What is Research?What is Research?

Research is simply the process of finding Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational study and analysis of the situational factors.factors.

Definition of ResearchDefinition of Research

Business research as an Business research as an organized, systematic, organized, systematic, databased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or databased, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific probleminvestigation into a specific problem, under , under taken with the purpose of finding answer or taken with the purpose of finding answer or solution to it.solution to it.

Examples: Examples: “Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and “Brand loyalty, product life cycle, and product innovation”; “Updating policies and product innovation”; “Updating policies and procedures in keeping with the latest procedures in keeping with the latest governments regulations and organizational governments regulations and organizational changes.changes.

Scientific ResearchScientific Research

Decisions based on the results of scientific Decisions based on the results of scientific investigations tend to be more effective than investigations tend to be more effective than those that are not.those that are not.

Scientific research is focused on the goal of Scientific research is focused on the goal of problem solving and pursues a step-by-step problem solving and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized and rigorous method to logical, organized and rigorous method to identify problems, gather data, analyze them and identify problems, gather data, analyze them and draw valid conclusions therefrom.draw valid conclusions therefrom.

The Hallmarks of Scientific The Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchResearch

PurposivenessPurposiveness RigorRigor TestabilityTestability ReplicabilityReplicability Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence ObjectivityObjectivity GeneralizabilityGeneralizability Parsimony.Parsimony.

ExampleExample

The case of a manager who is interested The case of a manager who is interested in investigation how employees in investigation how employees commitment of the organization can be commitment of the organization can be increased.increased.

How research may be considered as How research may be considered as scientific research.scientific research.

PurposivenessPurposiveness

A definite aim or purpose for the research.A definite aim or purpose for the research.

The focus is on increasing the commitment of The focus is on increasing the commitment of employees to the organization, which will be employees to the organization, which will be helpful in many ways. An increase in employee helpful in many ways. An increase in employee commitment will mean less turnover, less commitment will mean less turnover, less absenteeism, and probably increased absenteeism, and probably increased performance levels, all of which would benefit performance levels, all of which would benefit the organization. The research thus haves a the organization. The research thus haves a purposive focus.purposive focus.

RigorRigor

A good theoretical base and a sound A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design would add rigor to methodological design would add rigor to a purposive study.a purposive study.

Rigor connotes carefulness, Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and degree of exactitude scrupulousness, and degree of exactitude in research investigation.in research investigation.

In the case of our example, let us say the manager of an organization asks 10 to 12 employees in the organization to indicate what would increase their level of commitment to it. If on basis of their responses alone, the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increased, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. That would lack rigor because, to mention just a fews reasons,

1. The conclusions would be incorrectly drawn since they would be based on the thoughts of a few employees whose opinions may not be representative of those of the entire workforce.

2. The manner of framing and addressing the questions could have introduced bias or incorrectness in the responses

3. There might be other important influences on organizational commitment that this small sample of respondents did not or could not verbalize during the interviews, and the researcher would have failed to include them

Because of the above, conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a good theoretical foundation, as evidence by reason (3), and methodological sophistication, as evident from (1) and (2) above, would be unscientific.

Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought-out methodologis. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kinds of information from an appropriate sample with minimum degree of bias, and facilitate appropriate analysis of the data gathered

TestabilityTestability If, after talking to a random selection of If, after talking to a random selection of

employees of the organization and study employees of the organization and study of the previous research done in the area of the previous research done in the area of organizational commitment, the of organizational commitment, the manager or researcher develops certain manager or researcher develops certain hypotheses on how employee hypotheses on how employee commitment can be enhanced, then these commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose.purpose.

For instance, the researches might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater opportunities for

participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitmnet. This a a hypothesis that can be tested when the data are collected. A correlation nalysis would incicate

whether or not the hypothesis is substainted.

ReplicabilityReplicability

The results of the tests of hypotheses The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported againand again when should be supported againand again when the same type of research is repeated in the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances.other similar circumstances.

Precision and confidencePrecision and confidence

Precision refer to how close the findings, Precision refer to how close the findings, based on a sample, are to based on a sample, are to ‘reality’. In other ‘reality’. In other words, precision reflects the degree of words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results accuracy or exactitude of the results based on the sample, to what really exists based on the sample, to what really exists in the universe.in the universe.

Confidence refers to the probability that Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.our estimations are correct.

ObjectivityObjectivity

The conclusions drawn through the The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts resulting should be based on the facts resulting from the findings from actual data, and not from the findings from actual data, and not based on our own subjective or emotional based on our own subjective or emotional values.values.

GeneralizabilityGeneralizability

Generalizability refersto the scope of Generalizability refersto the scope of applicability of the research findings in one applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings organizational setting to other settings

ParsimonyParsimony

Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex research frameworks preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number that consider an unmanageable number factors.factors.

For instance, if two or three specific variables in the work situation are identified, which when

change would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful and valuable to the

manager than if he were recommended a change of 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%.

The Building Blocks of SciencdeThe Building Blocks of Sciencde

Deduction and InductionDeduction and Induction Deduction is the process by which we Deduction is the process by which we

arrive at reasoned conclusion by logically arrive at reasoned conclusion by logically generalizing from a known fact.generalizing from a known fact.

For example we know that all high For example we know that all high performers are highly proficient in doing performers are highly proficient in doing his jobhis job

Induction, on the other hand, is a process Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain phenomena where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

In other words, in induction we logically In other words, in induction we logically establish a general proposition based on establish a general proposition based on observed facts.observed facts.

The method, starting with a theoritical The method, starting with a theoritical framework, formulating hypothesis, and framework, formulating hypothesis, and logically deducing from the results of the logically deducing from the results of the study is known as the HYPOTHETICO study is known as the HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD.DEDUCTIVE METHOD.

The Building Blocks of ScienceDeduction and Induction

Identification of problem area

Identification of problem area

Theoretical framework or

Network of associations

Theoretical framework or

Network of associations

ObservationObservation

Refinement of theory (pure) research

or Implementation

(applied research)

Refinement of theory (pure) research

or Implementation

(applied research)

ConstructsConcepts

Operational definitions

ConstructsConcepts

Operational definitionsAnalysis of data

Analysis of data

Data CollectionData Collection

HypothesesHypotheses

Research design

Research design

Interpretation of data

Interpretation of data

The Hypothetico-Deductive MethodThe Hypothetico-Deductive Method

ObservationObservation Preliminary information gatheringPreliminary information gathering Theory formulationTheory formulation Further scientific data collectionFurther scientific data collection Data analysisData analysis DeductionDeduction

Ch 4: The Research ProcessCh 4: The Research Process

Two distinct aspects of Scientific inquiry in Two distinct aspects of Scientific inquiry in the hypothetico-deductive method:the hypothetico-deductive method: The process of developing the conceptual The process of developing the conceptual

framework and the hypotheses for testingframework and the hypotheses for testing The design which involves the planning of the The design which involves the planning of the

actual study, dealing with such aspects as the actual study, dealing with such aspects as the location for the study, how to select sample location for the study, how to select sample and collect the data and how to analyze the and collect the data and how to analyze the data.data.

The research process for basic and applied research

OBSERVATIONBroad area of

research interest identified

OBSERVATIONBroad area of

research interest identified

PRELIMINARY DATA

GATHERINGInterviewing

Literature Survey

PRELIMINARY DATA

GATHERINGInterviewing

Literature Survey

PROBLEM DEFINITION

Research problem delineated

PROBLEM DEFINITION

Research problem delineated

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Variabel Clearly identified and

labeled

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Variabel Clearly identified and

labeled

GENERATION of

HYPOTHESES

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

DESIGN

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

DESIGNDATA

COLLECTON, ANALYSIS, AND

INTERPRETATION

DEDUCTIONHypotheses

substantiated? Research question

answered?

NO Yes

Report Writing Report PresentationManagerial

Decision Making

11

2

3

4

5 6 7

8

9 10 11

Statement Permasalahan(Gap antara yg seharusnya

dng kenyataan)

Purpose of the study

Types of Investigation

Extent of researcher interference

Study setting Measurement and measures

PR

OB

LEM

ST

AT

EM

EN

T

ExplorationDescriptionHypothesis testing

Establishing:- Causal relationship- Correlation- Group difference, ranks, etc

Minimal: Studying events as they normally occur

Manipulation and/or control and/or simulation

ContrivedNon contrived Operational

definitionItems (measure)Scaling CategorizingCoding

Unit of analysis (population to be studied)

IndividualsDyadsGroupsOrganizationsMachinesetc

Sampling design

Probability/non probabilitySampleSize (n)

Timehorizon

One-shot (cross sectional)Longitudinal

Data Collections Method

Interviewing QuestionnaireObservationUnobtrusive methods

DATA ANALYSIS

1. Feel for data

2. Goodness of data

3. Hypotheses testing

DETAILS OF STUDY MEASUREMENT

Step 1: ObservationStep 1: Observation

Identifying the broad problem area Identifying the broad problem area through process of observing and through process of observing and docusing on the situation.docusing on the situation.

The specific issues that need to be The specific issues that need to be research within this situation may not be research within this situation may not be identified at this stage.identified at this stage.

Example of Broad Problem Example of Broad Problem Area:Area:

Training program are perhaps not as Training program are perhaps not as effective as anticipated.effective as anticipated.

Saturation of Islamic Bank Market.Saturation of Islamic Bank Market. Lack of confidence of the ummah on Lack of confidence of the ummah on

Islamic Bank.Islamic Bank. Role of zakah on poverty alleviationRole of zakah on poverty alleviation Dinar/Dirham as an alternative of fiat Dinar/Dirham as an alternative of fiat

moneymoney

Step 2: Preliminary Data CollectionStep 2: Preliminary Data Collection

Nature of Data to be Collected:Nature of Data to be Collected: - Background information of the org- Background information of the org - Information on structural factors and- Information on structural factors and management philosophy.management philosophy. - Perception, Attitutes and behavioral res- Perception, Attitutes and behavioral res ponses.ponses.

Literature Survey:Literature Survey: - the documentataion of a comprehensive- the documentataion of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublishedreview of the published and unpublished work form secondary sources of data in work form secondary sources of data in the area of specific interest.the area of specific interest. - Reviewing the literature on the topic - Reviewing the literature on the topic area at this time helps the researcher to area at this time helps the researcher to focus the interviews more meaningfulfocus the interviews more meaningful

Reasons for literature surveyReasons for literature survey

To ensure that no important variable is ignored.To ensure that no important variable is ignored. To discover something that has been thoroughly To discover something that has been thoroughly

researchresearchA survey of the literature not only helps the A survey of the literature not only helps the

researcher to include all the relevant variables in researcher to include all the relevant variables in the research project, but also facilitates the the research project, but also facilitates the creative integration of the information gathered creative integration of the information gathered from the structured and unstructured interviewsfrom the structured and unstructured interviews

A good literature wsurvey ensures:A good literature wsurvey ensures:

Important varia bles that are likely to influence Important varia bles that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the the problem situation are not left out of the study.study.

A clear idea emerges as to what variables would A clear idea emerges as to what variables would be most imprtant to consider (parsimony), why be most imprtant to consider (parsimony), why they would be considered important, and how they would be considered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, literature wsurvey helps the problem. Thus, literature wsurvey helps the development of the theoritical framework and the development of the theoritical framework and the hypotheses testing.hypotheses testing.

Testibility and replicability of the finding of the Testibility and replicability of the finding of the current research are enhanced.current research are enhanced.

The problem statement can be made with The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.precision and clarity.

One does not run the risk of One does not run the risk of “reinventing the “reinventing the whell” that is, wasting efforts on trying to whell” that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known.rediscover something that is already known.

The problem investigated is perceived by The problem investigated is perceived by scientific community as relevant and siqnificant.scientific community as relevant and siqnificant.

Conducting the literature surveyConducting the literature survey

Identifying the various published and Identifying the various published and unpublished material that are available on unpublished material that are available on the topics of interest.the topics of interest.

Gathering the relevant information either Gathering the relevant information either by going thorugh the necessary materials by going thorugh the necessary materials in a library or …in a library or …

Writing up the literature reviewWriting up the literature review

Writing up the literature reviewWriting up the literature review

Purpose of literature review is to identify Purpose of literature review is to identify and highlight the important variablesw, and highlight the important variablesw, and to document the siqnificant finding and to document the siqnificant finding from earlier research that will serve as the from earlier research that will serve as the foundation on which the theoritical foundation on which the theoritical framework for the current investigation can framework for the current investigation can be based and the hypotheses developed,be based and the hypotheses developed,

Example of two literature surveyExample of two literature survey

Example 4.1 pg 65: Risk-taking Example 4.1 pg 65: Risk-taking behaviours and organizational outcomes.behaviours and organizational outcomes.

Example 4.2 pg 66: Organizational Example 4.2 pg 66: Organizational EffectivenessEffectiveness

Step 3: Problem DefinitionStep 3: Problem Definition

After literature review, narrow down the After literature review, narrow down the problem from its original broad base and problem from its original broad base and define more clearly the issues of concern.define more clearly the issues of concern.

It is critical that the focus be unanbigously It is critical that the focus be unanbigously identified and defined.identified and defined.

A ProblemA Problem

A problem could simply indicate an interest in an A problem could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answer might help issue where finding the right answer might help to improve an existing situation.to improve an existing situation.

A problem is defined as A problem is defined as any situation where a any situation where a gap exist between the actual and the desired gap exist between the actual and the desired ideal state.ideal state.

It is important that It is important that symptonssymptons of problems are of problems are not defined as the real problemnot defined as the real problem

One way of determining that the problem, One way of determining that the problem, rather than symptom, is being addressed rather than symptom, is being addressed is to ask the question: is to ask the question: ‘Is this factor I have ‘Is this factor I have identified an antecedent, the real problem identified an antecedent, the real problem or the consequence?’or the consequence?’

Steps 4: Theoritical FrameworkSteps 4: Theoritical Framework

A theorretical framework is a conceptual model A theorretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that the relationships among the several factors that habe been identified as important to the habe been identified as important to the problem.problem.

The theoritical framework discusses the The theoritical framework discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated.situation being investigated.

Developing such conceptual framework helps us Developing such conceptual framework helps us to postulate or hypothesize and test certain to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships so as to improve our understanding relationships so as to improve our understanding of the dynamics of the situationnof the dynamics of the situationn

From the theoretical framework, then, testable From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not.whether the theory formulated is valid or not.

The hypothesized relationships can thereafter b The hypothesized relationships can thereafter b e tested through appropriate statistical analyses.e tested through appropriate statistical analyses.

By being able to test and replicate the findings, By being able to test and replicate the findings, we will also have more conviction in the rigor of we will also have more conviction in the rigor of our research.our research.

Thus, the theoretical framework is the basis on Thus, the theoretical framework is the basis on which the entire research rests. Even if testable which the entire research rests. Even if testable hypotheses are not necessarily generated, hypotheses are not necessarily generated, developing a good theoretical framework is developing a good theoretical framework is central to examining the problem under central to examining the problem under investigation.investigation.