Research Methods. The Need for Psychological Science.
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Transcript of Research Methods. The Need for Psychological Science.
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Research Methods
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The Need for Psychological Science
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How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
Anagram
BARGEGRABE
ENTRYETYRN
WATERWREAT
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Try this one!
OCHSA
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Overconfidence
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
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Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias“I knew it all along” “Out of sight, out of mind” “Absence makes the
heart grow fonder”
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Overconfidence
OverconfidenceTogether with hindsight
bias, can lead us to overestimate our intuition
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The Scientific Attitude
Three main componentsCurious eagernessSkeptically scrutinize competing ideasOpen-minded humility
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Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking“Smart thinking”Four elements
Examines assumptionsDiscerns hidden valuesEvaluates evidenceAssesses conclusions
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How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
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The Scientific Method
TheoryWell established principle arising from
repeated observation and testingHypothesis
Specific, testable predictionCan be confirmed or refuted
Operational DefinitionReplication (repeat)
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The Scientific Method
A good theory is useful if it:Effectively organizes a range
of self-reports and observations
Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory
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DescriptionThe Case Study
Case StudyIn-depth focus on one
individualSuggests further studyWeaknesses?
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DescriptionThe Survey
SurveyLooks at many cases at
onceWording effectRandom samplingRepresentative sample
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DescriptionThe Survey
SamplingPopulationRandom Sample
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DescriptionNaturalistic Observation
Naturalistic ObservationDescribes behaviorDoes not explain behaviorWeaknesses?
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Correlation
When you see A, you also see B
A and B predict each other
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Actual Correlations Between having tattoos and driving a
motorcycle Between drinking hot drinks and urination As ice cream sales go up, so does crime Between high temperatures and teenage
pregnancy Between watching a lot of violence on TV
and actual violence Explain this! Those who ate Frosted
Flakes when they were young were 4 times less likely to have cancer than those who ate oatmeal
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Correlation does not mean causation!!
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Correlation
correlation coefficientPositive versus negative correlationStrength of the correlation
R= -1.0 to +1.00 means no correlation
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Correlation
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Correlation
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Correlation
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Correlation scatterplot
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Correlation scatterplot
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Correlation scatterplot
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Correlation scatterplot
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Correlation scatterplot
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Correlation scatterplot
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CorrelationCorrelation and Causation
Correlation helps predictDoes not imply cause and
effect
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CorrelationIllusory Correlations
Illusory CorrelationPerceived non-existent
correlationA random coincidence
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Illusory CorrelationPerceiving Order in Random Events
Comes from our need to make sense out of the worldCoin flipPoker hand
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Experimentation
ExperimentSeeks to demonstrate cause
and effectControl of factors
Manipulation of the factor(s) of interest
Hold constant (“controlling”) factors
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ExperimentationRandom Assignment
Random assignmentEliminates alternative explanationsDifferent from random sample
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ExperimentationRandom Assignment
GroupsExperimental Group
Receives the treatment (independent variable)
Control GroupDoes not receive the treatment
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ExperimentationRandom Assignment
Blind (uninformed)Single-Blind ProcedureDouble-Blind Procedure
Placebo Effect
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Operational Definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
Provides clarity
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ExperimentationIndependent and Dependent Variables
Independent VariableWhat is being manipulated
Dependent VariableWhat is being measuredConfounding (extraneous)
variablePresence affects the variables
being studied. Problem?
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Experimental Design
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Experimental Design
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Experimental Design
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Experimental Design
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Comparing Research Methods
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Comparing Research Methods
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Comparing Research Methods
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Comparing Research Methods
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Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
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Describing DataMeasures of Central Tendency
Mode (occurs the most)Mean (arithmetic average)Median (middle score)
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Describing DataMeasures of Variability
RangeVarianceStandard Deviation
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Describing DataMeasures of Variability
Normal Curve (bell shaped)
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Making InferencesWhen Is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples
Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
More cases are better than fewer
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Making InferencesWhen Is a Difference Significant?
Statistical significanceThe averages are reliableThe differences between
averages is relatively large
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Inferential and Descriptive Statistics
Inferential statistics are used to “infer” conclusions about a larger population
Descriptive statistics “describe” a given population
Ex:
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
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Ethics in Research
Ethics in animal researchReasons for using animals in researchSafeguards for animal use
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Ethics in Research
Ethics in human researchInformed consentProtect from harm and
discomfortMaintain confidentialityDebriefing
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The End
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Definition Slides
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Hindsight Bias
= the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.
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Critical Thinking
= thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
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Theory
= an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
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Hypothesis
= a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
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Operational Definition
= a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
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Replication
= repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
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Case Study
= an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
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Survey
= a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
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Population
= all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country’s whole population.
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Random Sample
= a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
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Naturalistic Observation
= observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
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Correlation
= a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
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Correlation Coefficient
= a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).
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Scatterplot
= a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
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Illusory Correlation
= the perception of a relationship where none exists.
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Experiment
= a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
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Random Assigment
= assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
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Double-Blind Procedure
= an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
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Placebo Effect
= experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
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Experimental Group
= in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
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Control Group
= in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.
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Independent Variable
= the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
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Confounding Variable
= a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
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Dependent Variable
= the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
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Mode
= the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
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Mean
= the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
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Median
= the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.
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Range
= the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.
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Standard Deviation
= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
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Normal Curve
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
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Statistical Significance
= a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
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Culture
= the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
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Informed Consent
= an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
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Debriefing
= the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.