Research Methodology Step by Step Guide for Fraduate Stuedents

8/13/2019 Research Methodology Step by Step Guide for Fraduate Stuedents

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RESE RCH METHODOLOGY STEP BY STEP

GUIDE FOR GR DU TE STUDENTS

Haydar El Hadi Babikir 1 Ali Babikir A /, Mabuo M Abed e Wahab 2 .

Introduction

A scientific research becomes an important component toqualify . for the Clinical MD in Paediatrics and child health,awarded by the Sudan Medical Specializations Board. t is apartial fulfillment research submitted before sitting to the second

part. The Paediatric Training Committee is responsible for helpingthe graduate students with every possible weapon to accomplishtheir research. This article is a mean to step forward.

A research proposal is a very difficult writing, which is madewhen ~ ~ ~ went through the highest academic steps of education. tthe first thing that should be done by the researcher in the casehe/or she wants to make the research successful. t provides therationale for the proposed research. t also shows the researcher'sawareness ofth subject.

Research is defined as a careful, systematic investigation msome filed o f knowledge, undertaken to establish facts orprinciples or to find answers to a problem 2. According toKerlinger (1986) scientific research is a systematic, controlledempirical and critical investigation of propositions about thepresumed relationships about various phenomenon 3 Bulmer in1977 stated: 'Nevertheless sociological research, as research, isprimarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and validknowledge about the social world' 5 .

These guidelines are meant to help the graduate student topresent his/her proposal ideas in a strong, concise and systematicmanner, to be read with a few simple and direct purposes. Beforeproceeding the researcher has to insure that the research 1sfeasible, i.e. the research is ethical and potentially viable. Aformal written consent is usually needed.

t is both unnecessary and unwise to start by preparing acomprehensive, detailed project proposal. The student has toproduce a preliminary project paper of no more than five pages. tis important, although quite commonly overlooked is that, theproposal is generally written in present and future tense, whereas,the dissertation or thesis is always written in the past tense, as it isa report of a completed study.


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Format of a Research QuestionThis is the most important step in any research. , t is the

foundation for further development of the . research proposal (i.e.objectives, methodology, work plans and budget). There should bea question or a problem which requires an answer or a solution. Awell defined research question makes it easier to review theliterature. t drives the entire study. A well known and testedmethod is needed to answer or solve the research question. 5

Therefore, a researcher cannot be guided by a tentative answeri.e., a hypothesis.

Research proposals serve a number of purposes. Members of athesis or dissertation committee read the proposal with a fewsimple and direct purposes 6 :1 To determine what the researcher wants to do, .2 To establish why the research is important, convmcmg and

worth undertaking.3- To understand how he/she wishes to do it. Proposal writing

en


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Feasibility. The research problem must be easy to implement.

This depends on the resources and the researcher should not beover ambitious. Thought should be given to personnel, time,equipment and money locally available.

...

Authority acceptability. This increases the chances oimplementation o the results. Strong and conforming researchquestions will attract the interest o the grants providers andtheir support.

Applicability. Applicability o the research recommendationsdepends on the resources to implement these recommendationsand authority or policy makers' interest. The latter has to beinvolved from the beginning.

Urgency o data needed. This is usually decided by the policymakers, so it's important to address their priorities.

Ethical acceptability. The research should not inflict any harmon others, during the research or following its outcome. The

research has to be reviewed with the view o ethics. An ethicalclearance from (a research ethical committee) is almost alwaysasked for.

There are no specific guidelines to formulate a research problem;however, a researcher can follow the following steps

1:

-Identification o a broad area o interest m his/heracademic/professionals field.2-Dissection o broad areas into subareas, this needs a brainstorming session with oneself, peers, professionals).3-Selection o subarea by elimination.4-Raising research questions need to be answe -red.5-Formulation o objectives.6-Assessment o these objectives (s) to ascertain their feasibilityo attaining them in view o time, logistics and technical expertise.Types o Researches

A research can be classified from three perspectives:Application, objectives and the type o information thought1

Aresearch project may be classified as pure or applied researchfrom the perspective o application) as in most social researches,

or as a descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratoryresearch ( from the perspective o objectives) and as quantitativeor qualitative from the perspective o the type o informationthought). As an example o researches based on informationthought are:

Q lit ti h Th h i d t d d l


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and practice of a group of respondents about certain issues. Itsrrmin objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,

situation or attitude.ii Quantitative Research: this type helps to quantify data whichis collected in quantities (numerical manner).

In controlled research, the researcher in exploring causality inrelation to two variables, the study must be set up in a way thatmm m zes the effects of multiplicity of relationships andinteracting factors affecting the outcome. This is difficult to applyin social sciences, as it is not possible to control external factorswhich their impact needed to be qualified.A Research DesignA research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigationconsidered to obtain answers to research questions or problems.The various designs have been classified by examining them fromthree different perspectives:The number of contacts: (This based on the number of contactswith the study population)

1:

- The cross-sectional study design (one-short or status studies).Most commonly used. design in social sciences. It suited to studiesaimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,problem, attitudes or issue.- The before and after study design (pre-test/post-test design).This can measure changes in situation, phenomenon, problem orattitude. It is the most commonly used design in evaluation studies

and the most appropriate design for measuring the impact oref fectiveness of a program. An example: The impact o increasedfunding on the quality o eaching n universities.- The longitudinal study design. This is used to determine thepattern of change in relation to time. It is also useful when aresearcher need to collect factual information on a continuingbasis.The Reference Period: This refers to the time-frame in which a

study is exploring a phenomenon, situation, event or problem.- The retrospective study design. This investigates problems thathave happened in the past, based on available old data, orrespondents recall of the problem).- The prospective study design. This investigates the prevalence ofphenomenon in the future.- The retrospective- prospective study design. This focuses on pasttrends in a phenomenon and studies it in the future.The nature of the Investigation:

Th i t l t d d i


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-Non-experimental; andQuasi or semi-experimental.

The Elements o a ProposalThe research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure and

strategy designed to obtain answers to the research questions. tconsists of a series of tasks which form a logical path that leadsthe observer to his/her conclusions. t is a plan that should beundertaken to fulfill the research objectives and test hypotheses. tanswers what a researcher proposing to do, how is he/she plan toproceed and how the proposed strategy is selected.

Views are different about the best arrangement of a researchingredients and vary markedly from discipline to discipline. Theorder usually reflects what seems to be the order in whichproposal writers think through and develop their ideas. Therefore,it must be a convincing and descriptive document, that makes theideas and approach crystal clear.The Proposal Contains Information About the Study these

re :

Study s objectives. A list of study hypotheses need to be tested. Study s design proposed to be used. The setting of the study. Instruments planned to be used. A sample design and a sample size. Outline the proposed chapters for the report. Study s problems and limitations. A proposed time frame.

An eight model suggested by (R. Kumar 1999) are suitableparticularly for a graduate beginner. The model covers the totalspectrum of a research effort, starting from problem formulationthrough to writing a research report. These steps are:- Step I: Formulating a research problem. Step II: Conceptualizing a research design.

Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection. Step IV: Selecting a sample. Step V: Writing a research proposal. Step VI: Collecting data. Step VII: Writing a research report.

A research problem formulation IS what the researcherintend to do. t should be more specific and clear, as it influenceseverything that follows in the research design. The researchproblem has to be evaluated in the light of the financial resources


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available, the time allotted to the task, and the researcher orhis/her supervisor expertise and knowledge in the field o the

study. ,Sample problem statement in social impact research:(Children from low socio-economic strata n the Sudan are ojiendenied proper education because teachers perceive them to beless intelligent ).

Sample problem statement in theoretical research:(To what extent s poor school performance o children fromsouthern Gezira locality influenced by intelligence or by

socioeconomic status).The TitleThe title should name clearly the main purpose o the project. tshould fit the target population, the area where it is supposed to beconducted and the date o the research.Introduction and ackground

The introduction serves to orient the reader to the researcherapproach. What first awakened his interest in the study? It

presents shortly the broad guidelines o the study, its scope andlimits.

In this section the researcher elaborates on the researchproblem and answers the question about the topic area and thequestions most approp riate to the study. In answering thesequestions, the researcher should give concrete instances whichillustrate the problem, the theoretical issue and the historicalevents.

It is better to be short but it has to persuade the reader that theproject is feasible, appropriate and worthwhile. In the backgroundthe researcher includes a rather complete description o the projectjustification, he/or she has to include statements o opinion byknowledgeable observers political figures, important theorists, orprofessionals in a position to comment authoritatively on someaspect o the problem) who attest to the fact that the problem isworth addressing.

The researcher has to start with amain subject area, before graduallycentral problem under investigation.aspects o the study area:

very broad perspective o thenarrowing the focus to the

This covers the following

An overview o the main area under study; A historical perspective development, growth, etc) pertinent to

the study area.

Philosophical or ideological issues relating to the topic; Trends in terms o prevalence, i any;


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Major theories, i any; The main issues, problems and advances in the subject area

under the study; Important theoretical and practical issues relating to the centralproblem under study; and

The main findings relating to the core issue s).This section also reviews the public statistics which provideevidence o the pressing nature o the problem and highlight theneed o the study.- Geographic and General Information The background should

include a description o the study area, its location with mapsshowing villages, roads and important marks. It should alsoinclude other important economic political or historic information.- Population The researcher has to describe the demographiccharacteristics o including the population size, gender, ethnicgroups and the target group s) o project or such as children belowfive years or females in the reproductive age group.- The Problem The researcher should also identify his researchproblem e.g. medical or societal problem).Statement o Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an uncertain or a tentative statement that issubjected to verification through a research study. It is a statementabout the expected relationship between variables. Hypothesisthough important, is not essential for the study but they bringclarity, specificity and focus to a research study. The researcher atthis stage should spell out clearly, the particular researchhypotheses. He should state the hypotheses in term o observablebehaviours, allowing evaluation o the results. Hypothesis shouldbe simple, specific conceptually clear, able to be verified, rootedin a body o knowledge and able to be operationalized 7 .

There are two broad types o hypothesis: a research hypothesiswhich can be further classified as a null hypothesis , a hypothesiso f difference, a y p o t ~ s i so f point prevalence nd a hypothesis o fassociation) and an alternate hypothesis.

The testing o the hypothesis becomes meaningless i any oneo the aspects o the study design, sampling procedure, method odata collection, analysis o data, statistical procedures applied orconclusion drawn) s faulty or inappropriate, as this can result merroneous verification o a hypothesis.Reviewing the LiteratureReasons for Reviewing the Literature

Reviewing the literatures

usually time consuming butrewarding. The purpose s to place the study in the context o


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similar studies that have addressed the same problem 5 7 8 . Aliterature review has three functions: t help the researcher to:

1Bring clarity and focus

tothe research problem.2- Improve the methodology; and

3- Broaden the knowledge base in the research area.4- Paradoxically, formulate the research problem.

Procedure for Reviewing the Literature:The literature review should be focused around the research

problem. This means a research problem has to be stated earlier,otherwise literature review can condition the researcher thinking

about the study and methodology, resulting in a less innovativechoice of research problem and methodology. Literature review isa continuous process, needed to integrate the researcher s findingswith those from others either supportive or contradicting to thesereports. Literature pertinent to the proposed study may deal withtwo types with information; universal and more specific i.e., localtrends, or specific programme. The main sources are books,journals and websites. There are four steps involved in conducting

a literature review:1 Searching for relevant existing litera ture.2- Reviewing the selected literature.3- Development of a theoretical framew ork, so as to discover a

number of theories that has been proposed to explainrelations in the study; and

4- Developmen t of a conceptual framework stems from atheoretical framework and describes the selected aspects

from the theoretical framework to become the basis of thestudy.The Significance o the Study (rationale o the study)

The rationale of the study shows the importance of the study,as distinct from other studies addressing the same topic. Theresearcher has to put clearly his potentially valid reasons, such as:scarcity of similar studies needs of various publics, in whom theproblem is of a critical importance and the study is beneficial.

Rationality and logic are not enough to get the project adopted.The study may need to coincide with the interest and values of animportant decision maker. The researcher has to consider allforces that affect his project and he has to see how he can acquireallies at all levels.The Research Objective(s)

The research goal describes the researcher intentions,specifically and clearly. General and ambiguous definition of

objective(s) makes interpretation invalid. From the programme


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goals, . specific measurable objective s) are derived. Objectivesshould be specific, measurable, feasible, relevant, observable andlogical i.e., internally consistent).

The objective s) should be relevant and stated in the most

technically appropriate language. This part of the research shouldbe closely read and most frequently referred to. The researchershould state briefly but precisely what he/she I intentions to doabout the specified problem. Therefore each sub-objective shoulddelineate only one issue.Methodology Strategies, Interventions and activities):

The methodology describes the research design. I t must fit thepurpos..:;s s), it-, feasi ility depends on your time and resources 1.e.,it should state clearly.

a Di..lt , duration o f he research.b- _ ). ' , ' i ' ' llbt the patient s) with their inclusion and exclusion

t l t t d (

c- San .plim? techmq ue.Info; rnat on ne eded to fulfill the objective.

The cm struction of research instrument is most importantaspect. of any research effort as it determines the nature andquality of the information. The research instrument must bedeveloped in the light of the research objectives.

There are two approaches of data collection; i the secondary

data which provide second-hand data such as data to obtaininformation on the age-sex structure of a population using thecensus data; and ii) the primary data, these are first-handinformation provided by primary sources such as ascertaining thequality of services provided y a worker.

There may be problems with using data from secondarysources. The researcher must be careful as there may be certainproblems with the availability, format and quality of data. Thevalidity and reliability of data, personal bias, availability of dataand format i n w hich data is available.

Interv iew ing, ob servation and the use of questionnaires are thethree main methods classified under primary sources. All otherresources, vvhere the information reqmred is already available,such as government publications, reports and previous research,are called secondary resources. The choice of a particular methodof data collection depends upon the purpose of collectinginformation, the type of information, the available resources, theskills of the researcher and the socioeconomic-demographiccharacteristics of the study population.


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The quality of the information is dependent upon severalmethodological, situational and respondent-related factors. Theresearcher skill is to minimize the effect of these factors in theprocess of data collection.Variables identification

An image, perception or concept that s capable ofmeasurement is called a variable

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There are four measurementscales used in the social sciences: nominal, ordinal, interval andratio. Any concept that can be measured on these scales can becalled a variable. Variables are important in bringing clarity and

specificity to the conceptualization of a research problem,formulation of hypotheses, and to the development of a researchinstrument. They affect the whole research data analysis,selection nd application o f statistical tests, data interpretation

nd presentation nd the conclusion). A variable can be classifiedfrom three perspectives that are not jointly exclusive: casualrelationship, design o f the study, nd unit o f measurement. Thereare 4 types of variables; nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio

variables.SamplingSampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a

bigger group (the sampling population) to become the basis forestimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome regarding thebigger group 1 9

he rtheory o sampling is guided by three principles: Principle one In a majority of cases where sampling is done

there will be a difference between the sample statics and thetrue population mean, which is attributable to the selection ofthe units in the sample.

Principle two The greater the sample size, the more accuratewill be the estimate of the true population mean.

Principle three The greater the difference in the variableunder study in a population, for a given sample size, the greaterwill be the difference between the sample statistics and the truepopulation mean.In selecting a sample the researcher should always try to

achieve maximum prec1s10n m his/her estimates within a givensample size, and should avoid bias in the selection of his/hersample.

Sampling design can be classified as random/probabilitysampling designs, non-random/probability sampling designs, andmixed sampling design. In a random sample, each element in thestudy population must have an equal and independent chance of


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selection. Three sample designs are; simple random, stratifiedrandom and cluster random sampling.

There are four non-probability sampling designs: quota,accidental, judgmental and snowball. Each is used for a differentpurpose and in different situation. Systematic sampling isclassified under the mixed category as it has the properties oboth probability and non-probability sampling designs. Lecturenotes on research design by Sirag Eddin Mustafa who clearlydescribes this issue o research 9 .Data collectionNumerical data whether pnmary or secondary has differentresources such as population census, hospital registrations orgovernment documen tary data. The data is collected by surveys,obs erva ;ions, intervie ws, documentary records and questionnaires.The latter i ~ commo nly used method and its wording should beclear and simple, rele vant and well designed to provide the neededinformat ion Person al or private questions should be avoided and

hypothetical questions areo

limited value. The questions shouldbe put in a logical order to be easy for the respondent to rememberthe answers. Leading questions should be avoided 9 .Processing and Displaying o Data

The processing o data includes all operations undertaken fromwhen a set o data is collected until it is ready to be analyzedeither manually or by a computer 9 Computers primarily help bysaving labour, save time and increase speed. The extent o their

application depends upon the purpose o the study.Statistics primarily help to make sense o data, explore

relationships and interdependence between variables, ascertainmagnitude o an existing relationship or interdependence andplace confidence in the findings.

Data displaying is to format the findings in the form o a tablesor graph instead o a form a text, this makes the communicationeasy and clear. Depending upon the number o variables there arethree types o tables: univariate (frequency), bivariate (crosstabulation) and polyvariate. On the other hand there are manyforms o graphs; the histogram, the bar diagram, the stacked barchart, the 100 per cent bar chart, the frequency polygon .. .. etc.Problems and Limitations

The researcher should list problems that may be encountered,concerning, for example, the availability o data, securing

permission from the agency and organization to carry out the stud,obtaining the sample, or any other aspect o the study.


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Work ScheduleThis IS a time-frame and plan of actions in which the

researcher sets his dates as he needs to complete his/her research.It includes the different activities and the time allotted to beginand finish each activity. t acts as a control measure as eachresearch has a proposed time to finish. The reviewers and thegrants funders are greatly concerned by this table. The researcherhas to keep some time towards the end in case the researchprocess does not go as smoothly as planned.

A Gantt chart is a common tool for project planning and

keeping track of the status of individual tasks within a project.There are now a great many software tools that use Gantt charts inproject planning. Excel is a popular tool for creating Gantt chartsor more better Microsoft Project or a project management add-infor Excel. However an easier to use and cost effective GanttChart Template is also available on line.Ethical Issues

All professions are guided by a code of ethics that has evolvedover years to accommodate the changing values needs andexpectations of the authorized bodies. Being ethical meansadhering to these codes of conduct. Some professions have verystrict guidelines monitor conduct effectively and take appropriatesteps against those who do not abide by the guidelines. Ethicalissues in research can be looked at as they relate to participantsresearchers and sponsoring organization.

Et hical issues concerning research participants include:Collecting information.Seeking consent.Providing incentives.Seeking sensitive information.The possibility of causing harm to participants.Maintaining confidentiality.-Ethical issues relating to the researcher include:A voiding bias.Provision or deprivation of a treatment.

- Using appropriate research methodology.Correct reporting.

- Using information.Ethical issues regarding the sponsonng organization lie m the useof the collected information.

udgetThe researcher usually confronted by the inescapable fact that


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and knowing how to secure his/her funding he/she needs canmake all the difference 6 . The proposal should convince the

potential financiers and partners that the problem is a priorityIfeasible cost effective fits national plans and does not duplicateanything already being done. t may be useful for the researcher tostart by listing the resources which are provided by his/herorganization or institution for the project. The researcher mustdevelop a monitoring and evaluation system and remember thatdonors usually insist to know how to measure success or failure othe project.

For the requested budget list the items needed in each budgetcategory the amount needed and the yearly and totaJ cost. He /shehas to use s accurate figures s possible and does not forget toinclude uncertain events and factors for inflation.Letters o Inquiry

Private foundations and funding agencies are increasinglyrequesting that they be approached first with a short letter omqmry or concept paper before inviting a full proposal. This is aone page long element the purpose o which is to summarizewhat a researcher is proposing briefly describing the inain idea othe research proposal.The researcher should really try to keep it short and convincingsince some reviewers will not read the next parts but assess thiselement only. The last thing the researcher wants to do is to givethe reviewers a reason not to fund his/her proposal. Too much

jargon is a great way totum o

the reviewer

Pilot StudyThe pilot study permits a preliminary testing o the hypothesis

that may lead to changing dropping or developing a new one. tpermits check up o the planned statistical and analyticalprocedures and reduces treatment errors that save time and moneyon a research project. t is also possible to get a feedback 159 .

Research Report Writing

Writing the research report is the most crucial step in theresearch process as it communicates the findings with thesupervisor or the readers. Style s o research writing var y but a llresearch reports mus t be writte n clear ly an d concise ly a ba dlywritt en report can sp oil all hard w ork h ad been put into re searchstudy. Furthermore scientific writing requires i nte llectualstrictness and there are certain obligations in terms o accuracyand objectivity.

The chapter should be written around the main theme and sub-


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and wntmg bibliography. When providing specific informationabout a variable, the write-up should integrate the rationale for

studying the variables; the literature review; the hypothesis, i fany; conclusion drawn; and possible explanation of the finding.The researcher needs to select the system that is acceptable tohis/her discipline and university.References1- Ranjit Kumar. Research methodology a step by step for beginners. 1999.

Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Limited publishers).2- Grinnell, Richard Jr. ed). 1993, Social work, Research and Evaluation, (4 1

ed Illinois, F, E. Peacock Publishers.3- Kerlinger, Fred N., 1986, Foundation of Behavioural Research, (3'd ed New

York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.4- Bulmer, Martin ed.), 1977, Sociological Research Methods-An Introduction,

London, the MacMillan Press Ltd5- Mammon M.A. Homeida, M.A Elrasheed, T.O. Dirar. Roadmap to research

methods for health professionals. Collaborative effort between the University ofMedical Sciences and Technology and the Ministry of Science and technology.2008.

6- Francis J.B., Bork. Ch., Carstens S.P. The Proposal Cookbook, step by stepguide

to dissertation and thesis proposal writing. Copyright 1978.7 Issac: C.S., Michael. W. B., Handbook in Research and Evaluation (2 d edits)

publishers, San Diego, California, 1982.8- K Janovsky. Project Formulation and Proposal writing. WHO/EDUC/87. 187.9- Sirag Elddin klustafa. Lecture Notes on Research Methodolgy. 2009. Gezira

University Press.SUGGESTED WRITING GUIDES Online resources)1 The Elements o{a Proposal: Frank Pajares, Emory University2- Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal: University of Calgary, Manitoba, Canada,the Centre for Advancement o f Health3- Some Thoughts on Dissertation Proposal Writing: Professor Chris M Gold, University

o f Wisconsin-Madison4- Writing and Presenting Your Thesis or Dissertation: S. Joseph Levine, Ph.D., Michigan

State University5- Conceptualizing, Writing. and Revising a Social Science Research Proposal: Institute o fInternational Studies, University of California-Berkeley6- The Proposal in Oualitative Research: Anthony W Heath, PhD, Division of BehavioralSciences, McNeal Family Practice Residency7 How to Write A Dissertation: or Bedtime Reading For People Who Do Not Have Time

to Sleep; DouglasE

Comer, Purdue University8- Resources (or_ Graduate Student Writers. Sweet land Writing Center, University ofMichigan9- Writing Theses and Dissertations: Claremont Graduate University Writing Center10-Teaching the Research Proposal: A Brie{ Process-Oriented Overview: Writing Center,California State Polytechnic University, Pomona11- Dissertation Proposal Writing Tutorial: Elys Ben Salem, University ofKansasersity12 The Art o f Writing Proposals: Adam Przeworski and Frank Salomon, Social ScienceResearch Council13 How to Write a Research Proposal: Eastchance com

Research Methodology Step by Step Guide for Fraduate Stuedents

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