RESEARCH PROCESSReviewing the

Step 1

• Idea to research

Step 2

• Figure out research problem

Step 3

• Making on outline & reviewing literature

Step 6

• Selecting the appropriate research design

Step 7

• Sampling selection

Step 8

• Data recollection

Step 9

• Data Analysis

Step 10

• Presenting results

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1. The idea: A research project is born

Ideas

criteria

Solve problems

Elaborate theories

New thoughts

Initially vague

Sources

Bibliography, audiovisuals, theories, discoveries, beliefs, internet

Idea

An idea represents the closest approach to reality that will be researched

There are lots of different resources that generate ideas

In the beginning ideas are vague. They require careful analysis in order to transform into structured and precise research statements

Idea. An example Writing about romantic relationships:

Where to start? What aspects make a relationship be cordial

and satisfactory?Until this point the idea is vague since different

aspects may be involved, like: Age Psychological factors Clinical factors Sociological factors

In order to decide the researcher will have to read articles, books; talk to specialized professionals; talk to actual couples. All of this to get better acquainted with the topic and be able to select a specific topic

2. Choosing a research topic Choosing a research topic

Criteria

Clarity

Data recollection

Needed elements

Viability

Justification

Research questions

Objectives

Research topic Once the researcher got acquainted

and familiar with the topic then it is possible to setup the research topic.

There is certain criteria that is needed in order to narrow down the general topic into the “just-right” (research) topic. Has to be straight forward, usually as a

question Should be viable and verifiable by

empirical proof For example, “how sublime is a person’s

soul?” is not a good research topic since sublime is not something that is measurable, neither is a person’s soul.

Research topic

There are also some elements that should be taken into consideration in order to choose a research topic. Objectives: guidelines for the research

What is the main purpose for the research? Solve problem Prove a theory Introduce new knowledge

Research topic

Example: Romantic relationship Now that the researcher got acquainted

with the topic looked at sources, talked to experts, he figured out that some of the most important factors in a relationship are: Physical attraction Trust Physical proximity Positive reinforcement Similarities between the partners

Research topic Example: Romantic relationship

Knowing this the researcher could plan his objectives to be any of the following: Determine if physical attraction , trust, physical

proximity, and similarities have an importance over the development of a romantic relationship amongst Mexican teenagers.

Evaluate which of the factors is the most important in the development of a romantic relationship amongst Mexican teenagers.

Analyze if gender matters in the level of importance that is assigned to the different factors

Analyze if age matters in the level of importance that is assigned to the different factors

Research topic Questions: together with the

objectives, creating questions will present the topic in a direct manner, minimizing the distortion. The question or questions might not deal

with the topic in its entirety, but they will also help guide the research.

Questions should be concrete, since general questions will not help. Questions like: why are some people

happier than others? Why do some marriages last more than others? How does media relate to people’s voting?

This questions are too general and actually end up generating more questions

Research topic Example: Romantic relationship

The questions that might help with this specific research could be some of the following: All of the factors discussed previously affect

the boyfriend and girlfriend’s interest in perusing and continuing the relationship?

Which factor is the main one that affects the boyfriend and girlfriend’s interest in perusing and continuing the relationship?

Does the level of importance for each of these factors dependent on if you ask a man or a woman?

Does the level of importance for each of these factors dependent on the age of the person that you are asking the question to?

Research topic Justification: this is the explanation for

your research, and it’s importance. Some of the reasons why a specific research

might be important: Convenience: Why is its importance? Social relevance: What benefits would come out of

it? Practical implications: Is it practical? Does it solve

an actual problem? Theoretical value

Viability: this has to do with the possibility of performing research with the resources that are available. Do you have enough money/time/people to help

you carry on the research

Research topic: Example Topic: Children and TV

Objectives: Describe the use that children in Mexico City

give to mass media communications Investigate the time that children dedicate

to watching television Describe which shows are most watched by

children who live in Mexico City Determine the functions and gratifications

that children, who live in Mexico City, obtain by watching TV

Know the amount of control that parents have over their children TV watching activity.

Analyze what type of children watch the most TV.

Research topic: Example

Topic: Children and TV Questions:

What are the different uses that children, who live in Mexico City, give to mass media?

How much time do different types of children spend watching TV?

What are these children’s favorite TV show? What type, and how much control do

parents have over how much TV their children watch?

Research topic: Example Topic: Children and TV

Justification: For most children watching TV, sleeping and going

to school constitute their main activities. Also, TV is the favorite mass media technology used by smaller children. It is estimated than, in average, a child watches 4 hours of TV daily; thus, it was calculated that by the time he reaches the age of 15 a teenager has watched over 15,000 hours of television.This fact has generated questions amongst parents, teachers, researchers, etc. about the relationship child-television, and the effects that this has over the child.This is the reason for the importance of researching said relationship, with the purpose of analyzing the influence that the television exerts over children; this will provide teachers and parents with important information about a better way to manage the relationship between children and television

3.Creating an outlineOutline

Functions Hypothesis; plan out the process;

prevent mistakes

StagesDeveloping a perspective

Revising literatureExtraction and recompilation; consult; obtain; detect

TheoryCriteria

Simplicity; innovation; perspective; logically consistent; description, explanation and prediction

Function Predict; relate; systematize; explain

Creating an outline

After the previous steps have been completed it is important for the researcher to analyze and expose the theories, theoretical approaches that help with the foundation of the topic.

Usually observed as an index with titles and subtitles

It is important to know that looking over at the existent literature helps out with figuring out the best way, and more importantly, the manner in which we want to deal with our research and the topic.

Creating an outline

Functions: Helps prevent mistakes that might have

been committed in previous studies or research

Leads the way into figuring out how the research should be performed.

Broadens the horizon and helps the researcher understanding the need to carry research in more depth

Helps with the establishment of a hypothesis or affirmations that need to be tested

Inspires new lines or areas of research It gives the researcher a starting point

If we try to prove that a specific type of personality increases the probabilities of a person to be a leader, by revising different sources and studies done about leadership we would realize this specific research makes no sense.

It has been proven that leadership depends on three main aspects: the leader’s characteristics, the follower’s characteristics, and the particular situation.

i.e. Not every leader in history has been charismatic or outgoing. Not having an outline made us not focus on every aspect that is important.

Example where the research lacks an outline

Stages: there are two stages Literature revision (revising sources):

Making sure that the sources are trustworthy Remember back to PP presentation: Sources and

Organization Adoption of a specific theory or theoretical

perspective: When revising the literature we might find out that: There is a theory accompanied by empirical

evidence to back it up that applies to out research

There are several theories that apply to our research

There are “bits and pieces” of theory with some empirical evidence, that suggest important information for the research

There are important discoveries without a theory to back them up

There are unstudied guidelines that are vaguely related to the research.

Theory: actual knowledge that helps understand, events, situations and contextsDescribes, explains, predicts, and finally

orients the research process Criteria, to evaluate:

Able to explain, describe and predict Logical consistency Perspective: That it explains the topic

(almost) totally Innovation: Capability to generate new

discoveries Simplicity: Not required but desired in

order to easily understand it

4. Types of research

Final Purpose

Basic

Applied

Depth of objective

Exploratory

Descriptive

Explicative

Experimental

Correlational

Source

Documentary

Laboratory

Field

Time Period

Historical

Descriptive

Experimental

Nature of variables

Qualitative

Dichotomic

Politomic

Quantitative

Discrete

Continuous

http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-tesis-investigacion/tipos-investigacion-1-2

5. Establishing HypothesisHypothesis

Types

Alternative

Null

Research

Characteristics

Proving technique

Referent to reality

Relation between variables

Real situation

Precise terms

Objectives

Try and suggest theories

Lead research

Hypothesis

Guide the research Tentative explanation to researched

phenomena formulated as propositions or questions

All though most types of research require a hypothesis, in exploratory research no hypothesis is required since there is not that much information available.

They are NOT ALWAYS correct, they could be incorrect or even null.

Types of hypothesis Research:

The expected income for workers in Paraguay is between $800 and $1000 dlls.

The more physical attraction there is, the less trust

Null (work to negate a statement): The expected income for workers in Paraguay

is not between $800 and $1000 dlls. The is no relationship between physical

attraction and trust Alternative (to research or null):

Young men give more importance to physical attraction than young women

6. Research designResearch design

Non-experimental

No variable manipulation

Designs

Causal

Descriptive

Exploratory

Experimental

Variable manipulation

Quasi-experimental

Intact groups

Designs/experiments

Intentional manipulationMeasure effect, Control and

validity

Proof/post-proof

What is research design? The plan or strategy that we will

follow in order to obtain the information that we want, or require.

Usually this is selected when you choose your specific topic, decided on a theoretical view, and formulated the hypothesis.

Choosing and appropriate research design Experimental (require a specific design, and are

used mostly in natural sciences):In these designs the researcher decides on what variables

to study and how to modify them Experiment: random choice of participants, and their

assignment to their study groups Quasi-experiment: not entirely random

Non-experimental (used mostly in social sciences):

In these designs the researcher does not manipulate the variables, but only “observes” phenomena as it happens in its natural environment Causal: relate two variables Exploratory: initial exploration of a community Descriptive: research the repetitiveness of a certain

variable in a population

7. Sample selectionPopulation

Characteristics

Size

Choose sample

Probabilistic

Randomly selected

Stratified

Non-probabilistic

Quota

Purposive

Convenience

7. Sample selection Sample:

Set of elements that come from a bigger set (population).

We study this set in order to know the characteristics of the bigger set.

Why use a sample instead of the population? Because the population requires a

detailed study, and all though the sample only allows an approximate result it is less costly in money and time.

Population

sample

Study of Population Study of Sample

• Exact Knowledge• Requires much time

• High Cost

• Approximate Knowledge• Quick• Cheaper

Sampling is important because…

It is cheaper, faster and still representative

In order to start sampling we need to specify the selection method and the type of sample

Probability sampling

Random Sample: Each individual has an equal likelihood of selection

Stratified Sample: Mini-reproduction of the population Split into characteristics of importance

Examples: Gender, social class, religion, etc. i.e. if 38% of the population is college educated, then

38% of the sample needs to be better educated It is better than the random sample, but it is more

difficult to construct

Non-Probability sampling Quota Sample:

the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample. This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population.

Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not many in that state). To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions in the population. This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.

Non-Probability sampling Purposive Sample:

non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available.

Example: Snowball sample. One person tells another about the survey, and this person another, and this one another, etc.

Non-Probability sampling

Convenience Sample: taking what you can get. It is an accidental

sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.

Now…

…that we have selected the sample

What does it mean to select a specific number for the sample?

Which proportion of the population are we selecting?

And when we want to have conclusions about the population, how many of the elements of the population does each one of the sample elements represent?

Size of sample

sample

Small (<25)

Big (>25)

8. Collecting dataData recollection

Trustworthy and valid

Process1. Choose instrument

2. Apply 3. Coding 4. Prepare

analysis

Instruments Focus groups, interviews, observation, surveys and

questionnaires, scale of values

Collecting data: Instruments Scale of values:

Collecting data: Instruments Questionnaires:

Two types: open and closed questions Examples:

Are you currently studying in any type of program?

( ) yes ( ) no In your own point of view, how do you

define physical fitness?

Characteristics of a good question

Clear and easily comprehensible Do not make the person

uncomfortable Do not induce answer Appropriate language

No set length Suggestion: Nothing that takes

longer than 35 min. to answer

Best size for the questionnaire