939968 Research Methodology Part 1 Introduction to Research Research Methodology
Research Proposal, Methodology and Scientific Writing Basic steps of a Research Unit- 5
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Transcript of Research Proposal, Methodology and Scientific Writing Basic steps of a Research Unit- 5
Research Proposal, Methodology and Scientific Writing
Basic steps of a Research Unit- 5
Sushila C. NepaliSeptember 2012
Contents
1. Identification of research problems2. Conceptual Framework3. Basic format of a research report4. Preparing Research Design eg. Conducting
social research.
Proposal Table of Content
1. Summary2. Introduction to the topic Issues, what,, Objectives overall and specific Limitations3. Problem justification4. Literature Review5. Details Research Plan Study area description Methodology Methods6. Work plan7. Budget8. References
Identification of Research Problem
Two types of Research Problems
Relating to states of nature Relate to relationships between variables
One needs to formulate research problem (based on a problem, to achieve some objectives, meet objectives by using alternatives, to clear doubts, to mitigate the limiting factors)
Can be done through generalizing a problem statement- initial field study Understand the nature of the problem Search through literature reviews Rephrase it in analytical point of view-
Escalation of conflict or civil strife
Change in Threats Changes in planning, input, decision making, outputsEffects on illegal tradesEffects on community management
PA Management Effectiveness
Local livelihoods
Conservation of PA
Figure: Relationships between conservation efforts of PA and local livelihood having an impact from escalating conflict
(N- natural capital assets; S = social capital assets; P = political capital assets; H = human capital assets; F = financial capital assets; Ph = physical capital assets.)
What is Scientific Research?
Provides new knowledge (novel)
Uses recognized methods for data collection and interpretation (reliable and redoable)
Work that:
Word of Advice:
Don’t believe all what you read!
Many errors are printed,many mistakes repeated
(particularly by students)
Go to the original source—get it right!
THESIS: Quantitative data Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices
DedicationAcknowledgementContentsList of FiguresList of Tables
OptionalNormalNecessaryOptionalOptional
Recommendations Optional
Approach or Methodology
THESIS: Qualitative Data Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Chapter A) (Chapter B) Conclusion References Appendices
Tell your story!
Examples:Social Qualities and Natural HazardsTraditional ValuesReactions to ChangeLong-term Opportunities
Layoutof an”ArticleThesis”
Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review
References Article
Appendices
TitleIntroduction(Materials and)
MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionReferences
Send to publisher
THESIS: Organizing information Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices
IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion
IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion
IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion
IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion
Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review ((Materials and)) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices
Each chapter is unique!
IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion
Common error: Chapter contains ...
Organizing information Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices
Present and discussonly your own data …
… don’t mix in other information …
Organizing information: IllustrationExample: Results and Discussion chapter
Methods
Literature Review
Do not insert pieces of literature review*
and methods
Organizing information
Keep in mind:
• You have collected data, and now you are back to tell us what you found.
• You are not writing a textbook!
THESIS (quantitative) Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices
TITLE
Short Keywords Express problem and scope No fillers, jargon or unnecessary words No justification (?)
TITLE
Short (max. 12 words) Keywords Express problem and scope No fillers, jargon or unnecessary words No justification (?)
High Proportion of Keywords
”A study of the impact of tube wells on
farm households in the Maha Oya-
Padiyatalawa (Ampara District) in the dry
zone of Sri Lanka”
Example 1:
Find the essential words (problem and scope)
Keywords Index
”A study of the impact of tube wells on
farm households in the Maha Oya-
Padiyatalawa (Ampara District) in the dry
zone of Sri Lanka”
Keyword index: 9/25 = 0.36
Example 1:
Keywords
“Floristic composition of summer habitats and
dietary relationships between Tibetan argali (Ovis
ammon hodgsonii), naur (Pseudois nayaur) and
domestic goat (Capra hircus) in the Damodar Kunda
region of Upper Mustang in Nepal Himalaya.”
Keyword index: 14/32 = 0.44
Example 2: Can the title be simplified?
Fewer Words — More Keywords:
“Dietary composition of summer habitats for
Tibetan argali, naur and domestic goat,
Damodar Kunda, Nepal”
Keyword index: 12/15 = 0.80
Keywords: Diffuse or Specific?Keywords should be as specific as possible
Examples:
Impacts of agricultural diversification on the environment
Impacts of cotton cultivation on soil erosion
PROBLEM AND SCOPE:
“Floristic composition of summer habitats and
dietary relationships between Tibetan argali (Ovis
ammon hodgsonii), naur (Pseudois nayaur) and
domestic goat (Capra hircus) in the Damodar Kunda
region of Upper Mustang in Nepal Himalaya.”
Example 1:
PROBLEM AND SCOPE:
”Groundwater Management in Northwest Syria: The
case of Jabal Al Hoss.”
Example 2:
”Groundwater Management in Jabal Al Hoss,
Northwest Syria”
FILLERS AND JARGON:
”Management of natural resources: An
assessment of the forest conservation
program conducted by the Annapurna
Conservation Area Project in Ghandruk VDC,
Nepal”
Example:
In scientific writing ...
Conclusion is a ...Summary of findings (results and discussion)
Abstract is a ...Summary of entire publication (introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion and conclusions)
The abstract ...
• Must only contain information that is presented in the paper
• Commonly 150-350 words• No literature review or references• The last thing you write
Rationale Amelioration of subsoil acidity requires an increase in calcium status along with a decrease in alu-
minum status in the subsoil.
Objective In this study, effects of phosphogypsum (PG) on the amelioration of
subsoil acidity have been evaluated using cultivated and woodland subsoils representing Cecil,
Wedowee and Bladen soil series.
Methods Subsoil samples were collected and treated with either PG, cal-
cium nitrate or magnesium nitrate along with an unamended control treatment. A fertile topsoil
amended with ammonium nitrate was placed on top of all treated subsoils.
Results Top and root growth of
alfalfa and soybean were significantly greater in PG-amended than in unamended pots of the Cecil
and Wedowee soils, although most growth was observed with the calcium nitrate amended treat-
ment. In the Bladen soil, however, none of the amendments evoked a significant growth response
in either alfalfa or soybean. The concentration of Ca in the displaced soil solution (in soils with no
plants) as well as tissue levels of calcium suggest that the growth response was partly due to an
improved calcium availability in both PG and calcium nitrate treated soils. Exchangeable alumi-
num decreased in PG-amended soils. The self-liming effect of PG, which is a release of hydroxyl
due to ligand exchange between sulfate and hydroxide, as well as a decrease in exchangeable alu-
minum in PG-amended soil is greater in the predominantly kaolinitic Cecil and Wedowee soils than
in the smectitic Bladen soil.
Conclusion As a result, significant growth response to PG a mendment was
observed in the Cecil and Wadowee soils but not in the Bladen soil.
Structure of an Abstract (exploded)
Amelioration of subsoil acidity requires an increase in calcium status along with a decrease in aluminum status in the subsoil. In this study, effects of phosphogypsum (PG) on the amelioration of subsoil acidity have been evaluated using cultivated and woodland subsoils representing Cecil, Wedowee and Bladen soil series. Subsoil samples were collected and treated with either PG, calcium nitrate or magnesium nitrate along with an unamended control treatment. A fertile topsoil amended with ammonium nitrate was placed on top of all treated subsoils. Top and root growth of alfalfa and soybean were significantly greater in PG-amended than in unamended pots of the Cecil and Wedowee soils, although most growth was observed with the calcium nitrate amended treatment. In the Bladen soil, however, none of the amend-ments evoked a significant growth response in either alfalfa or soybean. The con-centration of Ca in the displaced soil solution (in soils with no plants) as well as tissue levels of calcium suggest that the growth response was partly due to an im-proved calcium availability in both PG and calcium nitrate treated soils. Exchange-able aluminum decreased in PG-amended soils. The self-liming effect of PG, which is a release of hydroxyl due to ligand exchange between sulfate and hydroxide, as well as a decrease in exchangeable aluminum in PG-amended soil is greater in the predominantly kaolinitic Cecil and Wedowee soils than in the smectitic Bladen soil. As a result, significant growth response to PG amendment was observed in the Cecil and Wadowee soils but not in the Bladen soil.
Structure of an Abstract (condensed)
(253 words)
INTRODUCTION
You will most likely use the introduction that you wrote for your proposal.
Warning:You may have changed your focus somewhat since you wrote the proposal. Go through the introduction again to make sure that it hits the subject of your thesis accurately.
Introduction to:
1. The issue
2. Present knowledge (briefly)
3. Remaining questions
4. My work (objectives)
Chapter 2
Introduction: The Problem
Social problem ?
Technical problem ?
Chapter 2
Implementationproject
No research needed (?)
Knowledge problem ? Research project
Introduction: The ProblemChapter 2
Research needs
Socio-technical problem
Knowledge gapResearch needs
Socio-technical problem
Knowledge and knowledge gap
Intro. to an implementation project Intro. to a research project
Socio-technical problem
Introduction
1. The issue
2. Present knowledge
3. Remaining questions
4. My work (objectives)
Chapter 2
First sentence
Common Flaws in Introductions
Intro
Introduction to a situation (or condition)— should rather introduce a knowledge gap (i.e., research problem)
Too general Lots of statistical information Starts out with an issue different from
the title Too long Boring Too much ”ain’t it awful”
Logical FlowIntro
Go straight to your research topic (see title)
Give the reader an overview of the present knowledge and recent research
Point out missing or insufficient knowledge
Describe your objectives
ObjectivesIntro
• State objectives in a way that facilitates the test question: ”Have I reached my objectives?”
Even better objective:Description of a tangible object
Intro
Objective: ”Develop a tested model”
Test question: Have we developed a tested model?
Common mistakes in objective statements
Intro
• Diffuse• Process instead of product• Too many objectives• Some ’objectives’ are methods• Some are intermediate objectives
LITERATURE REVIEW
Should have been written as part of your proposal
Contains ONLY published information
Not a single word about your own study in this chapter, please
Chapter 3
NOT A SINGLE WORD ABOUT YOUR OWN STUDY IN THIS CHAPTER, PLEASE
Move from the global to the local; from the general to the specific
Describe what is known about the topic you have studied; what have people found elsewhere?
Common mistakes: Too general Lack international perspectives Plagiarism
LITERATURE REVIEW
Next slide
Local / Global Perspectives –Number of Potential Readers
Local
National
Regional
Continental
Global
Few readers
Many readers
USE OF REFERENCE
Three reasons for using references:
• To substantiate facts
• To describe what others think
• To substantiate your own views
Straight-forward
Watch out!
Attention needed!
References
Use references to ...
• support questionable statements
• give credit to the holder of intellectual
property rights
References
• Do NOT use references to support generally known facts, e.g., ”Earth is round”; ”Uganda is located between latitude 1 °S and 4 °N”.
• Do NOT add references just to obtain a long reference list
• Do NOT use references just to show that you have read lots of books and papers
What can I refer to?
• To the opinion of a colleague?
• To a newspaper article?
• To an internal report?
• To an obscure report filed in a small library?
• To a textbook?
• To a published review article?
• To a published research article?
References & Ethics
• Refer to original authors, NOT to secondary or tertiary authors (review publications). Give credit to those who deserve it.
• Refer to proven statements, i.e., statements supported by original evidence -- not unsubstantiated statements
• Refer to what is scientifically SOLID!
References in TextWhat did the referred author actually state?
Example of common misuse of references:
”The low concetrations of nitrogen found in the soil samples (< 0.1 %) could be due to insuffi-cient application of fertilizer or manure or due to leaching loss (Smith, 1995).”
Smith (1995) could not have made a statement to this effect since your data were not available in 1995.
Solution?
(cf. Smith, 1995).”
Methodology/Approach/Procedure
Definition of methodology (HyperDictionary):
1. The system of methods followed in a particular discipline
2. The branch of philosophy that analyzes the principles and procedures of inquiry in a particular discipline
(Chapter 4)
(Materials and) Methods
Purpose: To let people know how you did itWhy? Others must be able to do it over
again and check your results Quality: Short and concise; use references if
possible (example?) No discussion of methods, only description of
method and possibly reason for choice Write in past tense
Chapter 4
Philosophical stance
Strategy or plan of action how
Techniques and process
Knowledge- what and how we know
(Materials and) Methods
1. Insufficient details2. Irrelevant information included3. Unused survey data
Chapter 4
Common problems:
Chapter 5 Results
Chapter 6 Discussion
Chapter 5 Results and Discussion
”Objective”
”Subjective”
”Objective”
”Subjective”
”Subjective”
”Objective”
”Subjective”
”Objective”
RESULTS
Present your observations objectively
Do not interpret data at this stage
Use a writing style that underscores the impression of observation
Use past tense
RESULTS
Common error: A short literature review as an introduction to the Result chapter (a second introduction to the topic)
Correct: Give an introduction to your results
RESULTSDo not show data in more than on way:
Variable Categories Frequency
Percentage
Gender Male 4 57.1
Female 3 42.9
Occupation Farmer/trader 4 57.1
Farmer/labourer/trader
3 42.9
Education No formal school 4 57.1
Primary school 2 28.6
Secondary school 1 14.3
Same data
DISCUSSION
In this chapter you discuss your data:
How do you interpret them?What do they tell us? How do they compare to other studies?
What are their implications?What are their weaknesses?What can you conclude?
Do not describe!
DISCUSSION
Common mistakes (I):
Presenting results from other studies(what is old, what is new?)
Discussing issues that are not included in your title or objectives (out of scope)
Describing facts that you already know but not supported by the present data
Continues
DISCUSSION
Common mistakes (II):
Using results to verify textbook knowledge(common problem among beginners)
Reversed interpretation: Using textbook knowledge to interpret nonconclusive data
Under-analyzing dataNext: Illustration
LAYOUT• Does IOF standard tool (?)• Headings
Do not use period (e.g., Introduction.)Do not use colon (e.g., Introduction:)Do not use more that three-digit index number
(e.g., ”2.1.3 Role of Women”)• Page Setup
A4 (not ”A4 Small”)• Page margin (?)
Top and bottom: 3 cm (1.25 inch)Left 3 cm (1.25 inch) and right: 2.5 cm (1 inch)
• FontTimes or Times New Roman (same for headings and text)11 or 12 point
First step: Decide what you want to tell the reader
(avoid the mental trap: ”I have to write a thesis”)
Second step:Explain
Third step:Trim your language
(remove all verbiage)
Three Basic Steps in Writing
Wordy Phrases
In the light of the fact thatBecause (not “since”)
Owing to the fact thatBecause
In the event thatIf
In the vicinity of Near
Simple VerbsSimple verbs are more powerful than complex:Perform an investigation
InvestigateMake a decision DecideTake into consideration
ConsiderMake an adjustment AdjustPerform an analysis AnalyzeReach a conclusion Conclude
Use Simple and Concise PhrasesExamplesVerbose
’The demand pressure on available water resources’
Concise
’The demand for water’
Verbose
’Subject matter specialist’
Concise
’Specialist’
(nutrition specialist)
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
Plagiarism is the act of copying text or ideas from others and presenting them as one’s own. Authors have ‘intellectual property right’ to their ideas and texts.
Copying text and pasting it into one’s own work is, therefore, considered theft. And theft, of course, is unethical and unacceptable. Suspected plagiarism linked to
course assignments, term papers or exam papers will be reported by the relevant departments to the University Board. The University Board will make a decision and
determine appropriate reactions regarding the student.
Some students don’t realize that they commit plagiarism. Hence, they plagiarise in good faith. The following examples will teach you how you should cite your
references correctly and avoid the crime. If you still have questions after reading the text below, please contact your academic adviser or study coordinator
immediately for clarification. At a university, lack of awareness is no excuse for plagiarism.
How do we know if its plagiarism or notText Based on Other Authors’ Knowledge and Experience Consider an original text by Werner (1993: 12)[1]: The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living
standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.
1. You plagiarise Werner if you—based on this text—write: The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living
standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.
Why? Because (1) you copy the text without enclosing it in quotation marks, and (2) you give no credit to the creator of the sentence (no reference).
2. You plagiarise if you write: According to Werner (1993: 12), the results of many rural development projects
aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.
Why? Because you copy the text written by Warner without enclosing it in quotation marks. By not using quotation marks, you falsely indicate that you have formulated Werner’s message using your own words.
[1] Werner, J. 1993. Participatory development of agricultural innovations - Procedures and methods of on-farm research. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (DTZ) GmbH and SDC, Swiss Development Cooperation. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Rossdorf, Germany.
You do not plagiarise if you write
“The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor” (Werner, 1993).
or According to Werner (1993), “the results of many rural development projects
aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.”
Why? Because (1) you indicate that you present Werner’s idea by providing reference, and (2) you show that you present Werner’s idea in his own words by enclosing the text in quotation marks.
Or The success rate of rural development projects in developing countries has
generally been low. Attempts to raise the standard of living among rural poor have to a large extent not had the anticipated effects (Werner, 1993).
Why? Because (1) the statement is you own; you are the creator of sentence, and (2) you provide reference for the information on which you base your statement.