Reservoir Monitoring of EOR Processes (WAG, Foam and Polymer) Using Streaming...

Reservoir Monitoring of EOR Processes (WAG,

Foam and Polymer) Using Streaming Potential

M.Z. Jaafar* , S. Omar, S.M.M. Anuar, S.R Suradi

Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Johor, Malaysia

Abstract— Enhanced oil recovery is an alternative method after

conventional recovery process. After the conventional recovery

process, some amount of conventional and heavy oil will remain

in reservoirs. It is important for oil and gas industry to recover

more hydrocarbons to supply the increasing world energy

demand. The main factors need to be considered during EOR

process is the efficiency of processes toward the increasing of

recovery. Electrokinetic phenomena occur when an electrolyte

flows along charged solid surface. It arise from the interaction

between the rock matrix and the displace water. For several

decades, these phenomena have been of interest to geophysicists

in many subfields. In Oil and Gas industry, this technique not

studies yet as reservoir monitoring in WAG, foam and polymer

but only study in water flooding process. These study focus on

designing the system for testing the effectiveness of streaming

potential measurement in WAG (water alternate gas), FAWAG

(foam assisted water alternate gas) and polymer flooding. The

objectives of this study are to determine: (1) the efficiency of

designed WAG process, (2) detects the foam rupture during

FAWAG process, and (3) detection of polymer adsorption in

polymer flooding.

Keywords— Streaming Potential; Electrokinetic; WAG; Foam;

Adsorption Polymer

I. INTRODUCTION

The study of reservoir monitoring during EOR processes

is important for oil and gas industrial. Oil production

classifies into three phases such as primary, secondary and

tertiary which is known as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). US

Department of Energy finalize that those primary and

secondary recovery of production can leave up to 75% of the

oil in the well. Furthermore, to increase more recovery, the

tertiary or EOR method is implementing to the field. EOR

itself can increase production from a well to up to 75%

recovery [1]. EOR method was the techniques apply to

prevent or minimize the effect of physical and geological

reasons to recover more crude from the reservoir.

In recent years there has been an increasing interest in

Water-Alternating-Gas (WAG) Flooding as one of EOR

method. WAG Flooding is one of the well-established

methods for improving residual oil recovery in a water flooded

reservoir. During WAG process, gravity segregation and

heterogeneity may influence sweep efficiency which can cause

early breakthrough. To overwhelm this problem, WAG

process need to be observed by using streaming potential

signals.

Polymer flooding is the chemical enhanced recovery

which is a well-known method with the low risk and

applicable to wide range of reservoir condition. For many

reservoirs, polymer is an attractive alternative to conventional

waterflooding due to their ability to improve the area of swept

efficiency not only in the macro scale but also in the micro

scale. Basically, polymer flooding was take place after poor

recovery in primary and secondary production stages. Poor

recovery occurred due to geological factor (heterogeneity)

which forms the faster sweep of oil at high permeable zone

and leaves the oil at low permeable zone. Moreover,

application of polymer will cause several problems such as

loss of viscosity by mechanical degradation and loss of

polymer due to adsorption or retention [2].

Polymer adsorption is the main contribution for polymer

losing during polymer flooding processes. As mentioned by

[3], polymer adsorption is the simplest mechanism of polymer

retention which forms the layer on the surface of pore walls by

adsorption of polymer solution. The observation of polymer

adsorption is the important aspect to be considered due to

prevent the large amount of polymer lose in this process.

Basically, the tracer and spectrometer used as the indicator for

the polymer concentration during the dynamic and static test

of polymer adsorption [4].

Foam is a dispersion of gas in a continuous liquid phase

which volumetrically forming a fraction of foam. However,

the gas phase is discontinuously organized in gas bubbles

[5,6]. Besides that, foam can be generated by flowing gas in

the porous medium with the presence of [7]. The gas breaks

into bubbles that are stabilized by the surfactant solution in a

liquid phase [8,9]. The formation of foam makes gas mobility

become drastically decrease [10,11,12]. Foam can be

classified into three classes namely in-depth mobility control

foam (MCF), blocking/diverting foam (BDF) or also known as

* Corresponding author. Email address: [email protected] (M.Z. Jaafar).

Scientific Cooperations International Workshops on Engineering Branches 8-9 August 2014, Koc University, ISTANBUL/TURKEY

231

mailto:[email protected]

injection profile improvement foam and gas oil ratio (GOR)

control foam [13].

FAWAG technique could improve sweep efficiency

during gas injection while reducing gas oil ratio (GOR) and

maximizing hydrocarbon production rate in the production

tubing [14]. Foam can be used in EOR method in order to

minimize the gravity overriding, viscous fingering and

channeling problem. FAWAG also provides good mobility

control of gas flow by delaying early gas breakthroughs [15]

and has come out as a new method for well flow

improvement.

II. MONITORING RESERVOIR

Implementation of tracer application in the reservoir

system had been applied in various applications throughout

the world. Basically, the tracer have been used successfully on

many oil field systems to monitor and retrieve flow

parameters, inter-well formation heterogeneity such as high

permeability region and inter-zone communication regime.

Basically, tracer has been used to monitor the efficiency and

reservoir changes cause by EOR processes. These types of

method required high amount of chemical and much testing.

So, the faster and simple measurement required for monitoring

the reservoir during EOR processes and the streaming

potential measurement suggested. So far there has not been a

systematic study of streaming potential measurement as a

method of reservoir monitoring during WAG, FAWAG and

Polymer flooding. In this study the focus is on suggest a new

approach of monitoring the reservoir specifically on

measuring efficiency of designed WAG process, foam rupture

during FAWAG and detection of adsorption polymer during

polymer flooding.

III. EOR STRATEGY

A. Water Alternate Gas (WAG)

Water Alternate Gas (WAG) process is a method to

enhanced oil recovery. WAG method was suggested to control

mobility ratio of CO2. In this injection process, water and gas

are injected alternately for the period of time to provide better

sweep efficiency and lessen gas channeling from injector to

producer line.

In most WAG process, water and gas are injected in

small, alternate slugs rather than simultaneously. Three

reasons are given for the application of alternating injection in

the WAG method: (1) gas and water segregate in the well bore

when injected simultaneously, (2) alternating injection is more

convenient operationally than simultaneous injection, and (3)

the injectivity either fluid remains higher than would be in the

case with simultaneous injection. Injectivity remains higher

for alternating injection because the saturation and hence

relative permeability of the fluid being injected are higher near

wellbore region.

B. WAG Classification

WAG injection process end result mainly depends on

reservoir rock and fluid properties because every reservoir has

their own rock and fluid properties. The accessibility of gas

and its composition play a significant parameter in designing a

WAG process. This is due to the gas compositions are the

main key point in order to select the WAG process either

miscible or immiscible under reservoir conditions [16].

Miscible WAG

Miscible WAG process can be describe as an injected gas is mixable with residual oil under certain conditions which creates an oil bank in front of the miscible zone. Gas miscibility makes an oil viscosity decreasing and this scenario offers an additional benefit of trapped oil mobilization up to the production lines. Furthermore, miscible gas injection has excellent microscopic sweep efficiency but poor macroscopic sweep efficiency due to the gravity override and viscous fingering. However, this constraint can be improved by reducing the volume of injected gas.

Immiscible WAG

Immiscible WAG process explained that the injected gas is not mixed with oil in the pore channels in the reservoir. However, this process can be used to makes unswept zones become connected and also to improve water front stability. There are several reservoirs which suitable for this process such as strong heterogeneity reservoir, low dip angle reservoir, specific gas resources reservoir and gravity-stable gas injection reservoir. Besides that, some immiscible WAG process advantages are advance in pressure support, reduced water handling costs and high production rates.

In the applications of WAG injection techniques, the high mobility and low density of the gas lead the gas to flow in channels through the high permeability zones of the reservoir and to rise to the top of the reservoir by gravity segregation. As a result, the sweep efficiency decreases and the residual oil in the reservoir will be more. Other than that, sweep efficiency also influenced by heterogeneity of the reservoir. To overcome this problem, WAG process need to be monitor.

C. Polymer Flooding

Polymer flooding has been used the polymer solutions to

increase oil recovery by increasing the viscosity of displacing


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water in generating more favorable water and oil mobility

ratio. Polymer technologies have shown the possibilities to be

studied because the viscosity of polymer solution will change

the mobility ratio between water and oil in order to overcome

the water flooding problems [17].

Furthermore, water soluble polymer is injected in order to

increase the viscosity of displacing polymer solution to push

the oil towards the production well. The usage of water

soluble polymer in polymer flooding is mainly because of the

hydrogen bonding between water molecules and polymer side

chain. The basic process of polymer flooding which is

commonly implemented at the end of the good life has been

demonstrated in the Figure 1. The injection of polymer will

flush the remaining oil to the production well with the

intention that the well will keep producing and increase the

recovery of hydrocarbon.

Application of polymers will change the fractional flow

curve and at the same time reduce the effective residual oil

saturation and improve sweep efficiency on less permeable

zones. Moreover, polymer flooding will increase the ratio

between viscous to gravity forces and it also has the ability to

reduce the sinking in order to enhance the vertical sweep in

the reservoir. Even in the presence of underlying aquifer,

polymer flooding still effective with restricted water

channeling through the aquifer. It can be simplified that

polymer flooding will turn the oil recovery more efficient by

through the effects of polymers on fractional flow, decreasing

the water and oil mobility ratio and diverting injected water

from zones that have been swept.

D. Adsorption of Polymer

Polymer adsorption refers to an interaction of polymer

molecules with solid surfaces (Figure 2). This interaction will

cause the polymer molecules to be bound to the surface of

solid mainly by physical adsorption which means a relatively

Fig. 1. Polymer flooding illustration (Donaldson, Chilligarian, & Yen, 1985).

Fig. 2: Polymer Adsorption in Porous Media [19]

Fig. 3. Effect of hydrodynamic forces on polymer adsorption [20]

weak bond between the surface absorbent (rock) and the

adsorbed (polymer), and the forces between both of them are

electrostatic forces [18]. The concentration of polymer in the

water flood decreases and thus the viscosity of the displacing

phase decreases.

Adsorption of polymer molecules on rock surface

occurs by virtue of a lower overall free energy. This

phenomenon is due first to an entropic contribution, where

water molecules are previously bound to the polymer or the

rock surface. It is liberated as the polymer is adsorbed causing

an entropy increase. There is also an enthalpy contribution to

the lower free energy of adsorbed polymer which occurs for

ionic polymer. This contribution results from an electrostatic

attraction or repulsion of the polymer depending on the net

ionic charge of the surface. Previous study suggests that the

dynamic forces increase adsorption density and the adsorbed

layer thickness (Figure 3) [20].

The amount of polymer lost from a bank may large or

small, depending on the nature of the polymer and rock

surface. The adsorption is higher from the saline water than

from the fresh water and the higher polymer concentration

leads to higher adsorption. Adsorption isotherms give at a

particular constant temperature, the dependency of amount of

adsorbed in the equilibrium concentration. Due to the


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adsorption, the polymer solution loses its viscosity during

propagations and affected the performance of polymer

flooding. Factor affecting adsorptions of polymer are polymer

concentration, salinity, temperature and injection rate [21].

Dang et al stated that measurement of polymer adsorption

in the laboratory can be done either using the static method or

dynamic method [19]. For static test, the adsorption mass is

determined by the difference of polymer concentrations before

and after mixing the rock sample. The result may not represent

the field values because the exposed surface of unconsolidated

rock is not the same as in the field. Whereas, for dynamic test,

there are two common experimental methods; Whillhite

method and Dawson method.

E. Structure of Foam

In EOR, foam scale in bubble form is considered. The

bubbles connect each other by thin liquid films which are also

known as foam films or lamellae. The foam films are direct

with liquid phase and the neighbouring foam films via Plateau

borders. These are interconnected throughout the foam

channels which create a continuous liquid phase structure [22].

The foam films are thin free staying layers aqueous

solution surrounded by the gas from the both sides [23,24].

Usually, surfactant molecules adsorb on both film sides and

stabilize the film. The thickness of the foam films is only a

few micro-meters but could be even only a few nano-meters

based on the situation. However, for the ―bulk‖ foam in

porous media, the average bubble size exceeds the length of

the system or in other words the foam can occupy more than

one pore space [10,11].

The Plateau borders connecting the lamellae to water films

wetting the rock surface [25]. Therefore, the liquid phase

becomes continuous throughout the porous formation. These

wetting films on water on the rock can be stable only if the

surface of the rock is hydrophilic (water-wet).

F. Foam Injection Techniques

The most important factors in FAWAG process are foam

placement technique in the reservoir (injection of pre-foamed

foam, co-injection foam and surfactant alternating gas (SAG)

foam), reservoir pressure and permeability [25]. Therefore, in

the field, the manner of foam placement is more diverse as

compared to in the laboratory.

The foam placement technique is closely associated with the

way by the foam is generated hence the terms of foam

generation and foam injection mode are interchangeable.

Generally, the foam is generated when a gas passing surfactant

in aqueous solution which creates a stable dispersion of gas

bubbles and lamellae trains in the liquid. There are three types

of foam injection mode which are pre-foamed foam, co-

injection foam and SAG foam.

G. Tracer in EOR Techniques

By using the tracer system, the understandings of fluid

flow and EOR process have been improved [26]. Tracers are

best describes as a unique reservoir compatible species that is

foreign to the system. Once the reservoir has been injected by

any fluid, the tracer will monitor the injected fluid and allows

important information to be retrieved. Tracer can be divided

into three categories which namely as radioactive, chemical

and fluorescent.

Radioactive tracer is the most commonly used system in

the reservoir due to low detection level. Besides that,

radioactive tracer is a molecule which contains one or more

atoms that are radioactive. These atoms may emit radiation in

extremely low energy beta particles. This radiation can be

absorbed by even thin layer of plastic to more penetrating

electromagnetic gamma radiation which can penetrate into

several inches of metal.

Furthermore, halogen is the most widely used in chemical

tracer. Its detection level requires larger volumes as compared

to radioactive tracer. Fluorescent tracer is safe and can be

easily detected visually and affordable to purchase. However,

this tracer can react with reservoir rock and it is limited to the

noticeable fault or channel reservoir.

However, by using tracer, its take too long to know the

performance of WAG process. Since the tracer was injected to

the reservoir, we need to wait the tracer solution comes out at

the producer.The process takes long time to finish since we

need to wait the tracer comes out from the producing well. To

save the time and cost, other alternative method for

monitoring the WAG process is streaming potential signals.

IV. STREAMING POTENTIAL

Spontaneous potential (SP) also called self-potential, is a

naturally occurring electric potential difference in the Earth. It

can be measured by an electrode relative to a fixed reference

electrode. Spontaneous potential usually caused by separation

in clay or other minerals, due to presence of semi-permeable

interface impeding the diffusion of ions through the pore space

of rocks, or by natural flow of conducting fluid through the

rocks. SP is regularly measured during reservoir

characterization using wireline tools. SP signals generated

during hydrocarbon production, in response in water-phase

pressure (relative to hydrostatic), chemical composition, and

temperature [27].

The presence of the electrical double layer at the solid –

fluid interface will resulted eletrokinetic phenomenon


234

(streaming potential) in fluid saturated rocks as shown in

Figure 4a. The mineral surfaces become electrically charged

when surface molecules undergo amphoteric reactions with

the adjacent fluid. The surface becomes positively charge if

the fluid pH values less than that of the point of zero charge of

the mineral. The point zero charge for silica occurs at a pH of

2-3, so the mineral surfaces in the sandstone reservoirs are

usually negatively charged. Adjacent to the mineral surface is

a layer of adsorbed counter-ions in the fluid, which have an

opposite charge to that of the surface, termed Stern layer.

These ions are attached to the mineral surface and immobile.

However, there is an excess of counter-ions in the fluid

adjacent to the Stern layer which are mobile; this is termed the

diffuse or Gouy-Chapman layer. Within this layer, the

concentration of excess counter-ions decreases away from the

mineral surface until the fluid becomes electrically neutral;

known as free electrolyte.

Some of the excess counter-ions within the diffuse layer

are transported with the flow if the fluid is induced to flow

relative to the mineral surfaces. At steady state, the advection

of charge within the diffuse layer is countered by conduction

of charge through the fluid (and rock, if it is conductive).

Thus, with an associated electrokinetic potential, a current is

established. Shear plane is a closest plane to the mineral

surface at which flow occurs in the diffuse layer. The potential

at this plane is termed the zeta potential (Figure 4b). The

electrokinetic potential is a manifestation of this zeta potential.

Fig. 4. The electrical double layer formed at a mineral-fluid interface. (a)

Illustration for mineral-fluid interface when the mineral surfaces react with the

fluid. (b) The electrical potential decreases in magnitude away from the mineral surface. The zeta potential is defined at the shear plane [28].

A. Streaming Potential Theory

The electrical double layer which forms at solid

(mineral)-fluid interface was created streaming potentials in

porous media [29]. A diffuse layer in the adjacent fluid

(contains an excess of countercharge) was formed when the

solid surfaces become electrically charged. If more than one

fluid phase is present in the pore space, additional double

layers may format fluid-fluid interfaces [30]. If the fluid is

persuade to flow tangentially to the interface by an external

potential gradient, and then some excess charge within the

diffuse layer is transported with the flow, giving rise to a

streaming current. Streaming potential is an accumulation of

charge associated with divergence of the streaming current

density establishes an electrical potential.

Measurements of streaming potential by using electrodes

permanently installed downhole have recently been proposed

as a promising new reservoir monitoring technology [28,30].

There are still significant uncertainties associated with the

interpretation of the measurements, particularly concerning the

magnitude and sign of the streaming potential coupling

coefficient at high salinity (Saunders et al., 2008). The

coupling coefficient (C) is a key petrophysical property which

relates the fluid ( P) and electrical ( V) potentials gradients

when the total current density is zero [30,31].

V=-C P (1)

and can which can be used to predict the magnitude of the

streaming potential generated by a given fluid potential. The

coupling coefficient depends upon the electrical conductivity

of the brine (σw) and brine-saturated rock (σrw), the

permittivity (ɛw) and viscosity (μw) of the brine, and the zeta

potential (ζ), which the microscopic electrical associated with

the excess charge in the double layer. It can be expressed as

(Hunter, 1981)

C = (2)

where F is the formation factor (=σw/ σrw) and the Fois the

intrinsic formation factor, measured when the surface

conductivity is negligible (typically with a very saline brine).

Values of the coupling coefficient have been measured

experimentally in several published studies , but only samples

saturated with relatively low salinity brine (less than seawater)

[33]. Formation and injected brine in hydrocarbon reservoirs is

typically more saline than this [30]. According to [32],

coupling coefficient falls to zero at approximately seawater

salinity, rise from extrapolating data obtained at low salinity

into the high salinity. If this is the case, then streaming


235

potential signals will be very small in most hydrocarbon

reservoirs [32,34].

Streaming potential measurements have been proposed as

a method to characterize flow in the fractures adjacent to a

borehole, and the pressure response of a reservoir during

transient production test.

V. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Glass bead and sand pack will be used as porous media.

The range selected for the glass bead is 90 – 150 µm. The

advantage using glass beads is enhancing visual observation

and providing consistent permeability and porosity. Other than

that, glass bead also provide clear visual observation of

displacement front. The shape of glass beads is spherical and

has smooth surface. The linear model will be designed to

simulate flow in a horizontal cross section of the reservoir.

The model will be made of glass and Perspex which permits

visual observation of the displacement behavior. Figure 4

shows the picture of the model and its design respectively.

It consisted of a syringe pump, valves, model, pressure

transducer, and collectors. The syringe pump can be used to

set any desired injection rate. A few non-polarizing Ag/AgCl

electrodes will be used to measure the voltage across the

model. The electrodes will be installed along the WAG model.

This electrode will record the flow-rate, voltages and which

can mask the streaming potential signal. Streaming potential

signals will be measured by using NI Data Acquisition

Software (NIDAS).NIDAS is the process of measuring an

electrical or physical phenomenon such as voltage, current,

temperature, pressure, or sound. For this research, NIDAS will

measure the voltage across the model. A pair of pressure

transducers will be measured the pressure difference across

the WAG model and the voltage across the model will be

measured by using Ag/AgCl electrodes.

Fluids system has to be chosen so as to avoid the

necessity of a high pressure and temperature, but then each

phase of reservoir fluid system must be presented by the

substitute fluids. The liquid system used in this study is

refined oil (paraffin), viscous water to represent oil, water and

CO2 respectively at reservoir condition. Scaling requirements

established that the viscosity ratio and density difference of

the various fluids in the model were the same as those in the

reservoir. In this study, these properties of CO2 were kept

constant while the properties of water and oil were changed.

The refined oil was a mixture of paraffin and kerosene. The

kerosene was used to increase the viscosity of the paraffin oil.

In addition, the viscous water was a mixture of glycerol and

brine. The glycerol was used to increase the viscosity water

and density as well. For the polymer adsorption test, The

polymer that applies in these studies is hydrolyzed

polyacrylamide and Polyacrylamides. Then, the polymer

solution will be mixing with calcium chloride (CaCl2) or

sodium chloride (NaCl) with salt concentration up to 20wt %.

Specification detail on linear model using in the polymer test

is cylinder shapes with 10cm long and 3.4cm diameter. The

diagram for polymer flooding testing illustrate as figure 5.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of WAG model with streaming potential measurements


236

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of Polymer flooding model with streaming potential measurements

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of Foam Assisted Water Alternate Gas (FAWAG) model with streaming potential measurements

CONCLUSION

This study is significant because monitoring the

progress of water and gas in a WAG process is key in the

effectiveness of this enhanced oil recovery method.

Measurement of the streaming potential provides another

method besides using tracers to monitor the WAG, foam

and polymer profile. Better monitoring will lead to more

efficient displacement and great benefits in term of

economy and environment. Expected finding for streaming

potential as adsorption detection shows the lower voltage at

the high adsorption condition due to the less free ion in the

solution. High adsorption and lower voltage will occur for

additional CaCl2 compared to NaCl.

Pump

Surfactant

Solution

Pump

Surfactant

Solution

Sampling

P

Pressure

Transducer

P

2

P

1

Sand pack

NIDAS

Electrode

P2 P1

Confining

Pressure


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been made possible to funding by Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia Grant Programme. We would also like

to thank Dr Wan Rosli and PM. Abdul Razak for their

continuous help in preparing the manuscript.

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