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Transcript of Respiratory System- A Quick Tour General Function Aquatic systems Land systems Insect Amphibian...
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Respiratory System - A Quick Tour
• General Function
• Aquatic systems
• Land systems
• Insect
• Amphibian
• Mammalian
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•Introduction - the search for SA (gas
exchange)
• Size of respiratory surface area is a function of organism’s metabolic needs....though all are
1. thin and have large surface areas.
2. Must remain moist (advantages/disadvantages)..
3. Who has larger SA to body mass ratio? ENDO or ECTOtherms??
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• Gills are outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in water.
• The total surface area of gills is often much greater than that of the rest of the body.
Gills are respiratory adaptation of most aquatic animals
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• Many variations. Gill Flavors..• Many segmented worms
have flaplike gills.
• The gills of clams, crayfish, and many other animals are restricted to a local body region (more like us).
Fig. 42.19
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The good and the bad..• Water has both advantages and disadvantages as a
respiratory medium.
• ADVANTAGE
• moist.
• DISADVANTAGE
• Low gas concentration, heavy .
• Thus, gills must be very effective to obtain enough oxygen (surface area exaggerated or metabolic rate suffers).
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Fig. 42.20
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• This flow pattern is countercurrent exchange Essay stuff.
• Explain this
• Other examples
• Lacteal
• Thermoregulation
• All along the gill capillary, there is a diffusion gradient
• What would happen the other way?
Fig. 42.20
ESSAY (BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN THIS)
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• As a respiratory medium, air has many advantages over water.
• What are they?
• ventilation requires less energy…:)
• Note; recent geologic findings indicate higher 02 concentrations 150-50 million years bp!!!!
• Who would have benefited?
Terrestrial animals LUNGSADVANTAGES
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• Air does have problems as a respiratory medium.
• What are they?
Terrestrial animals LUNGSDISADVANTAGES
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Really Small Land Animals..• The tracheal system of insects is composed of air
tubes that branch throughout the body.
• The largest tubes, called tracheae, open to the outside, and the finest branches extend to the surface of nearly every cell. (A systemic system)
• The open circulatory system does not actively transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Explain WHY the tracheal system is well adapted to the open circulatory system…
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Fig. 42.22
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Larger Land Animals:
Lungs• Specialized Exchange Surfaces…
•TISSUE??
•CELLS?
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• lungs are restricted to one location….need for an efficient “closed” circulatory system - see the connection?
• The respiratory surface of the lung is outside of body.
• Lungs have evolved in spiders, terrestrial snails, and vertebrates.
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• Among the vertebrates, amphibians have relatively small lungs that do not provide a large surface (many lack lungs altogether).
• Why are amphibians so susceptible to air quality??.
• Most reptiles and all birds and mammals rely entirely on lungs for gas exchange.
• Turtles may supplement lung breathing with gas exchange across moist epithelial surfaces in their mouth and anus !?. I think air goes the other way for us
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Fig. 42.23
Review and know gas pathway in lungs…
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• SURFACE AREA IN LUNGS
• At their tips, the tiniest bronchioles dead-end as a cluster of air sacs called alveoli.
• Gas exchange occurs across the thin epithelium of the lung’s millions of alveoli.
• These have a total surface area of about 100 m2 in humans.
• Oxygen in the air entering the alveoli dissolves in the moist film and rapidly diffuses across the epithelium into a web of capillaries that surrounds each alveolus.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
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• HOW DO WE BREATH???
• The process of breathing, the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air, ventilates lungs.
• A frog ventilates its lungs by positive pressure breathing (the big bubble)
• Muscle activity forces air into lungs.
• Note – air force pilots are taught to do this in emergency situations – valsalva maneuver
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• mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing.
• This works like a suction pump, pulling air instead of pushing it into the lungs.
• Muscle action changes the volume of the rib cage and the chest cavity,and the lungsfollow suit.
Fig. 42.24
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• The lungs are enclosed by a double-walled sac (pleura), A thin space filled with fluid separates the two layers.
• Because of surface tension, the two layers behave like two sheets of saran wrap stuck together by the adhesion and cohesion of a film of water.
• The layers can slide smoothly past each other, but they cannot be pulled apart easily.
• Surface tension couples movements of the lungs to movements of the rib cage.
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BREATHING….• Lung volume increases as a result of contraction
of the rib muscles and diaphragm, a sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity.
• Contraction of the rib muscles (internal and external intercostal muscles) expands the rib cage by pulling the ribs upward and the breastbone outward.
• At the same time, the diaphragm contracts and descends like a piston.
• Because air flows from higher pressure to lower pressure, air rushes into the respiratory system.
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BREATHING….• During exhalation, the rib muscles and diaphragm
relax.
• The lungs behave as an inflated, untied, freshly liberated (released) balloon (well, they don’t actually fly out of the chest).
• Due to “elastic recoil of lungs.
• Lost with emphysema
• This forces air up the breathing tubes and out through the nostrils.
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• The volume of air an animal inhales and exhales with each breath is called tidal volume.
• It averages about 500 mL in resting humans.
• The maximum tidal volume during forced breathing is the vital capacity, which is about 3.4 L and 4.8 L for college-age females and males.
• The lungs hold more air than the vital capacity, but some air remains in the lungs, the residual volume, because the alveoli do not completely collapse.
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• PROBLEM WITH MAMALLIAN RESPIRATION
• Same as the problem of the gastrovascular cavity in digestion – one opening, two way transport.
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• Ventilation is much more complex in birds than in mammals (more efficient).
• Besides lungs, birds have eight or nine air sacs that do not function directly in gas exchange, but act as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs - one way flow - less mixing of old air (think of three chambered heart).
• Instead of alveoli, which are dead ends, the sites of gas exchange in bird lungs are tiny channels called parabronchi, through which air flows in one direction.
• Partly because of this efficiency advantage, birds perform much better than mammals at high altitude. - why is this a good thing??
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 42.25
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• Sure you can hold your breath..but do you really have control??.
• Coordination of Respiration and Circulation
Control centers in the brain regulate the rate and depth of breathing
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• Our breathing control centers are located in two brain regions, the medulla oblongata and the pons.
• Aided by the control center in the pons, the medulla’s center sets basic breathing rhythm, triggering contraction of the diaphragm and rib muscles.
• A negative-feedback mechanism via stretch receptors prevents our lungs from overexpanding by inhibiting the breathing center in the medulla.
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Fig. 42.26
Where is conscience thought??
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• The medulla’s control center monitors the CO2 level of the blood
• Its main cues about CO2 concentration come from slight changes in the pH
• How is pH related to CO2??
• Oxygen concentrations in the blood usually have little effect of the breathing control centers.
• Realize….Deep, rapid breathing purges the blood of so much CO2 –
how does this cause hyperventilation??
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Respiratory pigments transport gases and help buffer the blood
Realize different approaches..
hemocyanin, found in the hemolymph of arthropods and many mollusks, has copper (get it?) as its oxygen-binding component, coloring the blood bluish.
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• Respiratory pigments• Hemoglobin – most vertebrates.
• Hemoglobin consists of four subunits, each with a cofactor called a heme group that has an iron atom at its center.
• Because iron actually binds to O2, each hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2.
• Wow, what’s the other molecule?? This is my favorite molecule
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• Remember; hemoglobin must bind oxygen reversibly,.
• What would be the consequence if not ??
• Do any substances bind irreversibly?
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• Cooperative oxygen binding and release is evident in the dissociation curve for hemoglobin.
• What part of curve represents lung conditions?.
• What part represents body conditions?
Fig. 42.28a
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• BOHR SHIFT!!!• As with all proteins,
hemoglobin’s conformation is sensitive to a variety of factors.
• pH effect on hemoglobin = Bohr shift.
• Why is Bohr shift important during exercise??.
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free response!!
• Given what you know (and appreciate) about hemoglobin/oxygen binding, draw a graph showing the dissociation curves of adult hemoglobin, fetal hemoglobin, and myoglobin. Your graph should be correctly labeled (X, Y axis, Title). Explain how your graph indicates the relationship of these three molecules as they function to transport oxygen. Hand in at end of hour!!! (really)
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hemoglobin also transports carbon dioxide and assists in buffering blood
pH.
• About 7% of the CO2 released by respiring cells is transported in solution.
• Another 23% binds to amino groups of hemoglobin.
•About 70% is transported as bicarbonate ions.
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• Carbon dioxide from respiring cells diffuses into the blood plasma and then into red blood cells, where some is converted to bicarbonate, assisted by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
• Fastest enzyme in the body!!!
• At the lungs, the equilibrium shifts in favor of conversion of bicarbonate to CO2.
H2O +CO2 H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
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Fig. 42.29
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Fig. 42.29, continued
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• When an air-breathing animal swims underwater, it..can’t breath
• Most humans can only hold their breath for ?
• Seals and cetaceans (whales) ??
Free Diving
Little fish are tasty
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• An adaptation of these deep-divers, such as the Weddell seal, is an ability to store large amounts of O2 in the tissues.
• Compared to a human, a seal can store about twice as much O2 per kilogram of body weight, mostly in the blood and muscles.
• MYOGLOBIN
• About 36% of our total O2 is in our lungs and 51% in our blood.
• In contrast, the Weddell seal holds only about 5% of its O2 in its small lungs and stockpiles 70% in the blood.
• What organ would be HUGE in the seal compared to us?
• What do you think a training adaptation is related to this?
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• Adaptations of deep sea divers.
• First, the seal has about twice the volume of blood per kilogram of body weight as a human.
• Second, the seal can store a large quantity of oxygenated blood in its huge spleen, releasing this blood after the dive begins.
• Third, diving mammals have a high concentration of an oxygen-storing protein called myoglobin in their muscles.
• This enables a Weddell seal to store about 25% of its O2 in muscle, compared to only 13% in humans.
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Questions
• What is a pneumothorax- why bad, how fix??
• What is pericarditis- why bad, how fix?