurs de

coagulation et de la degradation naturelle de facteurs

existants. L’effet anticoagulant initial resulte de la

reduction du facteur VII, qui presente une courte

demi-vie de six heures. Cependant, une anticoagulation

complete necessite une reduction de tous les facteurs de

coagulation dependants de la vitamine K et peut prendre

plusieurs jours en raison de la demi-vie prolongee (60 h) du

facteur II.

L’intensite anticoagulante du traitement a la warfarine

est monitoree a l’aide du rapport international normalise

(RIN), une mesure standardisee fondee sur le rapport entre

le temps de prothrombine du patient et le temps de

prothrombine moyen normal.2,4 Pour la plupart des

indications, le RIN cible est de 2,5 (intervalle de 2,0-3,0),

un RIN de 3,0 (intervalle de 2,5-3,5) etant utilise comme

cible lors d’anticoagulation therapeutique pour les valves

cardiaques mecaniques.2 Le traitement a la warfarine

represente un defi clinique, etant donne qu’il existe un

petit intervalle therapeutique entre la prophylaxie ideale et

le traitement des troubles thromboemboliques, et le

potentiel d’hemorragie et de saignements graves.

La neutralisation du traitement a la warfarine peut

egalement etre complexe en raison d’une confusion quant

au meilleur agent a utiliser, ainsi qu’a la posologie et au

moment d’administration les mieux adaptes. Toutefois,

chez les patients pour qui il faut interrompre

temporairement le traitement a la warfarine avant une

chirurgie non urgente, on recommande de suspendre le

traitement a la warfarine cinq jours avant la chirurgie.5 Ce

delai est dicte par la demi-vie d’elimination de 36 h de

l’agent. Une anticoagulation de transition a l’aide d’heparine

de bas poids moleculaire sous-cutanee ou d’heparine

non fractionnee intraveineuse, en concomitance avec

l’interruption du traitement a la warfarine, pourrait

s’averer necessaire chez les patients courant un risque

eleve de complications thromboemboliques.5,6

Bien qu’un RIN legerement eleve (\ 1,8) ne predise pas

un risque accru de saignement lors des interventions

chirurgicales, un RIN cible plus bas est recommande pour

certaines interventions au cours desquelles des saignements

localises dans un espace restreint pourraient entraıner des

complications.7 Par exemple, l’American Society of

Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine recommande que

le RIN soit normalise avant l’installation d’un bloc

neuraxial et \ 1,5 pour le retrait d’un catheter peridural.8

Des cibles semblables sont suggerees pour les hemorragies

intracraniennes associees a la warfarine.9 Toutefois, en

raison du faible risque de saignement, il est possible

qu’il ne soit pas necessaire d’interrompre le traitement

a la warfarine pour plusieurs interventions dentaires,

dermatologiques et ophtalmologiques mineures.10

La neutralisation urgente de la warfarine

La vitamine K1 (phytonadione)

Dans les situations ou il est necessaire de neutraliser

rapidement l’anticoagulation par la warfarine, on ne

peut attendre cinq jours que l’effet anticoagulant de la

warfarine se dissipe. L’administration de vitamine K1, une

substance liposoluble qu’on trouve principalement dans les

legumes-feuilles, entraıne l’activation des facteurs de

coagulation existants plutot que de provoquer la synthese

de nouvelles proteines, ce qui explique son delai d’action

642 R. Curtis et al.

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relativement court.2 Bien qu’un effet clinique de la

vitamine K1 puisse etre observe dans les deux heures

suivant son administration, l’effet maximal n’est en general

atteint qu’apres 24-36 h.2,11 Il a ete demontre que

l’administration par voie intraveineuse agissait plus

rapidement qu’une administration orale, la neutralisation

de l’anticoagulation survenant dans les six a 12 h, plutot

que 18-24 h par voie orale.12

L’administration orale de vitamine K1 est l’option

preferee afin de renverser l’anticoagulation a la warfarine

d’intensite legere a moderee (RIN eleve, mais\ 3,0) en

l’absence de saignement majeur et si l’interventions

chirurgicale peut etre retardees de 24-36 h.4 Dans le cas

d’interventions chirurgicales urgentes qui ne peuvent qu’etre

retardees de six a 12 h, l’effet anticoagulant de la warfarine

peut etre neutralise de facon efficace avec 10 mg iv de

vitamine K1.13,14 Il a ete rapporte que l’administration

intraveineuse de vitamine K1 provoquait une reaction

anaphylactique chez trois patients sur 100 000, et on

recommande donc de l’administrer lentement a un debit

maximal de 1 mg�min-1.14,15 Nous ne savons pas si une telle

reaction est attribuable a l’huile de ricin polyethoxylee

presente dans la formulation, ou a la vitamine meme. Il ne

faut pas administrer la vitamine K1 par voie sous-cutanee en

raison du risque de reponse imprevisible et retardee, et

l’injection intramusculaire n’est pas recommandee en raison

du risque local d’hematome chez les patients anticoagules.2

Il est souvent necessaire de neutraliser rapidement les

effets de la warfarine pour les situations urgentes dans

lesquelles il y a d’importants saignements, ou lorsqu’une

chirurgie immediate est jugee necessaire et qu’il n’est pas

possible d’attendre que la vitamine K1 agisse. Dans ces

circonstances, les CCP ou le PFC peuvent etre utilises pour

neutraliser rapidement l’anticoagulation induite par la

warfarine. Cependant, ces deux options ne doivent pas

etre percues comme interchangeables. En effet, chaque

produit comporte ses propres risques, exigences

posologiques et indications.

Les concentres de complexe prothrombique

Les CCP sont des concentres hautement purifies de facteurs

de coagulation prepares a base de plasma normal emanant

de plusieurs donneurs et ayant subi une procedure afin d’y

reduire la presence eventuelle de virus. La concentration de

facteurs de coagulation dans les CCP est environ 25 fois

plus elevee que dans le plasma; on peut donc les

administrer dans de petits volumes de liquide. Une dose

unique de CCP represente 40 mL (1000 IU) de liquide,

alors qu’une dose adulte de PFC, soit 10-15 mL�kg-1,

correspond a 4 unites de plasma pour un volume total de

1000 mL. Tous les CCP comprennent des facteurs II, IX et

X. Toutefois, il existe aussi des CCP contenant 4 facteurs

dans lesquels on retrouve des niveaux cliniquement

significatifs de facteur VII. Ces derniers entraınent une

correction plus fiable du RIN par rapport aux concentres a

3 facteurs.16 La duree d’action des CCP est d’environ six

heures en raison de la courte demi-vie du facteur VII.

L’Octaplex� et le Beriplex� sont les deux CCP a 4 facteurs

approuves au Canada et ce sont ces CCP dont il sera

question dans ce module.9 Ces deux produits sont des

derives de plasma humain qui ont subi un traitement

d’inactivation et de retrait viral, bacterien et parasitaire.

L’effet clinique de ces deux produits est semblable, et il

n’existe pas de recommandation privilegiant un produit ou

l’autre lorsqu’il est question de renverser l’anticoagulation

induite par la warfarine.9,16 Cependant, l’Octaplex� et le

Beriplex� different en matiere de formulation et

d’inactivation virale, ainsi qu’en ce qui a trait a leur

debit de perfusion (tableau 1).

Indications pour les CCP

Au Canada, voici les indications approuvees pour

l’utilisation de CCP: 1) neutralisation rapide du

traitement a la warfarine ou carence en vitamine K chez

les patients ayant des saignements majeurs, et 2)

neutralisation rapide du traitement a la warfarine ou

carence en vitamine K chez les patients necessitant une

intervention chirurgicale urgente dans les six heures.9,17,18

Il n’existe pas suffisamment de donnees probantes pour

recommander leur utilisation chez les populations

pediatriques ou les patientes enceintes, et ces produits ne

sont pas recommandes pour les interventions chirurgicales

qui peuvent etre retardees de six a 12 h. La neutralisation

de l’anticoagulation realisee avec les CCP est temporaire et

diminue apres six heures en raison de la courte demi-vie du

facteur VII. Par consequent, on recommande d’administrer

simultanement 10 mg iv de vitamine K1 avec les CCP afin

d’activer les facteurs de coagulation existants et de

prolonger la neutralisation. La vitamine K1 agit

cliniquement apres six heures, soit lorsque l’effet du CCP

commence a s’estomper.

Dosage des CCP

Les doses de CCP administrees sont variables, tant au plan

clinique que dans la litterature publiee. Cette variabilite est

en partie due au RIN cible a atteindre, ainsi qu’aux

tentatives d’equilibrer les risques de saignements et ceux

lies aux thromboses. En 2008, le Comite consultatif

national sur le sang et les produits sanguins canadien

recommandait une dose unique normalisee de 1000 IU

(40 mL), independamment du RIN ou du poids du

patient.19 Il s’agissait cependant la d’une dose

conservatrice et son objectif etait de minimiser les

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complications thrombotiques tout en guarantissant le

maintien d’un inventaire national adequat. En 2011, le

comite publiait des directives revisees incluant une

posologie fondee sur le RIN, et les recommandations les

plus recentes de 2014 calculent la posologie en fonction du

RIN et du poids corporel (tableau 2).9 Il convient de

souligner que les recommandations du fabricant ont pour

but de normaliser le RIN a moins de 1,2 en corrigeant

pleinement les taux des facteurs.17,18 Cependant, une

hemostase normale ne necessite pas que les taux de

facteurs soient completement corriges, et un intervalle de

valeurs de RIN variant de 1,2 a 1,7 pourrait etre suffisant

selon la situation clinique. Les directives les plus recentes

du Comite consultatif national recommandent des doses

standardisees selon le RIN et le poids du patient avec un

RIN cible de 1,5 et une dose maximale de CCP de 3000 IU

(120 mL).9 Le RIN doit etre verifie 10-30 min apres la fin

de la perfusion afin de garantir qu’il a ete bien corrige. Une

dose subsequente de CCP pourrait alors parfois s’averer

necessaire.20 Les CCP peuvent etre administres

manuellement a la seringue ou a l’aide d’un perfuseur, a

un debit de perfusion maximal de 8 mL�min-1 pour le

Beriplex� et de 1-3 mL�min-1 pour l’Octaplex�.17,18

Contre-indications

Outre les facteurs II, VII, IX, X et les facteurs anticoagulants

de proteine C et S, l’Octaplex� et le Beriplex� contiennent

tous deux de petites quantites d’heparine. C’est pourquoi les

CCP ne devraient pas etre administres aux patients

presentant une thrombocytopenie induite par l’heparine

(TIH). Toutefois, il n’y a pas d’evidence claire que

l’administration de CCP entraıne le developpement d’une

TIH.16 Ces produits pourraient augmenter le risque

thromboembolique et ils ne sont pas indiques chez les

patients atteints de coagulation intravasculaire disseminee

ou ayant des antecedents recents de thrombose ou d’infarctus

du myocarde. Ils ne devraient etre utilises, dans de telles

situations, qu’apres une evaluation minutieuse des risques et

des avantages specifiques au patient.

Dans une etude de pharmacovigilance portant sur le

Beriplex�, le ratio complications thrombotiques vs nombre

total de perfusions etaient de 1 : 31 000.21 De plus, les

auteurs n’ont pas pu associer ces evenements

thromboemboliques uniquement a l’administration de

CCP, et ont note des conditions preexistantes et

concomitantes qui ont probablement joue un role dans

leur survenue. Une meta-analyse recente a conclu que les

complications thromboemboliques survenaient chez 1,8 %

des patients traites avec des CCP contenant les 4 facteurs,

mais elle n’a pu correler ces evenements nefastes a

l’utilisation des CCP.22 Ces resultats suggerent que

l’utilisation des CCP ne comporte qu’un faible risque de

complications d’ordre thromboembolique.

L’innocuite des CCP a ete etudiee en detail,

particulierement par rapport au PFC. Le syndrome

respiratoire aigu post-transfusionnel (TRALI) et la

surcharge circulatoire post-transfusionnelle (TACO) sont

d’importantes consequences potentielles de la transfusion

de plasma. Les CCP ne sont pas associes a ces

Tableau 1 Caracteristiques des concentres de complexe prothrombique disponibles au Canada17,18

Caracteristiques Beriplex� Octaplex�

Preparation Lyophilise Lyophilise

Autres composes pertinents d’un

point de vue clinique

Heparine

Antithrombine III humaine

Albumine humaine

Citrate de sodium

Heparine

Citrate de sodium

Procede d’inactivation virale Pasteurisation

Nanofiltration

Solvant-detergent

Nanofiltration

Transmission virale Aucun cas rapporte 4 cas de seroconversion du parvovirus

B19 sans symptome clinique

Debit de perfusion 8 mL�min-1 D’abord 1 mL�min-1

2-3 mL�min-1

Non recommande si La chirurgie n’est pas urgente

Transfusion massive

Infarctus du myocarde recent

Risque eleve de thrombose

CID

Coagulopathie liee a une maladie hepatique

La chirurgie n’est pas urgente

Transfusion massive

Infarctus du myocarde recent

Risque eleve de thrombose

CID

Coagulopathie liee a une maladie hepatique

Contre-indication Thrombocytopenie induite par l’heparine Thrombocytopenie induite par l’heparine

CID = coagulation intravasculaire disseminee

644 R. Curtis et al.

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complications en raison du faible volume de liquide

necessaire ainsi que du retrait des anticorps responsables

du TRALI pendant le processus de fabrication.23 De plus,

grace aux mesures rigoureuses d’extraction virale, les CCP

comportent probablement un risque plus faible de

transmission infectieuse que le PFC. La fabrication des

CCP comprend l’inactivation virale (via un traitement de

solvant-detergent pour l’Octaplex� et de pasteurisation

pour le Beriplex�), ainsi qu’un procede d’elimination des

virus par nanofiltration. Il a ete demontre que la methode

de solvant-detergent utilisee dans la fabrication de

l’Octaplex� etait efficace contre les virus enveloppes (par

ex., virus de l’immunodeficience humaine, hepatite B,

hepatite C), mais qu’elle pouvait n’avoir qu’une efficacite

limitee contre les virus non enveloppes tels que le

parvovirus B19. Dans un rapport examinant l’innocuite

des CCP, les seules transmissions virales rapportees etaient

4 cas de seroconversion pour le parvovirus B19 survenus

peu apres l’introduction clinique de l’Octaplex�.22

Cependant, le plasma recolte pour le fractionnement est

maintenant soumis a des tests d’acide nucleique pour y

detecter la presence du parvovirus B19 et aucun autre cas

de seroconversion n’a ete rapporte. Aucun cas de

transmission virale associe au Beriplex� n’a ete rapporte,

et l’inactivation virale par pasteurisation utilisee pour sa

preparation est efficace contre les virus enveloppes ou

non.21,22

En plus des etudes s’interessant a leur innocuite, de

nombreux travaux explorant l’efficacite des CCP par

rapport au PFC ont ete realises. Dans une etude

randomisee controlee comparant CCP contenant 4

facteurs et PFC chez des patients avec un RIN eleve de

C 2,0 et presentant des saignements importants, il a ete

demontre que le traitement aux CCP n’etait pas inferieur au

PFC pour atteindre une hemostase efficace, et qu’il lui etait

cependant superieur pour reduire rapidement le RIN.24 Une

heure apres le debut de la perfusion, 69 % (68/98) des

patients du groupe CCP affichaient un RIN B 1,3, par

rapport a aucun patient du groupe plasma. En outre, le

groupe CCP a presente moins d’evenements nefastes lies a

une surcharge liquidienne, soit 4,9 % (5/103) vs 12,8 %

(14/109) dans le groupe PFC. Dans une etude de cohorte

Tableau 2 Concentres de complexe prothrombique – doses standardisees selon le poids et le RIN9

Poids (kg) Dose de CCP si RIN > 6 (40 unités·kg-1)

Dose de CCP si RIN 3-6 (30 unités·kg-1)

Dose de CCP si RIN 2-2,9 (20 unités·kg-1)

35-37 1500 IU (60 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL) 500 IU (20 mL)

38-41 1500 IU (60 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL)

42-43 1500 IU (60 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL)

44-56 2000 IU (80 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL)

57-58 2500 IU (100 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL)

59-62 2500 IU (100 mL) 2000 IU (80 mL) 1000 IU (40 mL)

63-68 2500 IU (100 mL) 2000 IU (80 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL)

69-75 3000 IU (120 mL) 2000 IU (80 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL)

76-87 3000 IU (120 mL) 2500 IU (100 mL) 1500 IU (60 mL)

88-91 3000 IU (120 mL) 2500 IU (100 mL) 2000 IU (80 mL)

92-112 3000 IU (120 mL) 3000 IU (120 mL) 2000 IU (80 mL)

113-136 3000 IU (120 mL) 3000 IU (120 mL) 2500 IU (100 mL)

≥137 3000 IU (120 mL) 3000 IU (120 mL) 3000 IU (120 mL)

RIN = rapport international normalise; CCP = concentres de complexe prothrombique

Dose pour un RIN cible d’environ 1,5

Remarque: les doses sont arrondies au multiple le plus proche de 500 unites (flacon de 20 mL)

Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical procedures 645

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retrospective menee chez les patients hospitalises en

urgentologie et comparant le PFC a l’Octaplex� les

chercheurs ont observe une neutralisation plus rapide de

la warfarine et moins d’effets nefastes, incluant

l’insuffisance cardiaque et le deces, dans le groupe CCP.25

Le plasma frais congele

Le PFC peut etre derive soit de plasma de donneurs

aleatoires congele dans les 24 h suivant la collecte, ou de

dons par apherese et congeles huit heures apres la

collecte.26 D’un point de vue clinique, les deux produits

sont impossibles a distinguer et affichent des taux

semblables de facteurs de coagulation. Des lors, on les

appellera de facon generale PFC. Les indications actuelles

pour l’utilisation de PFC sont le traitement ou la prevention

des saignements significatifs dus a une carence en

facteur(s) de coagulation (par ex., transfusion massive,

coagulation intravasculaire disseminee), ou le besoins de

proceder a des echanges plasmatique (par ex., syndrome

hemolytique et uremique).26 Le PFC n’est indique pour la

neutralisation urgente de la warfarine que si les CCP ne

sont pas disponibles ou s’ils sont contre-indiques.7,20 Le

tableau 3 resume les caracteristiques des CCP et du PFC.

Tout comme les CCP, la duree d’action du PFC est

limitee en raison de la courte demi-vie du facteur VII

(environ six heures). Son effet diminue donc apres six

heures, et il convient d’administrer simultanement au PFC

une dose de vitamine K1 (10 mg iv) afin de maintenir la

neutralisation de l’anticoagulation en activant les facteurs

de coagulation existants. Le PFC ne devrait etre administre

que pour une chirurgie qui soit debuter au cours des six

heures suivant son administration.4 Bien que le PFC soit

utilise dans les situations urgentes, il convient de souligner

que le PFC peut necessiter jusqu’a 30 min afin de le

decongeler et doit aussi faire l’objet d’un groupage ABO.26

Puisque le PFC remplace les facteurs de coagulation, il a

largement ete utilise pour neutraliser la warfarine par le

passe, une indication associees a plusieurs complications

potentielles. La concentration de facteurs de coagulation est

tres basse dans le plasma, c’est pourquoi l’administration de

PFC necessite de larges volumes. Il n’est pas necessaire de

remplacer 100 % des facteurs de coagulation pour atteindre

une hemostase adequate. La litterature suggere de viser

30-40 % des taux de facteurs, ce qui correspond a une dose

de 10-15 mL�kg-1chez l’adulte.8,26 Cependant, la quantite

de PFC requise pour normaliser le RIN pourrait etre

considerablement plus elevee en fonction du RIN de depart

et du resultat vise.27 Quatre unites de plasma, soit un

volume total de 1000 mL, sont donc generalement

necessaire pour respecter la posologie suggeree, le tout

sans garantie d’une neutralisation adequate. Holland et coll.

ont mis au point un modele mathematique afin d’estimer le

volume de PFC necessaire pour atteindre un RIN cible en

presumant qu’il n’y avait pas de changement important dans

la synthese ou la destruction des facteurs de coagulation.28

Selon ces calculs, 1500 mL de PFC seraient necessaires

pour ramener le RIN de 3,0 a 1,7 chez un patient adulte.

Toutefois, si le RIN cible est de 1,3 (une cible couramment

utilisee pour l’anesthesie neuraxiale), 2000 mL de PFC

seraient necessaires. Il pourrait neanmoins s’averer

impossible d’atteindre un RIN de 1,3 meme avec des

volumes plus importants de PFC, parce que le RIN mesure

dans le PFC peut lui-meme etre eleve. Dans une etude

examinant l’effet d’une transfusion de PFC sur de legeres

elevations du RIN, seules des reductions marginales ont ete

observees et ce, independamment du nombre d’unites de

PFC administrees.29 Le volume de PFC necessaire a

l’atteinte d’un RIN B 1,3 est considerablement plus eleve

que ce celui requis pour une cible plus modeste (1,5-1,7).

Cette difference drastique dans le volume de PFC

necesssaire (2000 mL) doit etre prise en compte.

Tableau 3 Comparaison des concentres de complexe prothrombique et du plasma frais congele4,9,26,34

Caracteristiques Complexe de concentre prothrombique Plasma frais congele

Groupage sanguin ABO Pas necessaire Doit etre compatible ABO

Inactivation virale Inactive Pas d’inactivation

Contenu en facteur de coagulation Normalise Variable

Temps de preparation 5 min 30-40 min

Volume – dose standard 40 mL (1000 IU) 1000 mL (15 mL�kg-1)

Temps d’administration 5-15 min Selon la tolerance clinique

Duree d’action 6 h 6 h

Risque de TRALI Non Oui

Risque de TACO Non Oui

Cout approximatif 720,00 $ / 1000 IU CCP 156,00 $ / 4 unites PFC

PFC = plasma frais congele; TACO = surcharge circulatoire post-transfusionnelle; TRALI = syndrome respiratoire aigu post-transfusionnel

646 R. Curtis et al.

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La surcharge volumique potentielle causee par

l’utilisation de PFC pourrait se manifester sous forme de

complication grave telle qu’une TACO. On estime que la

TACO induite par le plasma est sous-rapportee, et le taux

de prevalence pourrait etre significativement plus eleve que

ce que l’on pense.30 Meme sans les effets nefastes

potentiels lies aux volumes liquidiens necessaires pour le

PFC, le temps requis afin d’en completer l’administration

de maniere securitaire pourrait entraıner des delais

therapeutiques indesirables. D’autres risques lies a la

transfusion de PFC, tels le TRALI, la transmission de

pathogenes et les reactions allergiques graves devraient

egalement etre consideres lorsqu’on envisage l’utilisation

de PFC.27,30

Malgre les directives publiees en matiere de transfusion

du PFC, un recent audit de cinq jours portant sur

l’utilisation de PFC dans 76 hopitaux ontariens a rapporte

que globalement, seuls 29 % des patients transfuses avec

du PFC ont recu un traitement optimal, a la bonne dose et

pour une indication reconnue.31 Les utilisations inadaptees

les plus courantes du PFC etaient liees a des patients avec

un RIN\ 1,5, ou lorsqu’il etait administre a des patients

pour neutraliser la warfarine en l’absence de saignements.

Les indications les plus frequentes pour le PFC etaient la

correction du RIN avant une chirurgie ou la neutralisation

de la warfarine. En outre, la dose la plus frequemment

administree etait de deux unites, soit la moitie de la dose

adulte recommandee. Cet audit a revele qu’en realite, une

importante portion des patients ontariens recevant du PFC

etaient exposes aux risques du plasma, mais n’en retiraient

pas les avantages maximaux en raison d’un dosage errone.

Bien que le PFC soit souvent utilise pour neutraliser

immediatement un traitement a la warfarine, il n’est pas

considere comme le meilleur traitement.7,27 La litterature

appuie plutot l’utilisation des CCP comme un meilleur

choix pour la neutralisation urgente de l’anticoagulation

par la warfarine, ne recommandant le PFC que lorsque

les CCP ne sont pas disponibles ou en cas de

contre-indication.26,32,33 Les recommandations les plus

recentes de la Societe canadienne de medecine

transfusionnelle, publiees dans le cadre de « Choisir avec

soin », une campagne concue pour aider les medecins et les

patients a discuter des tests et traitements inutiles,

suggerent de ne pas transfuser de plasma pour corriger

un RIN legerement eleve\ 1,8 avant une intervention.7 La

campagne remarque d’un RIN legerement eleve n’est pas

predicteur d’un risque accru de saignement, mais surtout,

qu’il n’a pas ete demontre que la transfusion de PFC

modifiait de facon significative sa valeur. Dans les

situations ou le RIN cible est plus bas (par ex., pour

l’anesthesie neuraxiale), il est peu probable que le PFC soit

efficace. Bien que les directives recommandent clairement

les CCP pour neutraliser la warfarine de facon efficace et

securitaire dans les cas tres urgents, le manque de

connaissances et de formation a continue d’entraıner

l’utilisation continue et inadaptee du plasma.

Conclusion

La strategie a adopter pour la neutralisation urgente de la

warfarine chez les patients anticoagules devrait etre

d’utiliser la methode qui allie la correction la plus rapide

au profil de risque le plus bas. Le tableau 4 resume les

recommandations en matiere de neutralisation de la

warfarine. Dans les situations ou la chirurgie peut etre

retardee de six a 12 h, une dose de 10 mg iv de vitamine

K1 constitue le traitement de choix. Dans le cas

d’interventions chirurgicales urgentes qui ne peuvent

attendre six heures, il convient d’administrer des CCP, en

calculant la posologie en fonction du RIN et du poids du

patient. Il faut verifier le RIN dans les 30 min suivant

l’administration afin de garantir une neutralisation

adequate. Les directives recommandent les CCP plutot

que le PFC en raison du volume liquidien plus petit, des

temps reduits de perfusion et de preparation, d’une

correction plus rapide du RIN et d’un profil plus

securitaire. Le PFC n’est pas indique pour neutraliser

l’anticoagulation par la warfarine a moins que les CCP ne

soient pas disponibles ou soient contre-indiques. La duree

de l’effet des CCP et du plasma est tributaire de la courte

demi-vie (six heures) du facteur VII, et il faut donc

administrer 10 mg iv de vitamine K1 simultanement afin de

maintenir la neutralisation de l’anticoagulation.

Cas clinique

On vous demande de realiser une consultation

preoperatoire pour Mme BA, une femme de 68 ans

admise avec une occlusion intestinale. La prise en charge

Tableau 4 Resume des recommandations pour neutraliser

l’anticoagulation par la warfarine

Degre d’urgence de l’intervention

chirurgicale

Recommandation pour neutraliser

la warfarine

Tres urgent 0-6 h CCP selon le poids et le RIN du

patient

Vitamine K1 10 mg iv en

perfusion lente

Urgent 6-12 h Vitamine K1 10 mg iv en

perfusion lente

Possible de retarder de 24-36 h Vitamine K1 10 mg par voie orale

RIN = rapport international normalise; CCP = concentres de

complexe prothrombique

Reversal of warfarin anticoagulation for urgent surgical procedures 647

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medicale n’a pas donne de bons resultats, et elle va devoir

subir une laparotomie exploratoire au cours des prochaines

24 h. Elle a des antecedents medicaux de maladie

coronarienne, de fibrillation auriculaire et de

broncho-pneumopathie chronique obstructive. Elle prend

de la warfarine et le rapport international normalise est de

2,8. Les autres examens sanguins et signes vitaux sont dans

la norme. Elle pese 60 kg.

Directives pour completer le module de developpement

professionnel continu (DPC):

1. Lisez cet article et les references en gras.

2. Allez a http://www.cas.ca/Membres/modules-de-DPC

et choisissez le module actuel: (La neutralisation

de l’anticoagulation induite par la warfarine lors

d’interventions chirurgicales urgentes).

3. Repondez aux questions a choix de reponses

concernant le cas clinique.

4. Une fois que vous avez saisi toutes vos reponses, vous

aurez acces aux explications d’experts pour tous les

choix possibles.

5. Les participants peuvent reclamer un maximum de

quatre heures de DPC pour un total de huit credits sous

la Section 3 du programme de DPC du College royal

des medecins et chirurgiens du Canada.

Conflicts of interest All authors deny any conflict of interests

related to this CPD module

Conflit d’interet Tous les auteurs refutent tout conflit d’interet lie a

ce module de DPC.

Funding sources No funding sources were used in the preparation

of this CPD module.

Sources de financement Aucune source de financement n’a ete

utilisee pour la preparation de ce module de DPC.

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