Research Guideline1[1]

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JIMMA UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH PROJECT WRITINGMANUAL FOR DEPARTMENT OF

INFORMATION SCIENCE

BY GETACHEW BAYISSA (MA)DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE

2009


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Preface

The Guidelines for Conducting Research in the university has been designed to provide guidance

both for students and staffs in which they wish to conduct research. Primarily the manual was

prepared to serve as guidelines for students of the Department during their Research Projects in

their final year. But now, both for staff and students, it is a guide to ensure that the research they

propose meets the requirements of the Department. It is also a means of assessing whether or not toparticipate in proposed research. It will also serve for uniformity and consistency of both the

proposal and research project writings. Research knowledge and skill will increase the number

of undergraduate students involved in research, exposing them to the process and products of

scholars, and enhancing the undergraduate research experience. Therefore, research

supervisors and advisors will find the manual useful for students guidance as well as for

objective assessment of the students work.

Department of Information Science believes that progress in understanding the profession

depends on the honest pursuit of scientific research and the truthful representation of findings.

By entering the profession, and by just being information professional, we assume that we havean obligation to maintain the appropriate level of integrity in our academic research activities.

We believe that most aspects of the Guidelines are already understood and subscribed to our

students and staff since 2007. However, the Guidelines may be of help to those who are

relatively new to research. In this respect, they may provide a useful text to encourage

discussions of responsible conduct in the profession.

To facilitate the reading of these Guidelines, it is divided into fifteen chapters with an easy way of

referring to the specific need. Each chapter is divided into multiple sections and subsections. The

information seems full of redundancy but it is mainly aimed at addressing the different aspects of

research engagement in the department.

Enjoy your research.


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Table of Content

Preface.......................................................................................................................................1

Table of Content .......................................................................................................................3

Table of figures .........................................................................................................................9

Chapter One ........................................................................................................................... 10

1.0. Gateways to a Research Project ............................................................................ 10

Chapter Two ........................................................................................................................... 14

2.0. Independent Research Project Proposal Writing ................................................. 14

2.1. Outline for the Proposal Writing ........................................................................... 14

2.2. Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................... 15

2.2.1. Title Page......................................................................................................... 15

2.2.2. Approval Sheet................................................................................................ 15

2.2.3. Acknowledgement.......................................................................................... 16

2.2.4. Table of Content.............................................................................................. 16

2.2.5. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 16

2.2.6. List of Appendices ........................................................................................... 17

2.2.7. Project Summary............................................................................................. 17

2.3. Section 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 17

2.3.1. Objective of the Study.................................................................................... 17

2.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 18

2.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses ........................................................ 18

2.3.4. Scope of the Study.......................................................................................... 21

2.3.5. Limitations and Delimitations of the study................................................... 21

2.3.6. Significance of the study................................................................................ 23

2.3.7. Assumptions (if any) ....................................................................................... 23

2.3.8. Definition of terms .......................................................................................... 24

2.4. Section 2: Literature Review.................................................................................. 24

2.5. Section 3: Research Methodology ........................................................................ 25

2.5.1. Research Method used................................................................................... 26

2.5.2. Population of the Study.................................................................................. 29

2.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size .......................................................... 30

2.5.4. Instrumentations ............................................................................................ 32

2.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection........................................................................ 39

2.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study.................................................................. 40

2.6. Section 4: Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination .......................................... 40

2.7. Section 5: Budgeting .............................................................................................. 41

2.8. Section 6: Action Plan ............................................................................................ 42

2.9. Section 7: Conclusion ............................................................................................. 42


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2.10. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 43

2.11. Appendices.......................................................................................................... 46

Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.0. Group Research Project Proposal Writing ............................................................ 47

3.1. Outline for the Proposal Writing ........................................................................... 47


3.2.1. Title Page......................................................................................................... 48

3.2.2. Approval Sheet................................................................................................ 48

3.2.3. Acknowledgement.......................................................................................... 49

3.2.4. Table of Content.............................................................................................. 49

3.2.5. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 49

3.2.6. List of Appendices ........................................................................................... 50

3.2.7. Project Summary............................................................................................. 50

3.3. Section 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 50

3.3.1. Objective of the Study/Project....................................................................... 503.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 51

3.3.3. Scope of the Study/Project............................................................................. 52

3.3.4. Limitations and Delimitations of the study/Project..................................... 52

3.3.5. Significance of the Study/Project................................................................... 53


3.3.7. Definition of terms .......................................................................................... 54

3.4. Section 2: Literature Review.................................................................................. 54

3.5. Section 3: Project Design and Methodology ........................................................ 55

3.5.1. Data Collection Method................................................................................. 563.5.2. Analysis............................................................................................................ 56

3.5.3. Design .............................................................................................................. 57

3.5.4. Specification .................................................................................................... 58

3.5.5. Experimentation ............................................................................................. 58

3.5.6. Implementation .............................................................................................. 58

3.5.7. Testing ............................................................................................................. 59

3.5.8. Documentation ............................................................................................... 59

3.5.9. Evaluation........................................................................................................ 59

3.6. Section 4: Results and Dissemination ................................................................... 593.7. Section 5: Budgeting .............................................................................................. 60

3.8. Section 6: Action Plan ............................................................................................ 60

3.9. Section 7: Conclusion ............................................................................................. 60

3.10. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 61

3.11. Appendices.......................................................................................................... 64

Chapter Four .......................................................................................................................... 65


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4.0. Independent Research Writing ............................................................................. 65

4.1. Outline of the Research ......................................................................................... 65


4.2.1. Title Page......................................................................................................... 66

4.2.2. Approval Sheet................................................................................................ 66

4.2.3. Dedication (if any) .......................................................................................... 66

4.2.4. Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 66

4.2.5. Table of Contents ............................................................................................ 67

4.2.6. List of Figures .................................................................................................. 67

4.2.7. List of Appendices (if any) .............................................................................. 67

4.2.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph)......................................... 67

4.3. Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................... 70

4.3.1. Objective of the Study.................................................................................... 71

4.3.2. Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 71

4.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses ........................................................ 734.3.4. Scope of the Study.......................................................................................... 74

4.3.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study...................................................... 74

4.3.6. Significance of the Study................................................................................ 75


4.3.8. Definition of Terms ......................................................................................... 76

4.4. Chapter 2: Literature Review................................................................................. 76

4.5. Chapter 3: Methodology ........................................................................................ 79

4.5.1. Research Method used................................................................................... 79

4.5.2. Population of the Study.................................................................................. 824.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size .......................................................... 83

4.5.4. Instrumentations ............................................................................................ 85

4.5.5. Procedure for Data Collection........................................................................ 85

4.5.6. Statistical Methods for the Study.................................................................. 86

4.6. Chapter 4: Data Analysis, Results and Discussion ................................................ 87

4.7. Chapter 5: Summary of the Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation.......... 90

4.8. Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 91

4.9. Appendices ............................................................................................................. 94

Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................... 955.0. Group Project Writing ............................................................................................ 95

5.1. General Principles .................................................................................................. 95

5.1.1. Objectives ........................................................................................................ 95

5.1.2. Choosing a Group Project............................................................................... 95

5.1.3. Staff Proposals ................................................................................................ 95

5.1.4. Students Proposals ......................................................................................... 95


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5.1.5. Assessment...................................................................................................... 95

5.1.6. Choosing the right project.............................................................................. 96

5.1.7. Allocation ........................................................................................................ 96

5.1.8. Equipment....................................................................................................... 96

5.1.9. Meeting Your Supervisor................................................................................ 97

5.1.10. The Project Report.......................................................................................... 97

5.2. Outline of the Research ......................................................................................... 98


5.3.1. Title Page......................................................................................................... 99

5.3.2. Approval Sheet................................................................................................ 99

5.3.3. Dedication (if any) .......................................................................................... 99

5.3.4. Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... 100

5.3.5. Table of Contents .......................................................................................... 100

5.3.6. List of Figures ................................................................................................ 100

5.3.7. List of Appendices (if any) ............................................................................ 1005.3.8. Abstract (should finish in one or two paragraph)....................................... 101

5.4. Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 103

5.4.1. Background................................................................................................... 104

5.4.2. Objective of the Research Project................................................................ 104

5.4.3. Statement of the Problem ............................................................................ 105

5.4.4. Scope of the Research Project...................................................................... 106

5.4.5. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study.................................................... 107

5.4.6. Significance of the Project............................................................................ 108

5.4.7. Assumptions (if any) ..................................................................................... 1085.4.8. Definition of Terms ....................................................................................... 109

5.5. Chapter 2: Literature Review............................................................................... 109

5.6. Chapter 3: Project Methodology ......................................................................... 111

5.6.1. Data Collection Methodology...................................................................... 112

5.6.2. Analysis.......................................................................................................... 113

5.6.3. Design ............................................................................................................ 114

5.6.4. Experimentation ........................................................................................... 115

5.6.5. Implementation ............................................................................................ 115

5.6.6. Testing ........................................................................................................... 1155.6.7. Evaluation...................................................................................................... 116

5.7. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................................................. 116

5.8. Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 116

5.9. Appendix ............................................................................................................... 118

5.10. User Guide ........................................................................................................ 118

5.11. Program Listings ............................................................................................... 118


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Chapter Six ........................................................................................................................... 119

6.0. Format on Writing Style ....................................................................................... 119

6.1. Title Page............................................................................................................... 119

6.2. Page Layout........................................................................................................... 119

6.3. Page Numbering ................................................................................................... 119

6.4. Spacing and Justification...................................................................................... 119

6.5. Font Face and Size ................................................................................................ 119

6.6. Paper size and margins ........................................................................................ 119

6.7. Line and paragraph spacing ................................................................................. 119

6.8. Font type and font size ........................................................................................ 119

Chapter Seven ...................................................................................................................... 121

7.0. Tables and Figures ................................................................................................ 121

7.1. Tables .................................................................................................................... 121

7.1.1. Table numbering and Table title.................................................................. 121

7.1.2. Row and column headings ........................................................................... 1217.1.3. Paragraph spacing for table ......................................................................... 121

7.1.4. Figures within a column ............................................................................... 121

7.1.5. Table footnotes ............................................................................................. 121

7.2. Figures ................................................................................................................... 122

7.2.1. Figure numbering and title .......................................................................... 122

Chapter Eight ....................................................................................................................... 123

8.0. Pitfalls .................................................................................................................... 123

Chapter Nine ........................................................................................................................ 124

9.0. Supervision and Monitoring ................................................................................ 124Chapter Ten.......................................................................................................................... 128

10.0. Research Project Assessment .......................................................................... 128

10.1. Background Preparation .................................................................................. 128

10.2. General Competence ....................................................................................... 128

10.3. Technical Achievement .................................................................................... 128

10.4. Report Submission............................................................................................ 128

10.5. General Evaluation Criteria and Procedures .................................................. 128

10.5.1. Quality of Research....................................................................................... 128

10.5.2. Potential Benefit........................................................................................... 129Chapter Eleven ..................................................................................................................... 130

11.0. Symposium........................................................................................................ 130

Chapter Twelve ................................................................................................................... 131

12.0. Grade Limits & Minimum Requirements ........................................................ 131

Chapter Thirteen ................................................................................................................. 132

13.0. Prize ................................................................................................................... 132


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Chapter Fourteen ................................................................................................................ 133

14.0. Students Research & Project Coordinator ...................................................... 133

Chapter Fifteen .................................................................................................................... 134

15.0. Timetable 2009/2010 ....................................................................................... 134

References ........................................................................................................................... 136

Index ..................................................................................................................................... 137


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Table of figures

FIGURE 1 15

FIGURE 2 15

FIGURE 3 37

FIGURE 4 48

FIGURE 5 48

FIGURE 6 66

FIGURE 7 66

FIGURE 8 99

FIGURE 9 99

FIGURE 10 121

FIGURE 11 122


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Chapter One

1.0. Gateways to a Research Project

Here are some strategies to help you find a good picture of researching opportunity. Talking to

instructors, advisors, and administrative staff in your area of interest have a paramount

importance for research endeavor. Follow the following procedures for better benefits:

Getting Started:o Begin by brainstorming topics, collecting information, taking a lot of notes, and

asking a lot of questions.

o Keep your notes and sources organized as you go.o Data gathering process makes the actual writing much easier.o When developing your topic, look for patterns and relationships.o See what conclusions you can draw.o Try discussing your ideas with classmates or your teacher.o A new perspective can help shake up your thinking, and keep your momentum

going.

Talk to professors: Before you approach professors,o Do your homework.o Read more.o Scan the abstracts from recent publications in your interest area.o When you introduce yourself, discuss your interests, qualifications, and

expectations.

o Have your rsum and transcripts ready.o You may want to interview other students who have worked with the Instructor.o Contact Instructors during their office hours or via email.

Talk with other people in departments: You can talk with any or all of the followingo Teaching assistants;o Lab assistants;o Departmental staff,o Academic or non-academic:o Advisors,o Secretaries,o Program directors,o Peers - students you know who have already participated in undergraduate

research;

o Peers - undergraduate student societies, whether departmental or outside etc. Attend or participate in any Research Symposiums Dont underestimate the course Research Methods and Evaluation Dont underestimate the courses CBTP I and CBTP II Consider summer professional practice at the end of your second academic year Exploit you library resources and key librarians Think of your future career planning Select your topic: Developing the research proposal will normally take place during

many occasions, but may occur in consultation with others. Examples of existing

research may be found in the professional/scholarly journal literature and sample


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projects in the department. Make sure that your topic falls under one or more of the

following predefined Research Thematic Areas:

Historical Perspectives

Philosophy of Information Information and Communication

Publishing and Communication MediaInformation Resources and Services

Science and Technology Information Government Information Legal Information Health Information Humanities and Social Science Information Information Access Information Services and Access Information Sources

Knowledge Organization and Mapping

Archival and Museum Information Studies Documentations and Document Management Information Conservation and Preservation Documentations and Document Management Knowledge/Information Management Information Organization Information Retrieval Metadata Scholarly Communication /Bibliometrics

Digital Resources Development and Management

Automation Systems Digital Resources Data Modeling Information Architecture Information Conservation and Preservation Information Resource Development and Management Information Retrieval Information Systems Internet Studies Media Studies Multimedia Studies Metadata Semantic Web User Center Web Design

Information and Users Communication

Communication Studies Human, Information and Technology Interaction


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Information and Communication Information Ethics Information Marketing and Literacy Information and Society Intellectual Freedom Intellectual Property

Scholarly Management

Information Resource Centers Management Knowledge Management (Organizational /personal)

Organize Your Writing - Develop an outline to help you stay on track as you write,identifying your main points and what you want to conclude. Keep in mind basic essay

and paper structure:

o The introduction should give your reader an idea of the essay's intent, includinga basic statement of what the essay will discuss.

o The body presents the evidence that supports your idea. Use concrete exampleswhenever and avoid generalities.

o The conclusion should summarize and make sense of the evidence youpresented in the body.

The Rough Draft - You may find as you write that you end up with a different idea thanthe one you began with.

o If your first topic or conclusion doesn't hold water, be open to changing it.o If necessary, re-write your outline to get yourself back on track.

Brush up you communication skills: Get involved in writing: Go to departmental talk: Think outside the box: Don't overlook possibilities for cross-disciplinary work where

your skills overlap with another fields of study. Follow the following extra and general tips and you will be fine:

o Leave enough time to show your draft to others -- use the writing center, ifpossible. A fresh perspective can help you polish your paper, and catch

inconsistencies and mistakes.

o Describe a problem that is about the same size as your solution. Dont draw adark picture of nuclear war, teen suicide and lethal air pollution if you are

planning a modest neighborhood arts program for children.

o Dont describe the absence of your project as the problem. "We dont haveenough beds in our battered womens shelter" is not the problem. The problem

is increased levels of domestic violence. More shelter beds is a solution.

o Become familiar with the vocabulary of your subject. For example, when writingabout fiction, drama, and poetry, critical writers use words such as: syntax,

tone, attitude, voice, speaker, and thesis.

o Refine and Proofreado When you're done, take a break so you can come back to your writing with fresh

eyes. Ask yourself: Is the writing clear? Do the ideas make sense? Are all of your

requirements fulfilled? Did you avoid repetition? Have I used proper grammar

and spelling? How does it sound read out loud?


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o Remember the title and first paragraph are going to form a strong impression inthe mind of the reviewer.

o Facts must lead logically and inevitably to the conclusion and/or the solutionpresented.

o Remember that proposal reviewers may come from a variety of disciplines andmay not be familiar with your field of study. Reviewers may also have to

compare proposals across disciplines and methodological lines. Keep this inmind when writing. Proposals should be directed toward a general audience

(unless otherwise specified) and avoid excessive use of jargon!


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Chapter Two

2.0. Independent Research Project Proposal Writing

Every student's project proposal is different and all the advice given in these pages does not necessarily

apply to every student. Check with your supervisor if you are not sure about any aspect of the process of

writing up your research. The research proposal can serve many useful functions. The most

important is that it helps you to think out the research project you are about to undertake and

predict any difficulties that might arise. For those who aren't quite sure what their focus will be,

the research proposal can be a space to explore options, perhaps with one proposal for each

potential topic (which can then be more easily compared and evaluated than when they are still

just ideas in one's head). Research proposals can be effective starting places to discuss projects

with your Advisor too. The Advisor who is initially skeptical about a project may be able to

imagine it more easily after reading a well written research proposal (this doesn't mean he or

she will approve the topic, especially if there are significant potential difficulties that you haven't

considered).

2.1. Outline for the Proposal Writing

This manual assumes that you will end up with at least ten major parts:

Preliminary Pages

Title Page Approval Sheet Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Appendices (if any) Project Summary

Section 1: Introduction

Objective of the Study Statement of the Problem Research Questions and or Hypotheses Scope of the Study Limitation and Delimitation of the Study Significance of the Study Assumptions (if any) Definition of Terms

Section 2: Literature Review

Section 3: Research Methodology

Research Method Used Population of the Study Sampling Techniques and Sample Size Instrumentations Procedure for Data Collection Statistical Methods for the Study


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Institution Name

TitleBy

Submitted to:

An Independent Research/A Research Project Proposal

Submitted to the Department of Information Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Jimma

University, in meeting the preliminary research requirement for partial fulfillment for the award of

degree of Bachelor in Information Science.

Jimma, Ethiopia

January 2009

Section 4: Data Analysis, Results and Dissemination

Section 5: Budgeting

Section 6: Action plan

Section 7: Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendices

2.2. Preliminary Pages

2.2.1. Title Page

Figure 1

Note: Give your project a working title, which may or may not become the title of your paper.

This should be a short phrase describing the subject of the proposal.The title of the project

must be brief, scientifically or technically valid, intelligible to a scientifically or technically literate

reader, and suitable for use in the public press. NSF may edit the title of a project prior to making

an award

2.2.2. Approval Sheet

Figure 2

Note: When the proposal is approved or accepted, you begin your research project with more

confidence, especially if the department council has indicated their enthusiasm for your work.

Since approval represents a sort of contract, you need to consider how to handle changes since

some change is likely as the research unfolds. Note that substantial changes will mean a return to

the approver for another approval.

This Independent Research/Research Project Proposal en-titled .. has

been read and approved as meeting the preliminary research requirements of the Department of

Information Science in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Information Science,

Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.

Research and Scholarly Communication Management Team Leader

_______________________________________________________________

Principal Advisor

_____________________________________________________________________

Advisors

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________


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2.2.3. Acknowledgement

Acknowledgement in scientific literature writing is a statement of gratitude for friends,

family, instructors, advisors, organizations etc for assistance in producing a specific

work. Receiving a credit by way of acknowledgment indicates that the person or organization did

not have a direct hand in producing the work in question, but may have contributed criticism, or

encouragement to the performer(s). Apart from citation, which is not usually considered to be an

acknowledgment, but acknowledgment of conceptual support is widely considered to be the

most important for identifying intellectual debt.

2.2.4. Table of Content

A table of contents, may be headed simply "Contents," is an organized list of divisions

(chapters or articles) and the pages on which they start or the place where they may be

found in the order in which the parts appear. The contents usually includes the titles or

descriptions of the first-level headers, such as chapter titles in longer works, and often

includes second-level or section titles (A-heads) within the chapters as well, and

occasionally even third-level titles (subsections or B-heads). The depth of detail in tables

of contents depends on the length of the work, with longer works having less. Formal

reports (ten or more pages and being too long to put into a memo or letter) also have

tables of contents. Documents of fewer than ten pages do not require tables of

contents, but often have a short list of contents at the beginning.

Table of Contents as a gateway through the document shall automatically be indexed or

generated.

2.2.5. List of Figures

Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of figures to locate visual information in a

certain body of document. The list of figures identifies the titles and locations of visuals

(figures, drawings, photos, maps) in a research documents. Figures concentrate

information in unusual ways and show critical details, configurations, and evidence.

Often Advisors, reviewers and readers review them independently of other sections of a

report. If figures do not accompany your report or article, look for ways to include them.

Figure titles are capitalized, and figures are numbered consecutively in Arabic number

through the report. In a larger document, the figure number may be in two parts, the

first part referring to the section number: for example, "Figure 3-5" for the fifth figure in

Chapter 3. Be sure the figure captions are descriptive.

Example:

List of Figures

Figure 1. Information Management Cycle 3

Figure 2. Metadata Characteristics 5

Figure 3. Lotkas Citation Analysis 6

Figure 4. Shannons Models of Communication 8

Figure 5. Knowledge Spectrum 10


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2.2.6. List of Appendices

Any literary matter added to a document, but not necessarily essential to its

completeness, and thus distinguished from supplement, which is intended to supply

deficiencies and correct inaccuracies. Advisors, reviewers and readers use the list of

appendices to locate some extra/detail information attached as if by being hung on or

as an appendage.Appendices are supplementary materials usually attached at the endof a piece of writing.

2.2.7. Project Summary

The proposal must contain a summary of the proposed activity suitable for publication,

not more than one page in length. It should not be an abstract of the proposal, but

rather a self-contained description of the activity that would result if the proposal were

accepted. The summary should be written in the third person and include a statement

of objectives and methods to be employed. It must clearly address in separate

statements (within the one-page summary):

the intellectual merit of the proposed activity; and the broader impacts resulting from the proposed activity.

It should be informative to other persons working in the same or related fields and,

insofar as possible, understandable to a scientifically or technically literate lay reader.

Proposals that do not separately address both merit review criteria within the one-page

Project Summary will be returned without review.

2.3. Section 1: Introduction

Explain your interest in and experience with this topic. Describe your any previous research

articles readings conducted on this or related topics and any classes you have taken on this or

related topics. If you have personal experience that has led you to want to do more research,

describe that here too. Be short, fashionable and stylish. Clearly support your statement withdocumentation and references, and include a review of the literature that supports the need for

your research or creative endeavor. A discussion of present understanding and/or state of

knowledge concerning the question or a discussion of the context of the scholarly or creative

work is clearly described.

2.3.1. Objective of the Study

Objectives are specifically for targets within the general goal. Objectives are time

related to achieve a certain task. Objectives are measurable activities to achieve goals;

the end points envisioned for the proposed project. These objectives might be, for

example, development of a specified measurement capability that meets a prescribedaccuracy, data rate, instrument packaging characteristics (size, weight, etc.), and other

possible requirements.

The objectives section of a proposal is typically very brief, usually a half-page at most.

This is because the rationale for objectives could also be explained in the problem

statement, while the ways of achieving the objectives should be explained in the


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methodology section. Indicating both the general and specific objectives of the project

will be important.

The General objectives provide a short statement of the development goalbeing pursued by the research.

The Specific objectives are operational in nature. They may indicate specifictypes of knowledge to be produced, certain audiences to be reached, andcertain forms of capacity to be reinforced. These are the objectives against

which the success of the project will be judged. It is important to distinguish the

specific objectives from the means of achieving them.

2.3.2. Statement of the Problem

Explain what you hope your research will find or show. State your question or series of

questions before you begin your research. After you have conducted significant

research you should be able to answer your question(s) in one or two sentences, which

may become the thesis of the final paper. Generally this section should normally make

up one of the significant parts of the proposal. It should describe the problem that is tobe investigated and the questions that will guide the research process. Note that proper

justification of the importance of the research questions to be addressed requires some

sense of the likely contribution to knowledge that the research will make and its place in

current debate or technological advance. Often, this can be presented in the form of

research hypotheses to be tested.

This section should provide a brief overview of the literature and research done in the

field related to the problem, and of the gaps that the proposed research is intended to

fill.

To show the importance of the problem, this section may discuss such points as:

How the research relates to the development priorities of the country orcountries concerned;

The scientific importance of the problem; The magnitude of the problem and how the research results will contribute to

its solution;

The special importance of the project for vulnerable social groups; and The need to build up research capacity in the proposed area of research.

2.3.3. Research Questions and or Hypotheses

If you are articulating the research questions state explicitly what question(s) yourresearch will address.

A hypothesis is sometimes described as an educated guess. That's not the same thing as

a guess and not really a good description of a hypothesis either. Let's try working

through an example.


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If you put an ice cube on a plate and place it on the table, what will happen? A very

young child might guess that it will still be there in a couple of hours. Most people

would agree with the hypothesis that: An ice cube will melt in less than 30 minutes. You

could put it and watch the ice cube melt and think you've proved a hypothesis. But you

will have missed some important steps.

For a good project you need to do quite a bit of research before any experimenting.

Start by finding some information about how and why water melts. You could read

more, or even ask an expert. For our example, you could learn about how temperature

and air pressure can change the state of water. Don't forget that elevation above sea

level changes air pressure too. Now, using all your research, try to restate that

hypothesis. An ice cube will melt in less than 30 minutes in a room at sea level with a

temperature of 20C or 68F.

But wait a minute. What is the ice made from? What if the ice cube was made from salt

water or you sprinkled salt on a regular ice cube? Time for some more research. Would

adding salt make a difference? Turns out it does. Would other chemicals change themelting time? Using this new information, let's try that hypothesis again. An ice cube

made with tap water will melt in less than 30 minutes in a room at sea level with a

temperature of 20C or 68F.

Does that seem like an educated guess? No, it sounds like you are stating the obvious.

At this point, it is obvious only because of your research. You haven't actually done the

experiment. Now it's time to run the experiment to prove the hypothesis. A hypothesis

isn't an educated guess. It is a tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon,

or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation. Once you do the

experiment and prove the hypothesis, it becomes part of scientific theory.

State your hypotheses about the question. You must state at least two. You are strongly

recommended that you should frame your hypothesis using the following format: If

(premise), then (prediction), because (mechanism).

In the statements of questions and hypothesis one should make sure that the followings

are considered:

Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many ofthem are there? Is there a relationship between them?). They are most often

used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming

more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and aretypically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the

reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of

the assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded

in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.

A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables butphrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative


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statement of the relations between two or more variables (Kerlinger, 1979;

Krathwohl, 1988).

Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such asthe purpose of the study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the

audience of the research (at times even the taste and preference of committee

members, particularly the Chair).

The practice of using hypotheses was derived from using the scientific methodin social science inquiry. They have philosophical advantages in statisticaltesting, as researchers should be and tend to be conservative and cautious in

their statements of conclusions (Armstrong, 1974).

Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements.

Literary nulla no difference form in terms of theoretical constructs. Forexample, There is no relationship between support services and academic

persistence of nontraditional-aged college women. Or, There is no difference

in school achievement for high and low self-regulated students.

Operational nulla no difference form in terms of the operation required totest the hypothesis. For example, There is no relationship between the numberof hours nontraditional-aged college women use the student union and their

persistence at the college after their freshman year. Or, There is no difference

between the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and

lower quartiles of the distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory. The

operational null is generally the preferred form of hypothesis-writing.

Literary alternativea form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the nullhypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words,

this is usually what you hope the results will show. For example, The more that

nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will persist

academically. Or, High self-regulated students will achieve more in their

classes than low self-regulated students. Operational alternativeSimilar to the literary alternative except that the

operations are specified. For example, The more that nontraditional-aged

college women use the student union, the more they will persist at the college

after their freshman year. Or, Students in the upper quartile of the Self-

regulated Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point

averages than do students in the lower quartile.

In general, the null hypothesis is used if theory/literature does not suggest a

hypothesized relationship between the variables under investigation; the alternative is

generally reserved for situations in which theory/research suggests a relationship or

directional interplay.

Be prepared to interpret any possible outcomes with respect to the questions or

hypotheses. It will be helpful if you visualize in your minds eye the tables (or other

summary devices) that you expect to result from your research (Guba, 1961).

Questions and hypotheses are testable propositions deduced and directly derived from

theory (except in grounded theory studies and similar types of qualitative inquiry).


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Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and independent variables

and be certain they are clear to the reader. Be excruciatingly consistent in your use of

terms. If appropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all

hypotheses.

Example: Hypothesis for the relation between arousal level and eye blink rate: In

this hypothesis, the statement could be the blink rate decreases as arousal level

decreases when arousal level decreases below a certain level. However, with

visual tasks, the blink rate tends to temporarily increase as arousal level

decrease. In an extended hypothesis, when arousal level increases markedly,

the blink rate also increases.

2.3.4. Scope of the Study

Scope of study is a general outline of what the study (i.e. research undertaking) will

cover as a tool used to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way

that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project.

It provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and control along with

providing guidance for schedule development and control. Additionally the scope is a

dynamic tool and can be revised and updated as needed by the researcher. It also

provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and

control of a work and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from

which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor

hour reporting can be established.

Searching for resources on your subject will be more effective if you have already

defined the scope of your research. You may find it helpful to consider the followingquestions:

Does the research cover a particular time period? Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are to

be included?

Are all dates of publication to be included? Is the research going to cover publications from other countries? Will the research include other languages and scripts? Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political,

psychological, etc.

2.3.5. Limitations and Delimitations of the study

Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the

researcher. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent

in the design. Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal

validity of results. A study has internal validity if the confounding variables have been

converted to either controlled or randomized variables and if the research is designed in


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such a way that it is possible to estimate the size of the random variation so that the

"experimental" variation may be compared to it for significance. The goal is to recognize

inherent threats to internal validity in the study plan.

Any limitations that might influence the results should be mentioned. Describe the

problems you expect to encounter and how you hope to solve them. For example, texts

might be unavailable, necessitating travel to other libraries or use of inter-library loan

facilities; people you had hoped to interview might be unavailable or unwilling to

participate, necessitating that you select other interviewees or change the focus;

internet sites might be down or no longer available, etc. (Try to imagine every possible

problem so that you have contingency plans and the project doesn't become disrupt.)

Document the limitations that could prevent you from successfully completing this

project, for example a lack of reference material or limited access to required resources.

Another constraint might be the amount time you have available to do research.

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned clearly

that it deals with such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and

instrumentation. For example, the study may focus on children in only one grade level

or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence test. External validity deals with the

extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to different subjects, settings,

experimenters, and so on; the study has external validity. However, there are many

threats to external validity which cause the results of a study to be specific to some

limited group of people and/or set of conditions. These threats are (a) those dealing

with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects can be expected to

behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and (b) those dealing with the

"environment" of the study (Under what conditions, i.e., settings, treatments,

experimenters, dependent variables, and so on, can the same results be expected?). The

delimitations of a study are those characteristics that limit the scope (define the

boundaries) of the inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary

decisions that were made throughout the development of the proposal. Among these

are the choice of objectives and questions, variables of interest, alternative theoretical

perspectives that could have been adopted, etc. The first limiting step was the choice of

problem itself; implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but

were rejected or screened off from view. Go back and review each of these decisions.

You will want to prepare a statement of purpose or intent that clearly sets out what is

meant to be accomplished by the study but that also includes a declaration of what thestudy does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your decisions for excluding certain

territory should have been based on such criteria as "not interesting"; "not directly

relevant"; too problematic because..."; "not feasible" and the like. Make this reasoning

explicit.

Consider the example of an important study conducted during the 1980s: Imagine a

cross-case comparison study of state-level education policy systems that broke entirely


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new conceptual ground in the field of policy studies by exploring for the first time the

role of political cultures and prevailing public values in policy making. This study

generated detailed profiles of political cultures and public values vis a vis how they

differentially shaped education policy choices in each of the states included in the study.

There were a number of interesting research questions that could have been asked but

were not pursued, such as, "how are the public schools affected by different policy

choices on the same educational issues?", or "do these differential policy choices

evidence themselves in different educational outcomes among public school students?"

These questions were not pursued in this particular study because (a) the focus of the

inquiry was on developing a new theory of how policy systems work, not on their

outcomes, and (b) the inclusion of these questions, while interesting, would have been

beyond the reach of the research team, given limited time and money for conducting

the study.

2.3.6. Significance of the study

Explain why this topic is worth considering, or this question or series of questions isworth answering. Answer the following questions:

Why should your instructor let you select this topic? What do you hope to learn from it? What will this new knowledge add to the field of knowledge that already exists

on this topic?

What new perspective will you bring to the topic? What use might your final research paper have for others in this field or in the

general public?

Who might you decide to share your findings with once the project is complete?2.3.7. Assumptions (if any)

An assumption is a proposition that is taken for granted, as if it were true based upon

presupposition without preponderance of the facts. Assumption may also refer to:

In logic, natural deduction systems are defined as an assumption is made in theexpectation that it will be discharged in due course via a separate argument.

Mathematical modeling can be used to map the outcome of differentassumptions on the system being modeled.

In business planning and business plans, an assumption is an assertion aboutsome characteristic of the future that underlies the current operations or plans

of an organization

Example:

Researchers usually assume subjects will give 100% effort. Researchers assume data

collection instruments are valid and reliable based upon their previous use.


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2.3.8. Definition of terms

This section of your work contains systematically organized scientific terms in the body

with their appropriate definitions. Definition of Terms is a very brief section consisting

of a series of definitions of the key terms or concepts found in the proposal/research.

Since some words like "recreation" or "leisure" may have various meanings, it is

important to clarify to the reader the way they are used in the proposal. Unfamiliar ortechnical words may also require an exact definition.

2.4. Section 2: Literature Review

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It

should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about

the area (Wiersma, 1995, p. 406).

The literature review accomplishes several important things.

It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to thestudy being reported (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).

It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic,filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).

It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as abenchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.

It frames the problem earlier identified.Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of

important recent substantive and methodological developments.

Delineate the jumping-off place for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend

what is now known?

Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is

too extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications

that the writer is not really familiar with the literature.

In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice

of exemplarsthe literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and

reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly or briefly.

Committees may want a section outlining your search strategythe procedures you used and

sources you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the field) to compileyour literature review. You will be rewarded for:

providing an introductory paragraph which explains what is discussed in the chapter andwhy it is necessary to include this as part of the dissertation/project

demonstrating that you conducted a thorough literature search and have read widely demonstrating that you have read up to date material summarizing what you have read thematically (and not author by author)


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highlighting trends in the discussion of your topic, for example over time; by geography;by sector

commenting on the value of what you have read (without discussing the actual topic)organizing your findings from the literature review to fit in with the main themes of your

research project

identifying gaps in the literature demonstrating that you assimilated and understood what you have read and what you

have written

2.5. Section 3: Research Methodology

Describe the kind of research you will conduct to complete this project. Explain how you will

conduct your research in as much detail as possible. If you will consult others (such as a

statistician, an ethnographer, or a librarian) explain what role they will serve and how you hope

they will enhance your development of an appropriate methodology for this project. Discuss

the kinds of sources you hope to consult and the methods you will use to extract and process

the information you gather in as much detail as is possible at this stage. (As the project is

underway you might find the need to revise your methodology, explore new types of sourcematerial, and/or adopt new methods of gathering and processing data. If this happens, revise

this section of the proposal.)

Students often make the mistake of assuming that the methodology only refers to the methods

used to collect data. A description of a projects methodology must include a discussion of the

overall approach to the research and discuss analysis and interpretation as well as data

collection.

Concerning your presentation strategy you can follow the following principles:

Present tense is used for relating what other authors say and for discussing theliterature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc.

o In her article on biodiversity, Jones stipulates that . In addition, use the present tense when you present your observations on the literature.

o However, on the important question of extinction, Jones remains silent. Past tense is used for recounting events, results found, etc.

o Jones and Green conducted experiments over a ten-year period. Theydetermined that it was not possible to recreate the specimen.

Future tense is used for describing how you will accomplish your research.o This thesis will challenge Jones and Greens conclusions about biodiversity and

will propose a new approach to the problem of species extinction.

Research will be conducted for the purpose of discovering, interpreting, enhancing, developing

standards to systematize measurements, and furthering advancement of knowledge.

Methodology is the rationale behind collection of concepts, ideas, theories, and assumptions.


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Combined, a good research methodology is a technique of collecting data systematically. For all

those wondering how to write a good research methodology, try using the following.

Quantitative Research Methodology

Quantitative research is the systematic scientific investigation (Descriptive - What is the current

situation? And Experimental - What is the cause?) used to measure the feelings and thoughts ofpeople, and actions of the way and why things are done. Everything that is measurable can be

used to gather quantitative data. This method of research is used in analysis of natural sciences

and social sciences subjects. The quantitative concept can be applied to physics, biology,

sociology and journalism. Structured questionnaires and interviews, one-on-one and telephonic

data gathering are some of the common ways of collection data for quantitative research.

Qualitative Research Methodology

Qualitative research (Historical- What was the situation? And Ethnographic - What is the currentsituation?) is used to gain an in-depth insight into matters that affect human behavior. It is a

study that reflects more on the why and how of decision making, by studying people's culture,

value systems, attitudes, behaviors, concerns, motivations, aspirations, etc. Qualitative research

is multi-focal in its reasoning, exploring, questioning and answering; hence, it is extremely useful

in market research, constructing business decisions and policies, enhancing communication and

facilitating research. Unlike quantitative data collection, a method of qualitative research is

based on unstructured interviews and recordings, and feedback.

Evaluative research methodology usually uses standard social research methods, in terms of

service quality assessment, process evaluation and standards for evaluative purposes. The mainpurpose served by evaluative research is to provide useful feedback for decision making.

Most researches prposal fail because they contain information that is irrelevant or one that

seems not to answer what it set out to. How to write a good research methodology can be best

answered, if one, at the end of every stage, checks for accomplishments and feels that they are

closing in with each stage towards solving the problem or understanding the subject highlighted

in their research. A good research methodology demands patience, persistence, insight,

understanding, curiosity and perseverance.

2.5.1. Research Method used

Methodology can be the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by

a discipline or the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a

discipline or a particular procedure or set of procedures. Methodology includes a

philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular

discipline or field of inquiry.


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There are many different types of research methods, also called research designs. In real

life, some studies may combine the features of several research designs or may contain

elements not included below.

Descriptive: The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminologysynonymous to this type of research is: describe, write on, depict. The aim of

descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present

situation in order to elucidate it. Descriptive research is thus a type of research

that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree

in detail of the present situation. The emphasis is on describe rather than on

judge or interpret. Because the total population during a specific investigation

can not be contemplated as a whole, researchers make use of the demarcation

of the population or of the selection of a representative test sample. Test

sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research. In descriptive

research the following steps should be included:

o Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problembeing tested should be explicitly formulated in the form of a question.

o Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulatedproblem enables the researcher to divide the problem into smaller

units.

o Problem reduction.o Hypothesis formulation.o Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test

sample.

o Information retrieval. The application of appropriate informationretrieval techniques to comply with the criteria set for authenticity and

competency is relevant.o General planning. Any research requires sound planning.o Proposal writing. The proposal entails how the reproduction of factual

information, the interpretation of data, conclusions and

recommendations can be articulated.

Experiment: Participants randomly assigned to different groups being studied.Groups are treated differently in one or a few very specific ways--the

independent variable. Behavior resulting from this treatment difference is

measured--the dependent variable. If one group gets a specific treatment and

ones does not, usually the treated group is called the experimental group and

other groups are called control groups. Conditions other than the independent

variable are held as constant as possible for all groups. These constant

conditions are called controls. If participants are their own control group, that

is, they receive both research treatments; the design is called a within-subjects

experiment. Conclusions can be taken to indicate a cause and effect relationship

between the independent and dependent variables. Because of this, the

experiment is in a class by itself and it is a very special type of research

procedure.


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In order to do experimental research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly

between the terms dependent and independent variables. In experimental

research it is a prerequisite that the researcher should be able to manipulate

the variable and then to assess what the influence of the manipulation on the

variable was.

A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on

different values. Objects are usually not considered as variables - but their

characteristics are. As example the following can be considered: a transparency

is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics of the transparency are

variables, for example the color, design etc. In other words, a transparency as an

object can take on different values.

o Independent variable: The independent variable is the circumstances orcharacteristics which the researcher can manipulate in his effort to

determine what their connection with the observed phenomenon. This

means that the researcher has direct control over the variable. As

example of an independent variable, are study methods.

o Dependent variable: The dependent variable, on the other hand, is thecircumstances or characteristics that change, disappear or appear when

the researcher implements the independent variable. For example,

learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the

dependent variable, while the manipulation of study methods by means

of different teaching methods, is the independent variable.

Quasi-experiment: Participants achieve membership in different groups as aresult of characteristics other than random assignment, for example: gender,

age, socioeconomic status, athletic ability, or ethnic identification. A link may be

found between one or more of these characteristics and some outcome

variables, but cause and effect relationships are not clearly identified. Withoutrandom assignment to groups, a researcher cannot clearly demonstrate cause.

Co-relational study: In the most general sense, a correlational studyinvestigates the relationship between two variables. Usually the data are

reported as correlation coefficients. Strength and direction (positive or

negative) of relationships can be demonstrated by correlational studies but

causal links remain an open question.

Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study follows a group composed of the samepeople across a period of the life span. The behavior of these individuals is

observed and/or measured at several intervals over time in an attempt to study

the changes in their behavior. Longitudinal studies may cover a short time, such

as a few weeks, or a long time, such as the entire life span. Longitudinal studiesmay additionally employ other methods, such as quasi-experimental or

correlational approaches, but the defining characteristic is that the same people

are studied repeatedly across time.

Cross sectional study: A cross sectional study usually examines groups ofdifferent people who belong to different age groups as a means of studying

behavior development across part or all of the life span. These studies can

usually be done more easily and quickly than longitudinal studies but the


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resulting data may be of lower quality. More rarely, the term cross sectional

may be used to describe studies which divide and examine segments of society

based on variables other than age, such as income, educational level or family

size.

Survey: A survey is a structured list of questions presented to people. Surveysmay be written or oral, face to face or over the phone. It is possible to cheaply

survey large numbers of people, but the data quality may be lower than someother methods because people do not always answer questions accurately.

Interview: An interview may be highly structured or it may involve lessstructured narrative. It may include survey methodology. It usually involves

people responding orally to questions or talking about their thoughts on a topic.

Case study: A case study involves extensive observations of a few individuals.Data collection may include watching behavior, interviews and record searching.

Case studies may be retrospective and/or prospective. Usually case studies are

employed where the behavior or situation is so rare that other methods,

involving larger groups of participants, are not possible.

Naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observations can range fromunstructured observations of humans or other animals to situations involvinghypothesis testing or some manipulations of a natural setting. If you wanted to

know if males are likely to hold doors open for females, you could watch until

you had seen a number of natural occurrences of this, or you could get a female

helper to follow males into buildings and watch to see what happens. It can be

difficult to precisely define the natural setting, particularly when the

participants are humans. Placing an actual research procedure into this category

or others can involve a judgment call which might be debatable.

Demonstration: An unsystematically engineered observation of behavior,sometimes involving only one participant. The demonstration provides only very

weak evidence. It is not a recognized research method but it is a term which can

be quite useful as a descriptor for studies that seem to employ no established

method.

2.5.2. Population of the Study

As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea

of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends

upon an accurate description of the population. Indicate who will they apply to, when

you've finished your research. Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the

population. Examples are: "The population for this study will be all regular students who

access the internet during the sampling time frame", or "...all elites in the city of

Jimma", or "...all potential to the service".

While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling

procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling

methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the

sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely

important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently

represent the population.


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2.5.3. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a

representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or

characteristics of the whole population.

The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validitythe extent to

which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the

extent to which results may be generalized to other situations with other people

(Shavelson, 1988). Sampling is critical to external validitythe extent to which findings

of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the

study. To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population

requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of

several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the probability

of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priority.

Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validitythe

extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were

manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically

treated. Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed

(Shavelson, 1988).

Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative. One must ask oneself, How

representative is the sample of the survey population (the group from which the sample

is selected) and how representative is the survey population of the target population

(the larger group to which we wish to generalize)?

When a sample is drawn out of convenience (a nonprobability sample), rationale andlimitations must be clearly provided.

If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity,

socioeconomic status, or other relevant group membership).

Detail procedures to follow to obtain informed consent and ensure anonymity and/or

confidentiality.

Note that this applies if you distributed a questionnaire or have based your work on

case studies.

What is sampling theory? Why is it important to research design? What are the different methods of sampling? What are their advantages and disadvantages? Which sampling method did you use for this survey? Why did you choose this method? How did you determine the size of your sample?


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There are three primary kinds of samples: the convenience, the judgment sample, and

the random sample. They differ in the manner in which the elementary units are

chosen.

Quota sample (Non-probability sample)

The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of severalcategories.

The convenient sample (Non-probability sample)

A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen

from a population for observation.

The judgment sample (Non-probability sample)

A judgment sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar

with the relevant characteristics of the population.

The random sample (Probability sample)

This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known

probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. For this reason, it is sometimes

referred to as a probability sample. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries

and raffles. For example, if you want to select 10 players randomly from a population of

100, you can write their names, fold them up, mix them thoroughly then pick ten. In this

case, every name had any equal chance of being picked. Random numbers can also be

used.

A simple random sample: A simple random sample is obtained by choosingelementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal

chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias.

However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be

cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics,

then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made

improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be

simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been

chosen randomly as discussed below. such a procedure is called systematic

random sampling.

A systematic random sample: A systematic random sample is obtained byselecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units

at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained. For

example, there are 100 students in your class. You want a sample of 20 from

these 100 and you have their names listed on a piece of paper may be in an

alphabetical order. If you choose to use systematic random sampling, divide 100

by 20, you will get 5. Randomly select any number between 1 and five. Suppose

the number you have picked is 4, that will be your starting number. So student

number 4 has been selected. From there you will select every 5th name until


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you reach the last one, number one hundred. You will end up with 20 selected

students.

A stratified sample: A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting aseparate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population

can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or

variable like income of education. Like any body with ten years of education will

be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C.These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each

stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group

A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will

take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3

from group C.

A cluster sample: A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from thepopulation on the basis of simple random sampling. T

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