Respiratory problems application of vaccines

Respiratory Problems of Poultry

&

Application of Vaccines

Dr. Mohammad Akram

Ph.D. (Microbiology)

Consultant Microbiologist

MICRO LABORATORIES

KARACHI

Respiratory System of Chicken

Non Viral Respiratory Diseases ( Parasitic, Fungal, Mycoplasmosis & Bacterial)

Viral Respiratory Diseases ( ND, IB, AI, ILT, APV & FP)

Application of Vaccines in Poultry


Lungs of chicken are smaller than mammals, therefore they have

9 Air Sacs:-

2 pairs of Thoracic

2 Pairs of Abdominal

1 single Intraclavicular

Nose /

Nasal Passage


Respiratory system is one of the most important system of

birds which is not only supplying Oxygen to blood via lungs

to keep the birds alive but also helping to remove toxic

Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas from bird’s body.

Due to the absence of sweat gland in birds, respiratory

system is playing a vital role to maintain body temperature

through panting, specially during hot days.

Normal respiration rate of resting birds is between 15-25 /

min., but it can be up to 50 / min depending upon the CO2

content of blood.

More than 25 ppb of Ammonia gas can

cause stress and decreases the PH of

tracheal mucosa (ACIDIC), therefore

movement of tracheal Celia disturbed and

chances of entry of pathogens directly in

blood increases like E. Coli. Therefore, very

few numbers of microorganisms can cause

infection.

Excess Ammonia damaging the Respiratory System

NON VIRAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES

Parasitic Problem

Fungal Problem

Mycoplasmosis &Bacterial Problems

Gape worm – Presence of Syngamus Trachea in the

LRT is responsible for dry rales, gasping and

coughing.

Thiabendazole @ 0.5% in feed for 10 days can control

the problem.

Parasitic Respiratory Problem

Fungal Infection

Example : ApergillosisAspergillus fumigatus (Brooder Pneumonia) is causing respiratory

problem in young chicks. Source of infection is contaminated hatcher &

brooding houses, particularly wood shaving.

Treatment:Copper Sulphate solution(1:2000-4000) in drinking water for 3 days.

Mycoplasmosis

Mycoplasma is smaller than bacteria with out having cell

wall. Mostly kept in between Bacteria & Virus. Important

spp. are M.gallisepticum and M.synoviae causing

respiratory problem and Synovitis respectively. These

infections are transovarian therefore difficult to control.

Infectious Coryza

Caused by Haemophillus paragallinarum. Birds older than

12 weeks are most Susceptible. Transmission from bird to

bird is very fast, feed and water is the mode of spread in

infected flock. Recovered birds remain latent carrier and

become source of infection for next flock. Coryza is not

transovarian.

Pasteurellosis (Fowl Cholera)

Caused by Pasteurella multicoda.

Susceptible age is more than 6 weeks, recovered birds

remain carriers for next flocks. Rodents & free flying birds

are the major source of spread. Infected parent does not

transfer the infection in hatching eggs / day old chicks

Swelling of wattles Infected heart and liver

Escherichia Coli (E.Coli) is causing septicemia in poultry. It could be a

primary cause of infection or mostly act as opportunist bacteria causing

secondary infections after Mycoplasmosis, Newcastle Disease (ND),

Infectious Bronchitis (IB), Avian influenza (AI) and infectious Bursal

Disease (IBD).

Colibacillosis is an environmental disease spread by air, water, feed and

litter. Oral route of infection is common but when trachea damaged by

Mycoplasmosis and/or respiratory viruses it can enter through respiratory

route and cause severe septicemia in short time. Colibacillosis can easily

be diagnosed due to the observation of pericarditis & perihepatitis on PM

examination but culture sensitivity is necessary for confirmation and

treatment.

All ages are susceptible but young chicks are facing heavy losses,

particularly when having yolk sac infection due to contaminated hatchers.

Colibacillosis

E. coli infection showing Pericarditis / Perihepatitis

Treatment of Bacterial Diseases & Mycoplasmosis

Important Points to use Drug

Site of infection

Septicemia e.g. Coli Septicemia (Blood Stream).

Digestive tract e.g. Necrotic enteritis.

Absorption of drug

Good Absorption (water medication)

Poor Absorption (I/M or S/cut)

Required MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Conc.) of drug To find out the

dose

Drug interaction Synergism (penicillin + Antagonism (Quinolones + Oxy.)

Drug Residue Every drug has different residual effect on meat & egg.

Absorption of drugs

Drug Gut Absorption Activity Against

Mycoplasma E.Coli

Colistin Low Low High

Neomycin Low Low High

Spectinomycin Low Low High

Gentamycin Low Low High

Streptomycin Low Low High

Tetracyclines High Moderate High

Amoxycillin High Low High

Chloremphenicol High Low High

Nitrofuran Moderate Low High

Kitasamycin High High Low

Tiamutin High High Low

Tylocin High High Low

Spiramycin High High Low

Lincomycin - Moderate Low

Trimethoprim + sulpha High Low High

Flemequine High Moderate High

Kitasamycin + Amoxicillin High High High

Quinolones High High High

Synergism ( Can be Use )

NEOMYCIN with SPIRAMYCIN & TETRACYCLINE

STREPTOMYCIN with PENICILLIN & SPIRAMYCIN

SPECTINOMYCIN with LINCOMYCIN

FLUMEQUINE with COLISTIN

ERYTHROMYCIN with COLISTIN & NITOFURAN

SUPHONAMIDES with TRIMETHOPRIM

TYLOCIN with COLISTIN & GENTAMYCIN

TETRACYCLINE with NEOMYCIN & COLISTIN

Antagonism ( Do Not Use)

TETRACYCLINE with GENTAMYCIN, QUINOLONES & PENICILLIN

PENICILLIN with SULPHONAMIDES & TETRACYCLINE

NITROFURAN with QUINOLONES & SULPHONAMIDES

TYLOCIN with AMOXYCYLIN & AMPICILLIN

SULPHONAMIDES with AMOXYCYCLIN, AMPICILLIN, NITROFURAN & PENICILLIN

QUINOLONES with NITROFURAN & TETRACYCLINE

STREPTOMYCIN with SULPHONAMIDES

GENTAMYCIN with TETRACYCLINE

Drug With drawal time (day)

Chlorotetracycline 1

Streptomycin 0

Penicillin 1

Erythromycin 1 – 2

Gentamycin Sulphate 35

Virginiamycin 0

Lincomycin 0

Spectinomycin 5

Madoramycin 5

Monensin 5

Neomycin 14

Sulphonomides 5 – 10

Tylocin feed Premix 5

Tylocin Injectable 5

Tylocin W/Soluble 1

Drug residue in eggs

Vaccination of Bacterial diseases / Mycoplasmosis

Bacterial Vaccines

Inactivated vaccine against Salmonella SE / ST,

E.coli, Fowl Cholera & Infectious Coryza and

live vaccine against SG are availabl No doubt

bacterial vaccines are weak vaccines and not

giving full protection but vaccinated flocks with

related strains are less susceptible to infection,

therefore losses in vaccinated flocks are much

lesser than unvaccinated flocks.

Mycoplasma Vaccines

Inactivated vaccines of Mycoplasma are not effective.

Live vaccines against MG, e.g. F Strain & TS- 11 are

working with some limitations and precautions, by

replacing the field strain. It is recommended to use these

vaccines at the age of 6 weeks in MG free Layers &

Breeders.

If flocks are already infected before the age of 6 weeks

with field strain, then MG live vaccine will not be

effective.

Vaccination of Bacterial diseases / Mycoplasmosis

New Castle Disease (ND)

Infectious Bronchitis (IB)

Avian Influenza (AI)

Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis (ILT)

Avian Pneumo Virus (APV)

Fowl Pox (FP)

Viral Respiratory Diseases

ND virus is a RNA virus and belong to paramyxovirus family.

Antigenically different strains are almost same but they are classified

and differentiated on the basis of Virulence for chickens.

Types of ND virus based on virulence:-

Lentogenic ( Mild)

Mesogenic ( Intermediate)

Velogenic ( Highly Virulent)

Types of ND Virus based on site of infection:-

Pneumotropic - Respiratory tract

Neurotropic - Brain Infection and/or Respiratory

Viscertropic - Intestinal tract

Highly virulent ND virus belong to viscerotropic type. Asciatic type is called

Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease Virus (VVNDV).

New Castle Disease (ND)

Heamagglutination of chickens RBCs.

Incubation Period = 5 - 7 Days.

Disease Course = 10 - 14 Days.

Virus remain alive in litter = 2 Months.

Virus remain alive in dead carcasses = 1 year.

Inactivation by heat = 30 minutes at 60oC.

Important Characteristics of ND virus

Sudden onset and rapid spread through the flock.

Chilling. Watery discharged from nostrils.

Gasping.

Facial swelling.

Paralysis.

Trembling & twisting of neck (Torticollis).

Mortality in young chickens from 10 to 80% and drop

in egg production in adult birds from 20 to 100 %

(Depending upon the virulence of ND virus).

Loss of appetite.

Decreased water consumption.

Diagnosis of ND

Field Diagnosis

Torticollis

VVNDV

The effective control of ND depends equally on:-

Understanding the methods of spread.

Vaccines and their application.

Control of ND

Human agency (workers, advisors, vaccination crew, visitors).

Multiage groups (cycle of infection).

Breeding Farms (proper vaccination to get uniform MAB

levels).

Disposal of litter and dropping (virus remain alive 2 months).

Air born spread (1 kilometer).

Spread by rodents and other small mammals (cats can act

as carriers).

Control on spread of ND Virus

Cost involved.

Degree of immunity necessary for protection.

Exposure to local field virus in terms of its virulence and prevalence.1

In general the more active vaccines (Mesogenic) are used in areas where

the field disease is severe. A vaccination program based on lentogenic

vaccines is adopted in areas where the field virus is of lesser virulence.

Lentogenic vaccines and Inactivated vaccines of high quality applied which

can result the degree of protection that are equal to those obtained with

Mesogenic strain.

Live Vaccines

Lentogenic (HB1, Lasota Strain) Mesogenic (Mukteswar & Komarov Strain)

Inactivated vaccine (oil base)

Types of ND Vaccines

Choice of ND vaccine based on

In Pakistan Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle

Disease Virus (VVNDV) is being isolated and

confirmed through labs. Therefore more rigid

vaccination program against ND is required to get

optimum protection. Lentogenic + Mesogenic or

Lentogenic + Inactivated vaccines should be use.

Revaccination of live vaccination in

layers/breeders every 6 – 8 weeks during

production shall maintain the humoral as well as

local immunity and save the production losses.

Infectious Bronchitis ( IB )

Infectious Bronchitis (IB) in chicken has been reported

in 1931 in North Dakota.

Now prevalent in all parts of the world. IB is a RNA virus

belong to Corona family.

All ages of chickens are susceptible to the virus. The

virus is highly contagious, transmitted rapidly through

respiratory route within flock and by aerosol over

considerable distances.

Incubation period of IB is only 17-36 hrs.

Antigenic Variation of IB Virus

High incidence of mutations of IB virus is complicating

the diagnosis and prevention of disease.

IB Virus contain three antigen-inducing epitopes :-

-Nucleocapsid Portein

-Membrane Protein:- Induces group specific antibodies

-Spike Proteins:- Responsible for the great

antigenic variation of the IB virus


Every year there are many reports about new isolates of

IBV, which are more or less antigenically different from

the strains already know .

Since 1975 the occurrence of many new serotypes is

reported not only in Europe but in many other countries

world wide, e.g. Dutch variant strains ( D-274, D-1466,

D-3128).These strains has caused severe losses in past

but now antibodies against these strains were found in

many countries indicating the presence of antigenically

related strains in the field.

But only in few cases these strains could be identified as

the cause of IB problem in the field.

In 1991 a new disease condition was found in

breeder flocks of UK which was associated

with higher mortality and morbidity of birds,

including drop in egg production, poor shell

quality, discoloration of egg shell and severe

drop in Hatchability. Later on identified as IB

variant 4/91 or 793B or CR88. Now this IB

variant strain reported in many European and

other countries around the world


USA :- Massachusetts, Arkansas, Florida, Holte, Gray, Connecticut.

EUROPE :- D-274, D-1466, D-3128, PL- 88088, 4/91, 793-B, CR- 88,

Italy-02

AUSTRALIA:- T- Strain ( Nephropathogenic)

CHINA :-QX ( new genotype)

Presence of most of the above strains have been confirmed in Asia

and Middle East

Important IB Strains

IB QX genotype

Originally this genotype was identified in China. In

December 2003, GD Animal Health Service Deventer,

Netherlands discovered the new very common IB D-

388 strain (genotype QX) in the south of Netherlands.

This Dutch variant was the first of its kind to be

detected in Europe and remains the most diagnosed

type.

In the period 2008-2009, IBV serotype D-388 (genotype

QX ), is the most indicated type; the number of cases in

layers are still increasing.

Since 2004, this genotype is not only detected in

Netherlands but also in Germany, Belgium and France.

IB QX genotype

Positive Serology against this strain found in Syria but further study is required to confirm the presence of same strain in other parts of Middle East through virus isolation etc.

GD – Animal Health Service Deventer, Netherlands can be contacted for further study on IB Viruses.

Website www.gddeventer.comE-mail [email protected]

http://www.gddeventer.com/

It is not only affecting the respiratory system of chicken but

affecting other organs:-

Lesions of the respiratory system:

Tracheitis & Bronchitis

Increased mortality by secondary infections (e.g. E coli,

Mycoplasmosis and Coryza )

Lesions of kidney:

Nephritis ( Urolithiasis)

Lesions of the reproductive system:

Reduction of egg production / reduction of egg weight.

Shell quality (thin shells) / Liquidation of the albumen.

Misshapen eggs / reduced hatchability.

IB infected table eggs

Discolored and Misshapen Misshapen

Normal eggsIB infected eggs

of same flock

IB infected Broiler hatching eggs

Normal egg white

IB Infected egg white

IB (QX) Infected bird

IBV infections can be diagnosed by detection of IB Virus itself

by these tests :-

Virus Isolation (VI)

Immunofluorescence Assay (IFA)

Immunoperoxidase Assay (IPA)

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)

IBV Diagnostic Techniques

IBV infections are detected serologically by these tests:-

Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI)

Agar Gel Precipitation (AGP)

Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA)

Virus Neutralization (VN)


Use of live IB vaccinations can interfere with

the diagnosis of IB. Vaccine strains are

growing very fast while field viruses of IB are

growing slowly.

Choice of tests and interpretation of their

results can be very difficult and confusing.

Depending on the demands and local

circumstances, a best choice or best

combination of techniques for that situation

can be made


Classification

MYXOVIRUS

(RNA Virus)

Paramyxovirus e.g.

ND, APV (TRT/ART)

Orthomyxovirus e.g.

A.I

A

Humans & Other

mammals

All Avian Virus

belong to “A”

B

Humans

C

Humans & Pigs

Avian Influenza Virus (A.I)

Severe depression, decreased activity.

Decreased feed consumption and emaciation.

Drop in egg production.

Mild to severe respiratory signs: coughing, sneezing, rales,

excessive lacrimation.

Ruffled feathers.

Swollen heads ( necrosis of combs & wattles)

Cyanosis of legs.

Nervous disorders (torticollis – after 5 days of infection)

Diarrhoea.

Commonly observed signs

Inflammation of Trachea

Haemorrhages on visceral organs.

Congestion of lungs.

Nephritis.

Visceral gout.

Damage of ovaries.

Post mortem lesions

Diagnosis of AI

Serology

Antibodies are detectable from 7-10 days p.i by:-

HI test AGPTVN testELISA etc.

Retesting after 3-4 weeks intervals to see the changes in titres

Virus Isolation & Identification

Samples:

Swabs from trachea or cloaca; other infected organ in case of systemic infection.

Method:

Inoculation of 0.1-0.2 ml of the sample into the allantoic cavity of 9-11 days old embryonated chicken eggs.

HA activity in the allantoic fluid.

Test for the presence of Type A AIV and typing of HA and NA.

Antigen detection:

Directigen® Flu A kit

Anigen antigen detection

Direct RNA detection:

RT-PCR

Advance techniques for diagnosis

Control of AI

1. Isolation /identification and serotyping of AI Virus

2. Eradication and disposal of infected flocks

3. Strict boisecurity measures including spray of 1:10 ratio of

cresylic acid and diesel every three to four weeks intervel 10 fts

surrounding area of each poultry house in the presence of birds

and in the absence of birds inside the poultry houses.

4. Vaccination against AI and regular monitoring of its titers

know the efficacy of vaccine and timing of revaccination.

Infectious Laryngo Tracheitis ( ILT )

ILT is caused by Herpes virus, which is a DNA virus. It can

infect the respiratory as well as reproductive systems of

chicken. It is causing gasping with expectoration of bloody

Mucous and severe drop in production with higher

mortality ( 10-20%) and morbidity ( 90-100%). It can affect

chicken of all ages but adult birds are more susceptible

and showing signs of ILT within 2-4 days.

Since last 2 years cases of ILT diagnosed on the basis of

P.M. finding in Karachi

Vaccination of layers with live vaccine at 7 and 15 weeks

of age via eye drop can control the problem.

ILT Infected Bird

Avian Pneumo Virus ( APV )

Belong to Paramyxo group of virus ( same group of

NDV). First described in 1970 in South Africa. The

disease caused by this virus termed as Turkey

RhinoTracheitis (TRT), Swollen Head Syndrome (SHS)

and Avian RhinoTracheitis (ART). This is a respiratory

virus but also damaging the reproductive system of

chicken and turkeys, resulting losses in egg production

in layers and acting as primary cause of CRD,

particularly in broilers and also producing signs of

Swollen heads.

Live and inactivated vaccines are available, but should

be used only on confirmation of the presence of APV

in the area.

Respiratory sign of APV SHS

It is an upper respiratory viral disease caused by Pox

virus, which is a DNA virus and the largest poultry virus.

Pox are of 2 types

1. Dry Pox ( cutaneous type )

2. Wet Pox ( diphtheric type )

In dry pox, lesions are formed on combs, wattles and

eye lids, while in wet pox cheesy nodules are formed in

the larynx and pharynx. Cheesy nodules mostly

blocking the trachea and causing death.

Pox vaccine can safely be used at the age of 6-8 weeks

via wing web route to control the problem.

Fowl Pox ( F P )

Wet PoxDry Pox

Application of vaccines

Successful vaccination against the

disease is dependent on the amount

of antigen which enters the tissues

of the birds. This depends on the

successful application of vaccines.


Eye drop / Intra Nasal

Beak dipping

Wing Web

Intramuscular injection (I/M) & Subcutaneous injection (S/cut)

In Ovo Vaccination

Drinking Water Vaccination

Spray Vaccination (Course or Fine spray)


INDIVIDUAL APPLICATIONS

MASS APPLICATION

Precautions in Eye Drop/Intra- Nasal Vaccination

Prepare the vaccine suspension with the

appropriate diluent.

Use the calibrated dropper (1000 doses in

30ml).

Hold the bottle in upside down position and

apply one drop per bird onto the eye or into the

nasal duct.

Use the reconstituted vaccines immediately after

mixing in dropper.

Try to finish the mixed vaccine within 1 hr.

and prepare fresh dropper for further use.

Compulsory route of vaccination for e.g. ILT

Simultaneous vaccination with inactivated

vaccine is possible.

The vaccination can be considered correct on

complete absorption of the drop in eye /

nostril, therefore bird should be hold till

absorption of drop.

Precautions in Eye Drop/Intra- Nasal Vaccination

Precautions in Beak-Dipping Vaccination

Prepare the vaccine suspension with distilled water.

Use about 150 – 200ml per 1000 chicks.

Dip the beak of each bird up to the nostrils.

Simultaneously vaccination with inactivated vaccine is possible.

Fast and easy vaccination during the early days of life.

Advantages

All birds can be immunized.

Avoid problems with irregular water consumption.

Avoid respiratory reactions as seen after spray vaccination.

Precautions in Wing Web Vaccination

-This method is used for Fowl Pox or Fowl Pox + AE

vaccination.

- Always use proper diluents available with vaccine.

-Never forget to dip the needle after vaccinating each

bird.

-Insert needles in the middle part of the wing web. Do

not insert the needles in feathers or muscles.

-Check at least 100 birds, to see the pock lesions (

swellings), 5-7 days post vaccination at the site of

vaccination.

- Presence of pock lesions will confirm the successful

vaccination and affectivity of vaccine used.

Precautions in I/M or S/Cut. Vaccination

Use Sterile equipment only.

Dilute live vaccine in their appropriate diluents e.g. Marek’s

Disease vaccine, Reo vaccine etc.

Oil Base vaccine should have room-temperature before

application.

Length of the needle: 10 mm & Diameter of needle should be

1 – 1.5 mm.

Subcutaneous route: Inject into the lower part of the neck.

Intramuscular route: Inject in the thigh or breast muscles.

In ovo vaccination

This is a new method of vaccination used to vaccinate

few live vaccines e.g. Marek’s Disease Vaccine or IBD

Vaccine.

Vaccine can be injected before hatching of chicks at the

age of 18 days of embryo via amniotic sacs.

This method of vaccination is helpful to produce

immunity before the hatching of chicks and avoid the

field exposure of disease virus.

This method is highly sophisticated and can only be

done by special expensive complicated machines run

by experts of exclusive companies.

Prior to vaccinate the birds through drinking water, deprive the birds of

water for 1 – 2 hrs. in hot climate and 2 – 4 hrs. in cold climate.

Only live vaccines can be use by this route.

As a rule do not use this rout up to 14 days of age, due to

insufficient water in take.

Do not use any disinfectant or chlorine in drinking water 24 hrs. before,

the day of vaccination and 24 hrs. after vaccination.

Drinking lines(Nipples) and manual drinkers must be empty, cleaned

and rinsed with plain water before using vaccine.

Precations in Drinking Water Vaccination

Age (Days) 7 21 30 40 & above

Volume of water in

liters/1000 birds7 21 30 40

Following table can be used as reference for dilution of live vaccine.

Precautions in Drinking Water Vaccination

Use clean plastic or non metallic container of an

adequate capacity to dilute the vaccine.

Use good quality of water free from chlorine,

disinfectant and antibiotics.

Mix 2.5gm powdered skim milk or 50ml liquid non fat

milk for each liter of water to be used for vaccine.

Now Blue colored vaccine stabilizer /chlorine

neutralizer available as an alternate of skim milk. It also

work as an indicator.


Add some ice to cool the water roughly between 10 to

15oC

Allow all the ice to melt and add skimmed milk or Blue

dye as recommended.

Keep the water for 15-30 minutes before adding vaccine.

Remove the aluminum seals of vials of vaccine and

take the vials with rubber stopper in the same water

prepared for vaccination.

Now remove the rubber stopper keeping the vial under

the surface of water.

Add water in the vials and close them with rubber

stopper to reconstitute the lyophilized vaccine.

Rinse the vials several times to transfer the total quality

of vaccine in water.


Place half of the quantity of reconstituted vaccine in case of

manual drinkers and remaining half quantity after 30

minutes.

For nipple drinkers whole quantity should be added at once

in the tank.

Use enough drinkers so that at least 70% of birds can drink

at the same time. Movement of workers inside the house

during vaccination will improve the water intake and more

number of birds will get chance to drink.

Birds should consume vaccinated water at the most 2 hr.

but not less than 1 hr.


Precautions in Spray Vaccination

More suitable for close system houses.

Only live vaccines can use by this method

Two methods: Course Spray (70 – 150u) & Fine spray

(15 – 50u)

Use distilled water for preparation of vaccine solution.

First time try with plain water only to know the exact

quantity of water for particular house and number of

birds.

Precautions in Spray Vaccination

Shut down the ventilation and reduce the light intensity.

Do not forget to restart the ventilation after

vaccination

Mixing procedure is same as of drinking water

vaccination.

Quantity of water should be based on type of Spray

(Coarse or Fine), Sprayer machine and capacity of birds

in the house, ranging from 250ml to 1000 ml / 1000 birds.

As a rule of thump, younger the birds, bigger the droplets

size and older the birds, smaller the droplets size

Manual Coarse Spray of DOC at Farm

Use 250 ml Distilled Water for 1000 chicks.

Spray from 30 to 40 cm distance with large droplets of 150

microns.

Day old vaccination in

hatchery by machine

Use 500 ml – 1000 ml Distilled Water for 1000 birds

Droplet size should be 100 – 150 microns

KNAP SACK SPRAYER

Coarse Spray on older birds at Farm

Use 200 ml – 500 ml Distilled Water for 1000 birds,

depending on the flow rate of sprayer.

Droplet size - less than 50 microns.

Follow the recommendations of manufacturer of

sprayer for further details.

Fine Spray on older birds at Farm

Routes of live vaccination and efficacy

Method of vaccination Remarks

Intra Ocular (Eye Drop) Excellent

Intra Nasal Excellent

Spray Good

Beak Dipping Good

Drinking Water Fair

Mouth Drop Not Recommended

THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Respiratory problems application of vaccines

Healthcare

Transcript of Respiratory problems application of vaccines