Research Methodology

This presentation summarizes the main points of conducting a research paper

Also, it presents valuable details which increase your knowledge towards the research

process.

Definition of Research• In order to plan and carry out research, it is necessary for you to know

what we mean by research.• Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING

ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.• SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps

which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.

• ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.

• FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.

• QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.

EPISTEMOLOGYFirst of all, you should realize that research is only one of several ways of

"knowing."The branch of philosophy that deals with this subject is

called EPISTEMOLOGY. Epistemologists generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge:

INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE takes forms such as belief, faith, intuition, etc. It is based on feelings rather than hard, cold "facts.“

AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE is based on information received from people, books, a supreme being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of these sources.

LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE is arrived at by reasoning from "point A" (which is generally accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge).

EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are determined through observation and/or experimentation).

• Research often makes use of all four of these ways of knowing:

• INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for research)

• AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional literature)

• LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to conclusions)

• EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Finding a RESEARCH QUESTION is probably the most important task in the research process because the question becomes the driving force behind the research-from beginning to end.

A research question is always stated in question form. It may start out being rather general and become focused and refined later on (after you become more familiar with the topic, learn what others have discovered, define your terms more carefully, etc.)

The research question you start out with forms the basis for your review of related research literature. This general question also evolves into your hypothesis (or focused research question). When you draw conclusions, they should address this question. In the end, the success of your research depends on how well you answer this question.

It is important to choose a question that satisfies certain criteria:

It must not be too broad or general (although you will focus it even more later on in the process).

It shouldn't have already been answered by previous research (although replication with variation is certainly acceptable).

It ought to be a question that needs to be answered (i.e., the answer will be useful to people).

It must be a question that can be answered through empirical means.

You can go to many sources to find topics or issues that can lead to research questions. Here are a few:

experienceProPersonalfessional booksArticles in professional periodicalsProfessional indexes (LLBA, MLA, ERIC etc.)Other teachers and administratorsBibliographies of various typesUnpublished research by others

Here are a couple of examples:Will students learn a foreign language better

when they are in a relaxed state of mind?What is the relationship between learners'

ages and their accents?

A LITERATURE REVIEWA LITERATURE REVIEW is a formal survey of

professional literature that is pertinent to your particular question. In this way you will find out exactly what others have learned in relation to your question. This process will also help frame and focus your question and move you closer to the hypothesis or focused question. Once you have decide on a general research question, you need to read widely in that area. Use the same sources of information that you consulted when you came up with your general question, but now narrow your focus. Look for information that relates to your research question

HYPOTHESIS & FOCUSED QUESTIONIn deductive research, a HYPOTHESIS is necessary. It is focused

statement which predicts an answer to your research question. It is based on the findings of previous research (gained from your review of the literature) and perhaps your previous experience with the subject.The ultimate objective of deductive research is to decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis as stated. When formulating research methods (subjects, data collection instruments, etc.), wise researchers are guided by their hypothesis. In this way, the hypothesis gives direction and focus to the research.

Here is a sample HYPOTHESIS:The "Bowen technique" will significantly improve intermediate-

level, college-age ESL students' accuracy when pronouncing voiced and voiceless consonants and tense and lax vowels.

Sometimes researchers choose to state their hypothesis in "null" form. This may seem to run counter to what the researchers really expect, but it is a cautious way to operate. When (and only when) this null hypothesis is disproved or falsified, the researcher may then accept a logically "alternate" hypothesis. This is similar to the procedure used in courts of law. If a person accused of a crime is not shown to be guilty, then it is concluded that he/she is innocent.

Here is a sample NULL HYPOTHESIS:The Bowen technique will have no significant effect

on learners' pronunciation.

In heuristic research, a hypothesis is not necessary. This type of research employs a "discovery approach." In spite of the fact that this type of research does not use a formal hypothesis, focus and structure is still critical. If the research question is too general, the search to find an answer to it may be futile or fruitless. Therefore, after reviewing the relevant literature, the researcher may arrive at a FOCUSED RESEARCH QUESTION.

Here is a sample FOCUSED RESEARCH QUESTION:Is a contrastive presentation (showing both native and

target cultures) more effective than a non-contrastive presentation (showing only the target culture) in helping students understand the target culture?

SUBJECTS

SUBJECTS are the sources of your data. Most research in language-related fields uses people as subjects. Their characteristics, development, opinions, attitudes, knowledge, performance, etc. are used to answer your research question.

In order to choose appropriate subjects you need to decide what your population of interest is.

POPULATIONSIn research, population has a specialized meaning. Theoretically,

a population is the group from which your subjects are drawn. Therefore, it is also the group that your subjects represent.

When discussing your research findings, you must be careful not to generalize your conclusions beyond this group.

For this reason, it important to identify the key characteristics of your subjects, and the population they represent. Are they children, teenagers, adults? Are they men or women. What is their nationality? What native language do they speak?

If you already have a sample group with which you will conduct your research, you need to identify their key characteristics carefully in order to produce a corresponding but theoretical population to which you can generalize your findings.

On the other hand, if you start with a large population that is too large to work with, then you must select a smaller sample from it. It is extremely important that this sample be representative of the entire group. Ideally, this selection is done through scientific yet random processes.

INSTRUMENTS & PROCEDURES• INSTRUMENTS are used to gauge some quality or ability of

your subjects. The purpose of the instrument is to elicit the data for your study.

• Here are some possible instruments/procedures:• Tests of various skills or behaviors (language proficiency in

general, particular language skills, psychological traits, etc.) in various formats (multiple-choice, open response, etc.)

• Interviews (unstructured or structured)• Questionnaires (mailed or in-person)• Observations of students or teachers• Diaries kept by language learners or teachers• Reviews of school records or documents• Verbal self-reports by learners (introspective or retrospective)

Validity

Validity is one of the main concerns with research. "Any research can be affected by different kinds of factors which, while extraneous to the concerns of the research, can invalidate the findings" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95). Controlling all possible factors that threaten the research's validity is a primary responsibility of every good researcher.

INTERNAL VALIDITY is affected by flaws within the study itself such as not controlling some of the major variables (a design problem), or problems with the research instrument (a data collection problem).

"Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they may have been affected by factors other than those thought to have caused them, or because the interpretation of the data by the researcher is not clearly supportable" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95).

EXTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to a larger group or other contexts. If your research lacks external validity, the findings cannot be applied to contexts other than the one in which you carried out your research. For example, if the subjects are all males from one ethnic group, your findings might not apply to females or other ethnic groups. Or, if you conducted your research in a highly controlled laboratory envoronment, your findings may not faithfully represent what might happen in the real world.

"Findings can be said to be externally invalid because [they] cannot be extended or applied to contexts outside those in which the research took place" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95).

ANALYZING DATA

Once have your data, you must ANALYZE it. There are many different ways to analyze data: some are simple and some are complex. Some involve grouping, while others involve detailed statistical analysis. The most important thing you do is to choose a method that is in harmony with the parameters you have set and with the kind of data you have collected.

Writing up

• The standard format of any research typically consists of five major sections, which may be subdivided into smaller parts. The five main components of a research report are..

1.Introduction

• The main purpose of the INTRODUCTION is to give a description of the problem that will be addressed. In this section the researcher might discuss the nature of the research, the purpose of the research, the significance of the research problem, and the research question(s) to be addressed.

• Three essential parts of a good introduction are:• RATIONALE• PURPOSE• RESEARCH QUESTION(S)

RATIONALE

Somewhere in the introduction you need to inform the reader of the rationale of your

research. This is a brief explanation of why your research topic is worthy of study and may

make a significant contribution to the body of already existing research.

PURPOSE

The statement of purpose is not simply a statement of why the research is being done. (That is what the rationale section is for.) Rather, "purpose" refers to the goal or objective of your research. The purpose statement should answer questions. . ."What are the objectives of my research?" and

"What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?

RESEARCH QUESTION

The introduction usually ends with a research question or questions. This question should be. . .Related to your research purpose

FocusedClear

2 .Literature Review

As part of the planning process you should have done a LITERATURE REVIEW, which is a survey of important articles, books and other sources pertaining to your research topic. Now, for the second main section of your research report you need to write a summary of the main studies and research related to your topic. This review of the professional literature relevant to your research question will help to contextualize, or frame, your research. It will also give readers the necessary background to understand your research.

Evaluating other studies:

In a review of the literature, you do not merely summarize the research findings that others have reported. You must also evaluate and comment on each study's worth and validity. You may find that some published research is not valid. If it also runs counter to your hypothesis, you may want to critique it in your review. Don't just ignore it. Tell how your research will be better/overcome the flaws. Doing this can strengthen the rationale for conducting your research.

Selecting the studies to include in the review:

You do not need to report on every published study in the area of your research topic. Choose those studies which are most relevant and most important.

Organizing the review:

After you have decided which studies to review, you must decide how to order them. In making your selection, keep your research question in mind. It should be your most important guide in determining what other studies are revelant. Many people simple create a list of one-paragraph summaries in chronological order. This is not always the most effective way to organize your review. You should consider other ways, such as...By topic

Problem -> solutionCause -> effect

Another approach is to organize your review by argument and counter argument. For example, You may write about those studies that disagree with your hypothesis, and then discuss those that agree with it. Yet another way to organize the studies in your review is to group them according to a particular variable, such as age level of the subjects (child studies, adult studies, etc.) or research method (case studies, experiments, etc.).

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The end of the review:

The purpose of your review of the literature was to set the stage for your own research. Therefore, you should conclude the review with a statement of your hypothesis, or focused research question. When this is done, you are ready to proceed with part three of your research report, in which you explain the methods you used

3 .DESIGN & METHOD

This section of the report is where you explain to your reader how you went about carrying out your research. You should describe the subjects, the instruments used, the conditions under which the tests were given, how the tests were scored, how the results were analyzed, etc.

Remember that this section needs to be very explicit. A good rule of thumb is to provide enough detail so that others could replicate all the important points of your research. Failure to provide adequate detail may raise doubts in your readers' minds about your procedures and findings.

Make sure you are honest and forthright in this section. For example, if you had some problems with validity, acknowledge the weaknesses in your study so that others can take them into account when they interpret it (and avoid them if they try to replicate it).

4 .RESULT

In the RESULTS of your report you make sense of what you have found. Here you not only present your findings but also talk about the possible reasons for those findings. Also, if your research approach was deductive, then here is where you accept or reject your hypothesis (based on your findings). In addition, in this section you should use your knowledge of the subject in order to make intelligent comments about your results.

5 .CONCLUSION

In the CONCLUSION to your report, you do a number of important things:

Summarize the main points you made in your introduction and review of the literature

Review (very briefly) the research methods and/or design you employed.

Repeat (in abbreviated form) your findings.Discuss the broader implications of those findings.Mention the limitations of your research (due to its scope

or its weaknesses)Offer suggestions for future research related to yours.

AbstractABSTRACT Some research end (or begin) with an abstract.

An abstract is a highly abbreviated (usually 100-200 words) synopsis of your research. It should describe your rationale and objectives, as well as your methods and findings. Because of its limited length, an abstract cannot go into detail on any of these topics. Nor can it report on the limitations of your research or offer suggestions for future research. For those, readers will have to read the entire report. But, after reading your abstract, people unfamiliar with your research should know what it is about and whether they want to read the entire report.