Research methods miriam 2011 for uploading

RESEARCH METHODS(2nd semester, 2011-2012)

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LECTURESTYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES

SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

METHODOLOGIES - GANTT CHART

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Sunday, January 1, 2012

ACTIVITIES

Formulating Titles, Research Questions and Objectives

Writing an RRL

Constructing Dummy Tables and Graphs

Developing the Literature Citations

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The usual definition of RESEARCH...

“going to the library”

“google-ing some key words”

What’s your definition???

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RESEARCH

the process of constant exploration and discovery

the process of discovering new information and gain new knowledge

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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHsystematic, controlled, empirical, critical investigation of hypothetical prepositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973)

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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHa process through which we attempt to achieve SYSTEMATICALLY and with the support of data:

the answer to a question

the resolution of a problem

the greater understanding of a phenomenon

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8 DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS

OF A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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1. Originates with a question or problem

What are he environmental factors that increase shrimp productivity?

What active compound in atis leaves extract is cytotoxic to cancer cells?

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2. Requires a clear articulation of a goalWhat precisely do you intend to do?

Example: to determine the difference in body weight loss after administration of various plant extracts

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3. Follows a specific plan of procedure

carefully planned

methods in a purposeful way: to yield data relevant to their particular research problem

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4. Usually divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems

principal problem: How do we get from UP Manila to Trinoma?

subproblems:

What is the most direct route?

How far do I travel by train?

How much will I spend to reach my destination?

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5. Guided by specific research problem, question or hypothesis

hypothesizing: attempting to account for the cause (*guesses)

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6. Accepts certain critical assumptions

it is necessary to assume

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7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research


8. It follows logical, developmental stages

From questions to answer

“research begets research”

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ULTIMATE AIM OF RESEARCHTo fill in the gaps along the stream of knowledge

To provide solution to contradictory results from previous studies

To satisfy one’s curiosity and quest for knowledge

To find truths for the satisfaction of answering questions and using this new information to help others

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EXPERIMENTALPurpose: the only method of research which can truly test ! ! ! ! hypothesis concerning cause-effect relationship.

the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and the difference determined

Independent Variable : also referred to as the experimental variable, the cause, or the treatment, is that activity or characteristic believed to make a difference.

Dependent Variable : also known as the criterion variable, effect, or posttest is the outcome of the study, the change or difference in groups which occurs as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

Example: 1.! Effect of varying concentrations of Pb on the brain of golden apple snail

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The Process of Research: Logical Steps

The Research problem

ProblEm Identification (Looking for a Topic)

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

Researchability of the Problem

Formulation of Research Objectives

Definition of Research Objectives

Characteristics of Research Objectives


THE RESEARCH PROBLEMthe heart of the research project

requirement: to state the problem with unwavering clarity, precision

what if i simply cannot find a good problem?

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IDENTIFYING YOUR PROBLEMwhere to find interesting problems...

journals, books, abstracts (library/trusted links)

recommendation sections of theses and dissertations/journal articles

ideas from your mentor or professor

ideas from seminars, research colloquia and conferences

personal/family experiences

rare/interesting occurrences which needs to be explained

top ten causes of mortality/morbidity in your localityMMPBalolong


CHARACTERISTIC OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

should be of great interest to you

useful for the concerned people in a particular field

possess novelty

lays foundation for further research in the field

can be completed in the allotted time desired

must use appropriate and up-to-date technology

does not carry ethical or moral impediments

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A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE

S-M-A-R-T!

SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE, REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND

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IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?

EXternal factors

novelty and avoidance of unnecessary repetition

practical value of the problem

availability of data on the problemMMPBalolong


personal factors

training and personal qualifications

time requirements

availability of subjects and equipments

specialized working conditions

hazards to be encountered

research funds (cost)

IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?

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STATING YOUR RESEARCH

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE!

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WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE RESEARCH PROBLEMS?

BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS

EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO

E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY

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FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO

CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR A QUESTION

SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

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SAMPLE OBJECTIVESTO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR

TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF

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GENERAL

summarize what is to be achieved by the study.

should be closely related to the research question.

EXAMPLE:

Problem: low utilization of child protection units (CPUs)

General Objective: to identify the reasons for this low utilization

HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR OBJECTIVES?

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SPECIFIC

smaller, logically connected parts of a general objective

should systematically address the various aspects (dimensions) of the general objective

should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.!

HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR OBJECTIVES?

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Clearly phrased in operational terms

Use action verbs

Examples: explain, apply, predict, identify, employ, evaluate, describe, illustrate, defend, integrate, use, assess, contrast, interpret, distinguish, sort, categorize, diagram, solve, formulate, report, relate, organize, restate, recall, prepare, review, list, arrange, classify, name, construct, translate, recognize, create, determine

PICKING THE RIGHT WORDS

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• To know

• To understand

• To really understand

• To fully appreciate

• To internalize

• To grasp the significance of!

• To have an awareness of! !

WORDS TO AVOID...

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GENERAL: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of good quality to people with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these services can be improved

SPECIFIC

To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS.

To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as patients.

To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.

To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the patient by the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC programme.

SAMPLE OBJECTIVES

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ACTIVITY FOR TODAY

1. Formulate Title from Desired Topics2. Formulate the Research Question/Research

problem3. Formulate Objectives

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Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the scope of his study without becoming concerned with a trivial problemAssumptions, restrictions and limitation must be explicit with respect to the coverage of the studyHelps focus attention on valid objectives, & helps minimize the dangers of over generalization

SCOPE & LIMITATIONS


the scope of the problemtime allotted for the conduct of the studycost and fundingcooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or researchersavailability of research subjectsavailability of equipment neededethical considerations

FACTORS TO CONSIDER


THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Evaluating Others’ and Developing Your Own


After the research problem has been identified and the objectives formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.

Two Important Uses:

• To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the research to be conducted relative to:

- who have done the work on the problem area- what has been found- research design utilized- statistical analysis applied- problem met and how were they resolved

• To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual framework based on previous research studies done.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE


RELATED LITERATURE: Composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related

RELATED STUDIES: studies, inquiries or investigations conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity

usually unpublished materials

manuscripts; theses; dissertations



It identifies the start for the research problem by presenting the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies in the previous researches. This provides the study with a conceptual framework justifying the need for investigations.

It puts together all the constructs or concepts that are related with the researcher’s topic. The theory then leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own investigation

It presents the relationships among variables that have been investigated. This process enables you to view your topic on hand against the findings earlier bared.

FUNCTIONS OF YOUR RRL


The surveyed materials must be as recent as possibleMaterials reviewed must be objective and unbiasedMaterials surveyed must be relevant to the study

Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable

Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many

CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUR RRL


HOW TO CONDUCT THE REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE“WHERE DO I GO FROM HERE?”


personal or school library (magazines, journals, books, etc)

attend seminars, scientific meetings (under your topic of course)...take down notes

do a computer-aided search through databases

example: www.scirus.com; pubmed; SCIENCE DIRECT, etc

WHERE TO SEARCH


http://www.scirus.com

http://www.scirus.com

You can actually ask for reprints:

via postcards

via request letters

via emails

WHERE ELSE???


AFTER ALL THESE PHOTOX WHAT’S NEXT?

“ITS TIME TO ORGANIZE YOUR TREASURES!”


General Information

Methods in Other Studies

Support for Objectives

Results to Compare with My Results

Pros and Cons of Controversy

Others...it may be of use (malay mo!)

ORGANIZING YOUR RRL


write all bibliographic information, i.e., author(s), complete title, publisher, date and place of publication, and so on

write what others have said on the subject plus your own impressions and comments

ALSO....


IT’S TIME TO WRITE...AVOIDING PLAGIARISM!


Use headings arranged in logical order to indicate main points

Avoid too long introduction to your main topic.

Include information that are directly related and relevant to your topic.

A maximum of half-page (double-space) must constitute one paragraph

Do not copy in toto the information from your source. No more than 10% of the entire paper is allowed for direct quotation



Give due credit to the real source of your data. Cite the authors at the end of the sentence.

Paraphrase using your own words and style the data gathered.

Summarize important points from your sources and relate them to your topic.

Reinforce your data with selected figures or statistics from your course.



A common problem...

“turning your list of ideas into a BORING review”


Make subheads (not too many), transitional phrases and unifying ideas to make information flow smoothly

HOW TO AVOID IT


Spice your writing with a variety. Keep your paper alive!

Vary the way sentence and paragraph begins:

Author A found out

Author B found out

Replace found out with:

demonstrates; presented evidence for; supported; observed; reported; examined; concluded

Early in the 1980’s, author A

According to Author A,



READY TO DO YOUR RRL?


But before that, let us learn to critique or evaluate a research

study


Why did the Researchers do this particular study?

Who/What was/were studied?

How was the study done?

What did the researchers find?

What were the limitations of the study?

What are the implications of the study?

ACTIVITY FOR TODAY: CRITIQUING A JOURNAL PAPER


TYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES



TODAY!!!


MATERIALS

laboratory supplies

equipment

travel, communication

METHODS

formulate hypothesis (descriptive)

testing hypothesis (analytical)

MATERIALS & METHODS


A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,1976)

States the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between two or more variables in the research problem

Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)

FORMULATING YOUR HYPOTHESIS


Stated in declarative formStated in definite terms, the relationship between variablesShould reflect the theory or literature that it is based onShould be brief and to the pointShould be testable

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS


TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”


HoNever true or established but can be possibly disproved in the course of the experimentationNo difference relationship between the variables we want to studyMay act as a starting point and as a benchmark against which the researcher will measure the actual outcome of the study once the researcher has collected the data

THE NULL HYPOTHESIS


HAAlternative hypothesisRelationship is always positive

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS/ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS


Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging

HA : Vitamin C inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50% compared to placebo

Ho : There is no significant difference between the effectivity of cerebral artery bypass and standard medical therapy)

HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard medical therapy

EXAMPLES...


Non-directional – reflects a difference between groups, but the direction of the difference (unequal) is NOT specified

Directional – reflects a difference between groups and the difference is specified

TWO TYPES OF HA


Variable – any trait/characteristic that manifest differences irrespective of whether the differences are qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sexQuantitative – weight, height, length, light intensity, temperature

IDENTIFYING YOUR RESEARCH VARIABLES


Independent – the treatment variable

variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)

the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome

Dependent – outcome variables in a research study

refers to the outcome or response variable

Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable being considered

Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions

TYPES OF VARIABLE


PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide loading on plant morphologyIdentify the:

Independent variableDependent variableIntervening/extraneous variable

TRY THIS....


represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher

in answering the research objectivesin obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis

CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH DESIGN


the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the following

selection and number of subjectscontrol and manipulation of relevant variablesestablishment of criteria to evaluate outcomesinstrumentationmaximization of internal and external validity

CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH DESIGN


research objectivesfeasibilityethical considerationseconomy and efficiencyinternal and external validity

FACTORS TO CONSIDER...


refers to extent to which investigator is able to control the different biases affecting the study and in the end, measures what he really intends to measureDid the experimental treatment really bring about a change in the dependent variable?Did the independent variable make a significant difference?

INTERNAL VALIDITY


refers to the extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of his study Are the results applicable to groups and environment outside of experimental setting?

EXTERNAL VALIDITY


ExperimentationQuestionnaireInterview schedule and forms

DESIGN TOOLS


A number of researchers think about data analysis only after all data has been collected

Consequences:

Some very important variables in study are either not measured at all or collected using a measurement scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data analysis

Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable, given the nature of the data that were collected

DESIGN THE PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS


A good practice is to construct a dummy table

Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn to help the investigator conceptualize how the data is going to be organized and presented after it has been collected

THE SOLUTION...


RESEARCH DESIGN Table 1 - Research Questions and Designs-------------------------------------------------------------------------- TYPE OF RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGN QUESTION USUALLY USED-------------------------------------------------------------------------- Descriptive 1. Observational w/ one observation (Describe conditions) 2. Observational w/ multiple obs. 3. Ex Post Facto Differences 3. Ex Post Facto * (Is there a difference?) 4. Pre/Post (two obs. of DV) 5. Pre/Post w/Control Group (two obs. of DV) 6. Two-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV) 7. Three-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV) 8. Repeated Measures (two or more obs.) 9. Factorial (two or more IVs) 10. Co-variance (pre-observation as control) 11. ABA Time Series (single subject) 12. AB Time Series (single subject) Relationships (How do the variables 13. Correlation/Regression (one group) relate to each other) 14. Correlation/Reliability (one group and two obs.)------------------------------------------------------------------------- * This design bridges both types


DATA ANALYSIS TABLE 2 Relating Research Designs to Appropriate Statistical Analyses ------------------------------------------------------------------- DESIGN STATISTICAL TEST-------------------------------------------------------------------DIFFERENCES RESEARCH QUESTION1. Basic two-group design 1. a. t-test - independent means (Interval or ratio data)* b. Mann-Whitney U test (Ordinal data) c. Chi-square (nominal data) 2. Pre-test and post-test 2. a. t-test - dependent design. (non-independent) means (Interval) b. Wilcoxon or Sign test (Ordinal) c. McNemar test (Nominal)


DATA ANALYSIS3. Time-Series or Single 3. Interrupted time-series analysis Subject (interval) 4. Covariance, or repeated 4. a. Repeated measures analysis measures design. of variance OR Analysis of co-variance (Interval) b. Friedman's AOV by ranks (Ordinal) c. Cochran's Q (Nominal) 5. Three or more groups 5. a. Analysis of variance design (Interval) b. Kruskal-Wallis AOV (Ordinal) c. Chi-square test for K independent groups (Nominal)


CITING YOUR REFERENCESFormat: American Psychological Association (APA)http://www.apastyle.org


http://www.apastyle.org/




GANTT CHART


READY TO MAKE YOUR

PROPOSAL?Sunday, January 1, 2012

Research methods miriam 2011 for uploading

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