Research Methodology: Back to Basics

ByDr. Shaukat Ali1

Visiting Professor in MarketingMBA ProgramCzech Management CenterCelakovice, Czech RepublicE-mail : shaukata@hotmail.com

Abstract Introduction The Research Process Research methods Research design Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies

o Introduction o Qualitative research o Quantitative research o Differences between qualitative and quantitative methods

Data collection and sources Concluding comments

Abstract

Research is the lifeblood of not only any individual academic but any university worthy of the name, yet most of us face a constant battle between teaching, administrative and research commitments. Many, if not most academics, while not openly research fanatics, are, in my opinion latent researchers, who, given the opportunity, resources and time, would welcome the opportunity to contribute to human knowledge. Often academics not versed in the fundamentals of research ask basic questions such as how does one begin research, what types of research are there, what are the pitfalls, how can we collect data, how can we analyse it. To address these issues, this article, the first of a trilogy, goes back to the fundamental issues involved in research methodology.

Introduction

Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;

he who would search for pearls must dive below.

Dryden, "All for Love"

While some universities position themselves as "teaching" institutions, this is a fairly recent phenomenon. Traditionally and indeed historically, research has been the raison de etre of universities, with teaching either designated as a necessary evil, or indeed left to other, more humble institutions2. While an exploration of the reasons for this shift in focus and emphasis is outside the scope of this paper, one cannot help but be aware of the enthusiasm that academics in "teaching" institutions have for research. Yet many, if not most, unless they have followed a traditional "research" Ph.D. program such as those offered in Europe and in some other Anglophile countries, are bewildered by the research process. Often they have not been exposed to the basic fundamental concepts, let alone the rigors of research. Largely as a result of the advent of the Ph.D. by "course work" in America, a hideous invention, and the even more recent, but far more sinister "DBA", one sees academics, particularly in the business and management field, often with Ph.D.'s, who are struggling to ask even the basic research questions.

To address some of the issues, this article describes how a research project is conceived, planned and implemented, furthermore it examines important issues in research methodology. It begins by examining the research process, focusing on the role of theory in business research, how the broad subject area and topic may be chosen. It goes on to deal with the research design and problems related to the choice of design. It looks at types of research methods, the methodological issues surrounding exploratory, descriptive and casual research. It reviews and critically examines the justification surrounding the use of qualitative, and quantitative approaches. Subsequent articles examine problems associated with measurement and operationalisation of research findings and data, the design of the questionnaire, the choice and source of the sample, and the issue of non-response.

The third article in particular concludes the research methodology trilogy by reviewing the subject of classification, i.e. the statistical techniques that will be used. Classification being a fundamental method of summarising large amounts of data, is often overlooked in discussions on research methodology. Although a general discussion of statistical techniques which can be used to classify subjects will be given, the emphasis will be on Factor Analysis. Factor Analysis is chosen not only because it is widely used in many disciplines, but also, because clustering techniques-of which Factor Analysis is one form - are misunderstood, often misused, and invariably criticised as a subjective set of procedures which are of limited practical usefulness. For comparative purposes, other commonly used classification techniques are also briefly described. These series of articles continuously move from, and between, the conceptual and the practical, examining, exploring, explaining, commenting, observing and where necessary, justifying every step of the research project from inception to conclusion.

The Research Process

Those who wish to succeed must ask the right preliminary questions. Aristotle, Metaphysics II

Choosing the appropriate research methodology and formulating the research questions is not an easy and clear cut process as it first may appear so. Numerous idealised, theoretical approaches have been suggested but as Bechhofer, (1974, p.73) commented:

"........the research process is not a clear-cut sequence of procedures following a neat pattern but a messy interaction between the conceptual and empirical world, deduction and induction occurring at the same time"

Morgan, (1983, p.11) was:

".......struck by the realisation that the conduct of empirical research was much more problematic than as presented in textbooks and that the results of such reports must be less solid than appeared from a reading of scientific reports".

Pettigrew (1985, P.222) described the research process as best:

".......characterised in the language of muddling through, incrementalism, and political process than as rational, foresightful, goal-directed activity".

Echoing the above sentiments, Kulka (1982), suggests that the choice and formulation of research problems are more often than not, largely influenced by factors such as availability of funds and ease of access to data, rather than philosophical considerations. The problem of the research process is succinctly presented by (Becker, 1965, p.602-3):

".......As every researcher knows there is more to doing research than is dreamt of in philosophies of science, and texts in methodology offer answers to only a fraction of the problems one encounters. The best laid research plans run up against unforeseen contingencies in the collection and analysis of data; the data one collects may prove to have little to do with the hypothesis one sets out to test; unexpected findings inspire new ideas. No matter how carefully one plans in advance, research is designed in the course of its execution. The finished monograph is the result of hundreds of decisions, large and small, made while the research is under way and our standard texts do not give us procedures and techniques for making those decisions. It is possible, after all, to reflect on one's difficulties and inspirations and see how they could be handled more rationally the next time around. In short one can be methodological about matters that earlier had been left to chance and improvisation and thus cut down the area of guesswork.

Research methods

Having chosen the broad area of study, selected a topic, and formulated broad research questions, deciding the appropriate approach as suggested by Gill and Johnson (1991) needs to be addressed. In this phase much can be learned from the role of theory in research methods. Gill and Johnson (1991) use ideas of Kolb et al (1979) to explain the theoretical basis of research as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Kolb's experiential learning cycle Source : Gill and Johnson (1991)

Gill and Johnson (1991) suggest that Kolb's processes in figure 1 should be seen as attempts at constructing and evaluating explanatory statements, or theories, about what is happening around us and conclude that these enable us to differentiate between research methods that are deductive (based on logic) and those that are inductive (based on empirical evidence).

Ghauri et al (1995) suggest that through induction, general conclusions can be drawn from empirical observations, implying that induction relates to the right hand side of Kolb's learning cycle in figure 1.

Induction for Gill and Johnson (1991) is learning by reflecting upon certain previous experiences and through the formulations of abstract concepts, theories and generalisations that explain past, and predict future, experience.

Deductive research methods on the other hand require the development of a conceptual and theoretical structure prior to its testing through empirical observation, corresponding therefore to the left hand side of Kolb's experiential learning cycle in figure 1. Here the researcher begins with abstract conceptualisation, proceeding to testing through the application of theory so as to create new experiences or observations (Gill and Johnson, 1991).

Ghauri et al (1995) building on the work by Chalmers (1982) summarise the difference between induction and deduction by asserting that in induction, facts acquired through observation lead to theories and hypotheses, while in the case of deduction the hypotheses are either accepted or rejected, thereby facilitating explanation or prediction.

This is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2 Induction and deduction (source : Chalmers, 1982), in Ghauri et al , 1995

In deciding upon a methodology for a particular piece of research, potential researchers can find great empathy with the previously stated views of Bechhofer, (1994). The boundary between inductive and deductive approaches is often blurred by the nature of the study. Initially, the inductive approach may appear to be the most appropriate, i.e. specifically, observe the patterns, outcomes and behaviours, and draw conclusion from the empirical data. However, sometimes the researcher is very much aware of the wider contextual framework surrounding his topic. Bearing in mind that initial thoughts for a project often germinate for months, if not years, the researcher needs to continuously review and assess the myriad opportunities and perils presented by the research opportunity. Moreover, the phenomenon often demands new data, insight, frameworks and grounded experience from which not only to draw broad conclusions and suggest policy recommendations, but also, perhaps, suggest and offer new approaches to examining commonly accepted viewpoints. This often means that the research project offers opportunities to contribute towards a grounded understanding of a broader trend.

In view of the above, whilst the main thrust of a research project may be inductive, the interaction between the conceptual and empirical aspects of the subject matter may implicitly imply a deductive element inherent throughout the research.

Research design

The research design, in the view of Ghauri et al (1995), is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual research problems to the pertinent (and achievable) empirical research. They go on to comment that since empirical research is undertaken to answer research questions, the appropriate research design needs to be effective in producing the required answers within the constraints placed on the researcher. Furthermore, they argue, since the choice of research design influences subsequent research activities, for example, what and how, data is to be collected, it is essential that the research problem is understood if errors and/or irrelevant design choices are to be avoided.

Research can be divided into three main categories: exploratory, descriptive and causal.

Each has its advantages and disadvantages, each has its optimal use in certain types of situation. As the spectrum of research category is traversed from exploratory, through descriptive, to causal, there tends to be an increasing degree of formality, and a decreasing degree of flexibility, in the way in which the research can be carried out (Webb, 1992).

Ghauri et al (1995), relate research design and the three categories, in terms of the problem structure as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3 Research Design

Exploratory research, it is said (Philips and Pugh, 1987; Webb, 1992; Ghauri et al; 1995) is most useful in the preliminary stages of a research project when the levels of uncertainty and of general ignorance of the subject in question are at their highest, when the problem is not very well understood and unstructured in Ghauri et al's framework. Such research is characterised by a high degree of flexibility; and a lack of formal structure. The flexibility arises from a desire to learn from the experience of the investigation and from the need to avoid being blinkered by any preconceived notions (Webb, 1992).

The main aim of exploratory research is to uncover the boundaries of the environment in which the problems, opportunities or situations of interest are likely to reside and to uncover the salient variables that may be found there and which are relevant to the research project (Webb, 1992).

If the primary aim of exploratory research, as mentioned previously, is to discover the important variables in a given situation, then the aim of descriptive research is to provide an accurate and valid representation of those variables; where exploratory research discovers something of interest and gives directions, descriptive research encapsulates it. Importantly, descriptive research does not attempt to show or establish any causal links between variables, it merely describes them (Webb, 1992). In causal research, the problem under investigation is structured; the aim being to establish a "cause and effect" relationship between one or more variable with other variables.

The methodological approach selected for any research, therefore, needs to be relevant to the specific demands and constraints of the subject and elicit the optimum data and insight from the available sources. Often, given the substantial volume of work, both theoretical and empirical, on a particular topic, the research can appear to suggest a descriptive approach, however, the investigation could equally be pursued via an

exploratory approach, with the main priority being to plot and depict phenomenon from grounded, empirical observation. From a methodological point of view it is feasible to use a combination of exploratory and descriptive research so that the objectives of the research can be fulfilled. Such a multi-facet approach can, in many cases, transform a routine piece of research into an outstanding one.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies

Introduction

An important issue following on from above is what methodology to use. As Adler et al. (1989) point out: "choosing a methodology determines what we can study as well as the range of possible results and conclusions" (p.61). Often the choice is whether to use a qualitative, quantitative or even an ethnographic approach to obtain data. Depending on the "freshness" of the subject matter and constraints faced by the researcher-both in terms of time and resources-the ethnographic approach can be very useful. However, given that few researchers are blessed with ample funding and research time, a realistic (and by necessity practical) choice therefore is between quantitative or qualitative. Fortunately, the choice does not have to exclude one or the other. Before reviewing the theoretical basis for using one or even both methodologies it is helpful to set out a working definition of what is meant by qualitative and quantitative research.

Qualitative research

Different authors use different terms to define qualitative research. Clark (1991) uses the term "descriptive study"; Schatzman and Strauss (1973) "field study"; Jorgensen (1989) "participant observation"; Yin (1984) "case study"; Kidder (1981) "naturalistic research". Wright (1995) describes qualitative research to mean any research where number counting and statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to get close to the collection of data in their natural setting. She includes an array of methods which include participant observation and case studies, content analysis, formal and informal interviewing, videotaping, unobtrusive measures, archival data surveys, frame analysis, issue-area analysis, ethnomethodology, and discourse analysis.

Wright (1995) suggests that because qualitative research emphasis's comprehensive, interdependent, holistic structures that are dynamic and predictive, it can reconcile contradictory findings of individual studies because the role of any given variable is seen as the outcome of different combinations of variables, and what is important is the interaction, a view shared by Kleiner and Okeke, 1991. A distinguishing feature of much qualitative research is that it usually utilises multiple sources of data, rather than one (Van Maanen et al. 1982).

In the area of international management, for example, many authors (Ricks, 1993; Miller

1993; Nasif et al. 1991; Black and Mendenhall (1991); Sekaran 1983; Adler 1984; Gill and Johnson, 1991; Ghauri et al. 1995) argue that international management is still a field characterised by a lack of theoretical understanding, suggesting this as one of the strongest reasons for advocating the importance of qualitative research in the field, given it is the most vigorous way of generating theory (Wright, 1995). Glaser and Strauss (1967), by outlining precisely the domains of theory generation and theory verification, give a concise explanation for the difference between verification of the theory, to which rigorous quantitative methods are more appropriate, and the important prior step of generating theory, to which qualitative methods are more germane.

In addition to the theoretical reasons for using qualitative research, there are several practical reasons. International management involves "messy" problems and complex issues. Qualitative research gives the researcher more flexibility, allows one to take advantage of the richness of data and thus to obtain more meaningful results. It affords the opportunity to examine the process of "why" and "how", not just "what"; to explore the complex, interdependent issues that constitute international management. The "what" are the factor that need to considered; the "how" refers to how they are related; and the "why" are the underlying dynamics that justify the selection of those factors and their relationship (Wright, 1995).

Further theoretical conceptuali- sation of qualitative methods is given by Weick, 1989; Hofstade and Bond, 1988; Yeh, 1989; Holbrook, 1981, Boyacigiller and Adler, 1994; Parkhe, 1993; Brislin, 1976; Triandis, 1976; Adler et al. 1989; Van Maan et al. 1982; Kleiner and Okeke, 1991; Ghauri et al. 1995).

Quantitative research

Quantitative research methods entail the use of systematic and sophisticated procedures to test, prove and verify hypotheses (Glaser and Strauss, 1968). As Van Maanen (1983) comments, the main focus in quantitative research is on matters pertaining to structural rather than on more complex issues of the process. Quantitative methodology, it is suggested, is applicable where the aim of the research is to ascertain how many, what and where. In seeking such answers, a quantitative approach relies on the use of predetermined response categories by means of standardised data collection instruments such as mail survey, or structured or semi-structured interviews so as to enable statistical techniques to be used to assist in the interpretation of data (Demirbag, 1994). The standardised measurement and sampling procedures are intended to enhance the reliability of observation, facilitate replication studies, and allow generalisation to a larger population (McClintock et al. 1983).

Differences between qualitative and quantitative methods

The process of data collection, analysis and theory generation are much more closely linked in qualitative than in quantitative research (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Jorgensen

1989). As Glaser and Strauss (1967, p.39) state:

".....When he begins to hypothesize with the explicit purpose of generating theory, the researcher is no longer a passive receiver of impressions but is drawn naturally into actively generating and verifying his hypotheses through comparisons of groups. Characteristically, in this kind of joint data collection and analysis, multiple hypotheses are pursued simultaneously".

In comparing qualitative and quantitative methods, Wright (1995) argues that because quantitative methods by themselves are not sufficient, what is required is the capability to study the non-linear, interactive, interdependent phenomena that makes up the field of international management. She suggest that qualitative methods provide such capability and warns that because of the dangers of hypothesising in advance of data in such unknown waters, we also need the inductive approach that is more common to the qualitative methods.

In the social sciences, certain disciplines have been more open to qualitative methods than others. Sociology and anthropology have traditionally relied to a greater extent on the qualitative methods, while psychology and economics have adhered more rigidly to the more quantitative approach. In management, the broad trend has been to follow a quantitative approach, although work by Brislin (1976); Frijda and Jahoda (1966); and Chapman (1993) stress the need and value of qualitative and more interdisciplinary methods, advocating pursuing the anthropological literature, which tends to be based on ethnographic research. Wright (1995) suggests that the prennial debate about the merits of quantitative versus qualitative research, and rigor versus relevance, with the assumption that quantitative is the more rigorous, is an example of a false dichotomy and one which is not particularly helpful. She goes on to say that one method is not a priori better than the other, both have merits and weaknesses. This view is echoed by Downey and Ireland(1983): who state:

".....The most relevant of the presuppositions that determine one's research perspective is that methodological issues must always be answered within the context of a particular research setting. That is to say, methodologies are neither appropriate nor inappropriate until they are applied to a specific problem.

In management research generally and perhaps more so in international management, there is a widespread view that the process of asking the right questions has only recently begun, and by only taking a straight-jacketed approach at what is measured, much that is of importance may be missed out (Wright, 1995). Hayek(1978), in his Nobel Memorial Lecture commented that:

"......Unlike the position that exists in the physical sciences, in economics and other disciplines that deal with essentially complex phenomena, the aspects of the events to be accounted for about which one can get quantitative data are necessarily limited and may

not include the important ones."

In the light of the above comments, Wright(1995) suggests a more helpful question to ask would be how to use quantitative and qualitative methods together. Research methodologists such as Triandis (1976); Brewer and Hunter 1989; McGrath et al. 1982) have for many years advocated triangulation-using more than one method in conducting a research study to gather more reliable results. By combining qualitative research techniques to the researcher's arsenal of quantitative techniques, one is guarded against the danger of research driving us in the direction of "knowing more and more about less and less" (Wright, 1995).

Wright(1995) further comments that the larger questions and complex issues that are the important areas of inquiry in international management are not always amenable to neat statistical analysis. Worse, trying to force the fit leads to biased results-biases even more dangerous for not being recognised. It is, of course, wise to avoid the other extreme of suggesting that that which can be measured should be disregarded. Measurement can add to our sum total of knowledge, particularly when married to more qualitative methods.

In choosing the appropriate methodology, Holbrook(1981) castigates researchers for being ruled by their methodology, while Schatzman and Strauss(1973) comment that researchers-in being driven by their methodology- may end up "searching for problems that are amenable to favoured research procedures". Wright(1995) suggests that such a situation not only becomes a case of the tail wagging the dog, but fertile ground for being unequipped to see anything beyond the bounds of those procedures. Furthermore, Boyacigiller and Adler (1994) note the lack of fit between much of the research in social science, with its dependence on rigorous quantitative methods and internal validity, with the nature of international studies that is dependent on context, requiring high levels of external validity. They further comment: ".....research methods are driving knowledge production rather than the problems and needs of managers, policy makers, and students" (p.270). This view is shared by Parkhe(1993) with regard to international joint ventures. He shows in his study of the international joint venture (IJV) literature, that many studies focus on factors (e.g., partner selection characteristics, motives, performance) but few show any linking mechanisms between them. He diagrams a "soft" core of concepts consisting of reciprocity, trust, opportunism, and forbearance but complains that the "hard" data sources of large sample multivariate statistical studies favoured by IJV researchers are unlikely to capture such "soft" concepts-the "why" does not appear at all.

The previous sections have attempted to outline theoretical and practical basis for using qualitative and quantitative methods of conducting research. Theoretically, qualitative research allows us to generate better, more durable theories because it is induced from actual data. It allows us to address the broader, more complex issues that are the important areas of consideration in international management. Practically it gives us flexibility and a way to address the "how" and "why" as well as the "what" questions. It helps us to avoid the cultural biases and instrumentation blinkering to which more

quantitative methods are prone (Wright, 1995).

Qualitative research is not, however, a panacea. It needs to be used judiciously and in conjunction with quantitative methods in multi-method fashion. If international management research is viewed on a continuum, as shown in figure 4, the vast majority of the research conducted would benefit from a triangulation of both types of methods. At either end of the continuum, (Wright, 1995) suggests that qualitative methods have the greater strengths in the area of theory generation, while quantitative methods are most useful for testing the generalisability of particular factors.

Figure 4 Comparison of methods in international management researchQuantitative Methods Qualitative Methods Independence Interdependence Linear Linear and non-linear Cumulative, additive Multiplicative, interactive Deriving realities from measures of other realities

Interdependent measures of the various realities

Deductive Inductive Source: Wright, 1995 (Adapted from Kleiner and Okeke 1991)

Emphasis on testing and verification Emphasis on understanding Focus on facts and/or reasons of social events

Focus on understanding from informant's point of view

Logical and critical approach Interpretation and rational approach Controlled measurement Observation and measurements in

natural settings Objective `outsider view� distant from date

Subjective `insider view� and closeness to data

Hypothetical/deductive-focus on hypothesis testing

Explorative orientation

Result orientated Process orientated Particularistic and analytical Holistic perspective Generalisation by population membership Generalisation by comparison of

properties and contexts of individual organisms

Source: Ghauri et al., 1995 (Adapted from Reichardt and Cook, 1979)

Figure 5 Appropriate use of qualitative and quantitative methods in international management research. Source : Wright (1995)

Wright (1995) goes on to argue forcefully that by combining qualitative methods to quantitative methods (Fig 5), the resulting research will be much more meaningful and will have a greater probability of being valid, of actually measuring what it purports to measure. Researchers then will have less tendency to be slaves to their methodology. They will be less concerned with whether their techniques are "scientific" and more with whether specific operations might lead to the most meaningful information (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973). Then the field of international management will progress, and we will avoid the trap that Weick (1989, p.516) describes of "theorists often writing trivial theories because their process of theory construction is hemmed in by methodological strictures that favour validation rather than usefulness."

Data collection and sources

Having decided from both a theoretical and practical point of view that in order to find answers to the research questions, a quantitative approach would be used, with qualitative insights also used whenever possible, the next step is to determine the optimal method to achieve this. Given the nature of the topic and its purpose, primary data often needs to be collected that is relevant to the study and research problem. Primary data can be collected by several means. Ghauri et al. (1995) provide a useful summary of primary data sources as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6 Sources of Primary data (source : Ghauri et al., 1995)

Sometimes, it is quite obvious that for the purposes of a particular research, data

collection by observation is inappropriate and that the survey method needs to be employed. Gill and Johnson (1991) argue that in terms of a methodological continuum, survey research occupies a variable, intermediate position somewhere between ethnography and experimental research. For Ghauri et al. (1995), whether surveys are to be descriptive and/or analytical is largely determined by the purpose of the study and they suggest that different surveys lead to different problems and issues, requiring distinct types of planning and handling. Gill and Johnson (1991) provide a useful format for planning a survey as shown in figure 7. Such a format can be helpful in conceptualising and structuring the research problem.

Using the format in figure 7, the research problem needs to be structured, a literature review carried out to determine what questions to ask, the extent and availability of resources have to be quantified, and problems of accessibility assessed. In deciding whether to conduct interviews (face to face or by telephone)-with the associated problem of interviewer bias (Boyd and Westfall, 1970), or use a mail survey-at the risk of high rate of "non-response" (Scott, 1961) - the researcher is often very much influenced by issues such as sample size, location, availability of funds, complexity of information required, constraints of time and the logistics of the overall data collection process. Whilst personal interviews do tend to provide more insight, resources and the above factors usually dictate that a mail questionnaire be designed and administered.

Concluding comments

This articles has purposefully gone back to the basic concepts in research methodology. It has explored how a research project is conceived, planned and implemented, However, in describing and justifying a chosen methodology and its practical implementation, one ultimately attempts to formulate a rational chronicle of the progress made over many months, even years. In doing so, the author is conscious of the pitfall of conveying a sense of all-knowing foresight, relentlessly and purposefully moving towards stated objectives. Whilst this account is a "true and fair view" in the accounting sense, the reality is somewhat different. All research is, among other things, a learning experience, where mistakes are, and need to be, made. Frustrations, bereavements, accidents, crisis of confidence, lost computer files, unhelpful and often abusive respondents are just some of the problems experienced in the course of many research projects.

With the luxury of hindsight, the towering view of the research journey presented in this article fails to convey the prolonged and uncharted waters that all researchers face. Given the opportunity-and the desire- to pursue their research again, most researchers would do many, if not most, things differently. It is the nature of the task that one only knows the "appropriate" questions to ask and the "most useful" analytical techniques to use after the research has been concluded and not before.

One hopes, though, that this humble attempt to clear some of the mysteries of research

will act as catalyst to spur latent researchers into taking the plunge and in doing so, join the ranks of scholars.

The second part of this trilogy will deal with issues surrounding questionnaires (design, focus, phraseology, form of the response, scaling, question sequencing, validity, reliability), fieldwork, sampling, sources of data, questionnaire production and mailing, and response rate. The third and final part will examine the important issue of data analysis.

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