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Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 1
Social Norms Affecting Consumption Patterns of Illicit/Licit Substances Among 302W
Psychology Students
Victoria L. Warnock
Northern Arizona University
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 2
Abstract
Previous research indicates that undergraduate students decide to engage in substance
consumption despite the minimum legal drinking age laws and state or federal level policy. We
compared the influence of age on alcohol consumption and attitudes towards legality with
cannabis consumption patterns. Participants (N=86) at Northern Arizona University completed
anonymous surveys lifted from the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey. Participants answered
questions pertaining to alcohol volume or frequency and involvement with cannabis, in
conjunction with perceived normative values based on self-attitudes, friends and students in
general. We employed a Multiple Regression design to statistically control for confounds such
as gender, class standing and perceived norms. Where the mean age was (M=20.45) we found
no statistical significance for the proposed hypotheses. However, self-attitudes towards
consumption patterns yielded statistical significance across both self-reported raw scores of
alcohol consumption (β=1.27, p<.0001) and cannabis engagement (β=.700, p<.0001). In
addition, it was revealed that participants perceived normative consumption of their friends
alcohol use moderately affects their personal consumption patterns (β=.384, p<.018). Thus, in
conclusion, self-reported attitudes about appropriate consumption were the single best predictor
for actual intake of undergraduate students, followed by the perceived normative consumption of
their peers.
Keywords: Alcohol, Cannabis, Undergraduates, Perception, Norms
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 3
Social Norms Affecting Consumption Patterns of Illicit/Licit Substances Among 302W
Psychology Students
Social institutions provide an overarching code of culturally standardized values and
expectations that attempt to influence individuals on a micro scale in their conscious decision-
making processes. These established normative beliefs define what is socially acceptable and
appropriate within our everyday events and function, serving to found conventional rules and
laws for conducting ourselves amidst society. In the United States federal law mandates that the
tolerable age to consume alcoholic beverages is 21, the extent to which this regulation is upheld
and exercised is a facet of our inquiry. In contrast, indulgence in the easily accessible illicit drug
cannabis is federally unrecognized or condoned yet still occurring.
Among university settings, students are generally known to engage recreationally in
either substance and at times ingest both for intensified effects of intoxication. The purpose of
our study is to isolate whether age as a social norm contributes as a significant factor in the
consumption patterns of alcohol in students. In addition, we aim to assess the degree to which
students participate in the conscious intake of cannabis considering the implications of its
illegality. This area of analysis is imperative to understanding what social mechanisms such as
policy and tolerability affect the individual in decision-making processes and the extent to which
imposed parameters will hold authority and conformity.
Furthermore, the results of this study will contribute to more comprehensive data trends
concerning psychology students in academic environments, exposing patterns in submission to
inappropriate engagement of both licit and illicit substances. Undergraduate psychology students
present a unique approach to deciphering what factors may influence indulgence actions with
substances, as a considerable portion of their education covers the diverse range of drugs
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 4
available and how they affect the individual physiologically and mentally. For example,
Introduction to Psychology devotes half a chapter if not more to the general and commonly
known illicit substances webbed within our society and includes a look at licit substances such as
alcohol and tobacco. Developmental psychology coupled with introduction to cognitive and
behavioral neuroscience provide a more in depth chapter respectively on how each substance
differs from each other based on physiological effects, mental effects and the repercussions of
short-term vs. long-term usage. Considering this notion, this study should also aid in
ascertaining the extent to which learned information about the implications and harm of
substances interferes with conscious decisions that result in engaging regardless of prior
knowledge.
Previous Research Results
Several studies have examined the role of social norms in college student substance
consumption patterns, including age, perceived normative values and setting variations.
University settings provide diverse mechanisms for substance indulgence, although the minimum
legal drinking age enforcement has aided in reducing under-age consumption, a study conducted
from 2005-2006 found that 51.6% of people aged 18-20 reported using alcohol within the past 30
days (National Survey on Drug Use and Health). Thus, although this fraction of the population
is incapable of purchasing or enjoying alcohol in public settings they are managing to secure
alcohol regardless, a second party of those that are of legal age are involved and providing
alcohol to minors. Brown, Matousek & Radue (2009) directed a study in which 130 students
between 21-25 years old at the University of Wisconsin-Madison were interviewed in 16
different focus groups inquiring about perceptions and motivations for providing minors with
alcohol. The aim of this study was to identify potential ways in which those of legal drinking
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 5
age such as friends and relatives could reduce access of alcohol to minors on campus, therefore
establishing more productive methods of intervening. The discussion and focus groups averaged
about eight people and were held from 2007-2008. Key themes were isolated in the results and
utilized to better understand what mechanisms drive those of legal age to provide alcohol to
minors. The results established that the main reasons for providing alcohol were that most social
engagements involve drinking and that some individuals turn 21 and still continue to have
underage friends that they want to participate in events. In addition, reoccurring themes found
that the participants believed their behavior to be no different than adults that engage in drinking,
the prestige of acceptance into specific universities enables the individual to drink if he/she
pleases because that accomplishment is noteworthy and a considerable portion found the current
legal age to be inappropriate or unfair. The participants also identified one other reason that
most provide alcohol for minors, an overwhelming feeling of social expectation and cultural
norm in university settings. Participants described how they felt they must ‘pay it forward’ or
‘give back’ in the reciprocal relationship of those that are legal that provided alcohol for them as
minors and now as they reach legal age they should perpetuate the cycle (Brown, Matousek &
Radue, 2009).
A study conducted at the University of New York in Buffalo demonstrates to what extent
Bandura’s concept of Social Learning Theory contributes to developing consumption patterns of
students. Social Learning Theory states that individuals learn behaviors through observation of
models such as family and friends (McLeod, 2011). This relates to how an individual may
perceive the respected norms within a context and thus establish their own distinction of
appropriate and inappropriate. This study claimed that most university students are inclined to
overestimate what is a socially acceptable rate of drinking and this could result in distorted
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 6
expectations of frequency and volume (Wardell & Read, 2013). Positive Alcohol Expectancies
or PEAs help form unrealistic rewards of drinking and in turn affect the consumption rates of
students. Wardell and Read (2013) asserted that this idea of Reciprocal Determinism simply
implies that consumption patterns are shaped by these social norms and skewed confident reward
systems and perpetuate a cyclical motion, in essence they mold and are molded by each other. In
order to establish that this relationship exists, researchers assessed the rate of past alcohol use
and three measures of PEA’s on a sample of 557 college students. The study found that the
perceived quantity norms directly influenced the actual quantity uptake, yet frequency norms
showed no correlation to actual frequency consumption rates suggesting that some factors
involving social norms have a significant impact while others have modest or little to none
(Wardell & Read, 2013).
A similar study conducted at Harvard School of Public Health in Boston identified the
initial age of substance abuse by individuals claiming this indicates future potential cannabis,
alcohol and other drug use trends in overall life-time dependence patterns. Mohler-Kuo (2003)
utilized a sample of 215 randomly assigned undergraduate students from 120 colleges across 40
states from 1993-2001. This particular study focused on cannabis and other illicit substances and
the prevalence among four-year university students, whom were surveyed and asked when, if
ever, the following substances had been used. Students were asked about their alcohol rates
concerning volume and frequency within the last two weeks and the initial age at which they
selectively indulged in each substance. Results demonstrated that there was a significant
increase in cannabis consumption from 1993-2001 in university students, notably engagement
within the last 30 days (Mohler-Kuo, 2003). The data also implied an average age at which
substance abuse before or after affected the general trends in later abuse, if an individual reported
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 7
engaging in cannabis, tobacco and alcohol consumption before 16 years of age he/she was more
likely to record a higher level of usage for the past 30 days, more likely to have experimented
with other illicit drugs and have transformed into a lifetime users (Mohler-Kuo, 2003). In
addition, Mohler-Kuo (2003) found another important aspect of consumption patterns involving
the pattern of polysubstance abuse, or abuse of more than one mind-altering drug at one time in
order to achieve heightened intoxication. The study analyzed the role of polysubstance abuse in
the context of the previous 30 days; they found that almost all the cannabis users reported using
multiple substances during this time period. The most popular combination appeared to be
cannabis, tobacco and binge drinking.
Polysubstance Consumption and Substance Substitution
Simultaneous polysubstance abuse is a relatively new phenomena actively being
observed within the psychology field, of studies conducted thus far most have examined what
substances are combined but little have inspected the doses relative to one another and the order
in which a person ingests them for a desired effect. Barrett, Darredeau and Pihl (2006) looked at
what context might affect the order in which drugs were administered, the desired result from the
combination and to what degree doses were consciously consumed by users. Between April
2003-2004, 149 students were sampled who admitted to using two or more substances in their
lifetime and data was recorded via a structured interview where participants answered questions
such as the age of first use of a drug, provided information about the drug from their own
knowledge base, rate of use within past 30 days, described what substances had been co-
administered and the order in which each participant did so. Researchers discovered a few trends
that may aid in understanding student consumption patterns, tobacco was the leading substance
most frequently co-administered with other drugs. Cannabis, tobacco and alcohol repeatedly
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 8
appeared to be the most reoccurring and popular combination of mind-altering consumption
patterns (Barrett, Darredeau & Pihl, 2006). Thus a new factor has been given relevance in
studies looking at addiction and formation of consumption patterns.
In addition, users often justify their substance abuse by claiming that they are interacting
with the lesser of two evils, aside polysubstance abuse a user may opt to simply substitute one
substance for another. A study conducted by Reiman (2009) analyzed the role of substitution
among 350 anonymous cannabis users from Berkeley Patient’s Group, a medical cannabis
dispensary in Berkeley, CA. Utilizing survey data, substitution was operationalized as: a
conscious choice to use one drug either legal or illicit, instead of, or in conjunction with another
due to issues such as perceived safety, the potential level of addiction, effectiveness in relieving
individuals symptoms and the access to or level of acceptance of the substance in question. The
results yielded that 40% of users substituted cannabis for alcoholic beverages, 26% preferred
cannabis as a substitute for other illicit substances and 65.8% substitute cannabis for prescription
medications. The implications of this study reveal that cannabis has the potential to be perceived
positively as a valid substitute for other drugs and this could play into an individual’s decision to
engage in recreational use of substances despite social expectations of upholding the law.
Information gathered by Wechsler & Nelson (2010) suggest recent trends in drinking
among college students aged 18-24 years-old are increasing and the overall effectiveness of and
enforcement of the minimum legal drinking age of 21 is debatable. Recent studies have found
that although there has been an observable decline in heavy drinking habits of 18-20 year-olds
since the early 1980s, an increase in binge drinking among those of 21-24 years of age has been
recorded in the past decade. Studies also confirmed that despite acknowledgement of the
minimum legal drinking age of 21 among university settings, 75% of 18-20 year-olds reported
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 9
drinking within the last year. An additional study conducted in April through June of 2010 using
the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey assessed the effectiveness of alcohol policies on four-year
universities by examining two campuses that prohibit the sale and consumption of alcohol on
campus in contrast to two campuses that allow the sale and consumption of alcohol. The study
analyzed 186 randomly selected individuals from all four universities and utilized a multiple
logistic regression analysis that statistically controlled for confounds such as gender, age,
ethnicity, participation in sports and Greek activities (Walter & Kowalczyk, 2012). The results
supported the ideation that minimum legal drinking age policy is ineffective or carries no effect
in micro-level processes. Walter & Kowalczyk (2012) found that females demonstrated
significantly lower odds of heavy drinking, those that participated in sports exhibited
significantly higher odds of heavy drinking habits, students that were equal to or older than 21
demonstrated higher odds of heavy drinking and most noteworthy, that no significant difference
was observed between both the wet and dry policies of the four universities. Thus, the
researchers could not reject the null hypothesis and concluded that to some degree the policy
associated with the minimum legal drinking age is ineffective.
The Amethyst Initiative Argument protests that the minimum legal drinking age of 21
years old is simply not working and producing more negative consequences as a result. This
organization argues for open and public debate over the minimum legal drinking age, advancing
to possibly lower it and reduce negative consequences associated with underage drinking. They
believe that the recent increase in college students aged 18-20 years-old that binge drink or drink
heavily is a direct reaction of being denied access to alcohol that is more carefully monitored at
21 and are thus pushed into the underground realm of acquiring and consuming alcohol. As of
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 10
November 2009, 135 Presidents and Chancellors of universities in the United States have signed
this petition (Wechsler & Nelson, 2010).
A study conducted by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism observed
that within university settings students undergo a common two-step process of consuming
alcoholic drinks as a consequence of social norms. The first involves Attribution Theory, which
states that the individual within a social context will derive situational information to come to a
causal explanation of the present events, the perceiver attempts to create cause and effect
relationships (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Rasual et al. (2011) proposed that based off Attribution
Theory, a student witnessing a specific acceptable level of drinking at an event will infer that this
is normative and base their frequency and volume patterns of this established standard, and a
discrepancy will most likely exist that in turn motivates the student to compensate to reach
equilibrium. Lowering the minimum legal drinking age may be one way to reduce normative
perspectives stemming from observing heavy drinking patterns at private parties and other
events. This study employed a systems approach to measure the hypothetical impact of lowering
the minimum legal drinking age on a college campus. Data was pooled from Social Norms
Marketing Research Project to fill in parameters, from 32 universities across the United States
students were surveyed. Students were asked to indicate how many drinks were consumed at an
event, how many drinking-related events were attended weekly and their personal style of
drinking on a scale (Rasul et al. 2011). Although the results proved to be incapable of utilization
based on hypothetical parameters and conditions and the researchers were unable to provide a
conclusion to the question, the design of this study provides much insight into what role the age
of a consumer may play in conscious decision-making when it comes to substance consumption.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 11
Based on the collective effort of past research we have been able to identify key factors
that might influence indulgence of students in drug abuse. We believe that our specific study will
further isolate and scrutinize the general function of social institutions and contexts on
development of social norms both perceived and existing realistically, and thus help to infer
whether age acts as a true imposition on decision-making processes of students when consuming
alcohol and whether consumption rates of cannabis will fluctuate relative to its disapproval
amidst society.
We predict that despite psychology 302W students having prior knowledge of the
harmful effects and influence of recreational drug use there will be a significant number of
individuals who engage regardless of meeting the minimum legal drinking age and a significant
number of students will admit to consuming cannabis despite this substance’s illegality. We plan
on anonymously surveying the 302W student population of Fall 2013 as our sample size and
pooling this data together to establish a correlation. If students significantly indulge in alcohol
under the age of 21, and exhibit substantial and consistent consumption patterns with cannabis
then we can infer to some degree that social norms do not necessarily have a direct effect on the
decision-making processes of the individual.
Method
Participants
Eighty-six currently enrolled Psychology 302W students were recruited through Northern
Arizona University Faculty and surveyed in the classroom. There were 59 females and 27 males
and class standing found 3 sophomores, 68 juniors and 15 seniors within our sample size. Zero
participants identified as 18 years-old, 11 identified as 19 years-old, 44 identified as 20 years-old
and 31 participants who identified as 21 years or older. The average age of our sample size was
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 12
20.45 years. Participants were chosen from the current Fall 2013 Psychology 302w enrollment
to serve as a basic sample size that could later be applied to undergraduate students in general.
All participants in this study were instructed to omit their name or any other identifiers for the
purpose of our research, anonymity was a crucial aspect stressed in this process. There was no
compensation offered for this study. All participants signed an informed consent form
instructing that participation was entirely voluntary and if at any point the individual became
uncomfortable, refusal to continue the survey was their prerogative.
Materials and Measures
Our questionnaire was lifted from the Southern Illinois University Core Institute Alcohol
and Drug survey, questions received little to no modifications. Questions that were modified
only experienced the systematic removal of a number of substances that proved to be irrelevant
to our data collection. Our questionnaire included 19 self-report questions pertaining to
substance consumption volume and frequency as well as normative perceived peer engagement.
In addition, the Core Institute Alcohol and Drug Survey was revised and utilized in various past
studies to examine alcohol and other substance consumption among undergraduate university
settings. The Core Institute measure has been administered to over half a million undergraduate
students on 800 diverse campuses across the United States (Presley & Meilman, 1994).
Alcohol and Age. Alcohol and age comprise our first predictor variable; we evaluated
the role of age on alcohol consumption frequency and volume. Age was determined merely
from self-report on the given questionnaire, as a categorical variable the participant is either
under the minimum legal drinking age or of age and older. We examined frequency and volume
by selecting specific questions pertaining to each pattern from the Core Institute Alcohol and
Drug Survey. For example, a frequency question appeared as the following: “During the past 30
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 13
days, how many days did you consume alcoholic beverages?” and participants could respond
within a range of “zero” to “all days”. In addition, a volume question appeared as the following:
“Think back over the last two weeks. How many times have you had five or more drinks in one
sitting?”, participants would then indicate frequency by selecting between a range of “none” to
“10 or more drinks”. Thus, with all three pieces of information available, we measured the
quantitative individual frequency and volume rates in comparison to the indicated age to
determine whether the minimum legal drinking age of 21 truly influences students as a social
expectation and norm.
Cannabis and Legality. Our second predictor variable cannabis and legality, examined
the role of institutional law and social taboo in relation to the conscious decision to engage in
recreational use of marijuana. We measured the notion of consciously being aware that cannabis
is federally outlawed and illegal on a state-level in Arizona within our questionnaire with a
categorical “yes/no” format. We measured cannabis consumption by quantitatively evaluating
frequency rates of individual in order to assess if engagement was occurring. For example, a
frequency question appeared as: “Within the past 30 days, how many days did you consume
Marijuana?” and participants were given a range of “zero” to “all days” as options for response.
Therefore, when we pooled out data trend together we evaluated if a participant had answered
“yes” to consciously being aware of federally outlawed cannabis consumption and compared that
to their self-report frequency rates, examining if and how often they engaged in recreational use.
Considering that our questions were formatted to isolate a single construct at a time,
when scoring we indicated which group the participants responses belonged in for correlational
comparison. If a participant indicated their age was below the minimum legal drinking age of
21, they were sectioned off in order to further analyze their specific frequency and volume rates
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 14
in contrast to those that indicated they were of legal age or older. When we assessed our second
predictor variable, we isolated those that admitted to engaging in cannabis consumption into one
group and those that did not engage into the comparison group. Thus we could illuminate the
affect of legality and social taboo in the conscious decision to consume cannabis, particularly,
whether this social norm carried any influence within the student population at all.
Planned Statistical Analysis. Utilizing a Sequential Multiple Regression Analysis, we
aim to understand the relationship between variables rather than construct a prediction about the
relationship between variables. By employing a Sequential Multiple Regression Analysis, we
intend to explain a correlation between our two sets of predictor variables in relation to our
dependent variable. In addition, multi-variable analyses statistically control for the effects of
other confounds within the study that may influence the dependent variable such as gender, class
standing and normative peer perception of substance engagement. We employed a two-tailed
study with separate Pearson Correlation Coefficients for predictor variables, alcohol and age and
the legality and social taboo of cannabis consumption. This allowed us two distinct relationship
strengths between our predictor variables in which we compared to our dependent variable of
substance consumption. We chose an alpha level of 0.05, if a smaller alpha level were chosen
we would decrease the probability of inferring a Type I Error yet increase the probability of
making a Type II Error.
A demographics form was created by our faculty sponsor Matthew Anderson, and
administered to the Psychology 302w student sample prior to the initiation of any studies. The
data from each demographics form is linked through a Participant ID however there is no link of
data established between our questionnaire and the sampled participants.
Procedure
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 15
Participants entered the classroom and were instructed to clear everything from their
desks and to take out a writing utensil. Surveys were administered to those present the day of
data collection in a survey packet. Participants were given informed consent and a participant ID
prior to initiation of the questionnaires and instructed to complete the demographics forms on the
first page and all the surveys located in the packet to the best of their ability. Students then
answered each survey and upon finishing gave the faculty sponsor the responses.
The Dependent variable being measured was the general substance consumption patterns
of undergraduate students; the correlation compiled from individual data set responses to our
questionnaire. This measure was reflected by the two predictor variables analyzed from our
survey materials assessing two widely consumed substances, alcohol and cannabis. Predictor
variable one had two levels, age was examined by categorically grouping participants into either
under the age of 21 or 21 and older while frequency and volume was quantitatively assessed via
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient in accordance with the given age. If participants under the
minimum legal drinking age show significant consumption rates in comparison to those of the
legal age or older we can infer that to some extent the social expectation of abstinence until 21
does not affect the individual in their decision-making processes. Similarly, our second predictor
variable has two levels, categorizing participants based on conscious admittance to present
legality status of cannabis and then quantitatively identifying whether consumption occurred
from frequency report data. Thus, if a participant indicates that they are aware that cannabis is
federally outlawed and on Arizona state-level is only permitted medically, by choosing to still
engage in recreational use we can infer to some extent that the presence of a macro-level law has
less affect on the micro-level decision to consume a substance recreationally.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 16
Results
The tested hypothesis predicted that age would affect consumption levels of alcohol in
undergraduate students and both Pearson’s r correlation coefficient and multiple regression
analysis were employed to statistically control for confounds threatening internal validity. Two
variables were measured for alcohol consumption, alcohol consumption (AC) measured all
questions on the survey related to frequency or volume while alcohol raw scores (AC_R_S)
indicated self-report of number of drinks consumed within the past week. The findings do not
support our hypothesis as both the Pearson r and multiple regression statistical analyses
confirmed. Mean age of participants was (M= 20.45, SD= 1.45) years and the mean academic
year of participants was junior status as (M=3.13, SD= .44), Pearson’s r analyzed (N= 86)
participants in total. The correlation coefficient for AC found r(81)=.22, p= .022 while the
correlation coefficient for AC_R_S found r(81)= .235, p= .016. While the results are significant
and reveal a positive correlation between age and alcohol consumption, the obtained Pearson r
for both analyses of alcohol consumption are small in effect size when compared to an effect size
range of -1.0 to 1.0, thus indicating a weak relationship between our two predictor variables of
age in relation to alcohol consumption. The results of the regression analysis for AC indicated
that R2=.697, F(8,75)= 21.52, p< .0001. It was discovered that age did not significantly predict
alcohol consumption as (β =.067, p< .487). The results of the AC_RAW_SCORE regression
analysis found that R2=.369, F(8,74)= 5.4, p< .0001. Beta indicated that age did not influence
the self-reported raw score of alcohol consumption as (β = .118, p< .402)(See Table 1). Thus in
conclusion, we cannot reject the null hypothesis, as age was not significantly associated with
alcohol consumption in our sample.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 17
The second tested hypothesis predicted that legality would have affect on
undergraduates’ conscious decision to consume cannabis and both a Pearson’s r correlation
coefficient and multiple regression analysis were performed to evaluate this relationship.
Legality question one (LGL_1) focused on the notion that the individual was aware that cannabis
is federally outlawed and Pearson’s r found that r(81)= -.17, p= .061. These results suggest that
although the relationship yields a negative correlation it is not significant. In addition, the effect
size is small compared to a range of -1.0 to 1.0 and thus we cannot conclude that legality is
associated with consumption patterns. Legality question two (LGL_2) assessed whether the
individual’s decision to engage with cannabis was swayed by the notion that it is federally
outlawed and only permissible in the state of Arizona for medical purposes. Pearson’s r found
that r(81)= -.028, p= .402 and also supports our claims that legality is not associated with
conscious decision-making processes of the individual to consume cannabis. The regression
analysis further indicates this relationship as R2= .917, F(7,75)= 118.55, p< .001 with a
determined beta value of (β = -.006, p< .876) for predictor variable measure of LGL_1 and a beta
value of (β = -.028, p< .430) for predictor variable measure LGL_2(See Table 2). Therefore, the
null hypothesis cannot be rejected; we cannot conclude that legality and cannabis consumption
are associated.
Significance Revealed in Predictor Variables
Multiple regression analysis allowed for the statistical control of confounds such as
examining the role of sex of the participant, academic year of the participants and perceived
norms of alcohol and cannabis engagement both subjectively and objectively. It appears that the
highest predictor of alcohol consumption for undergraduate students is the perceived normative
view of their self-expressive attitudes toward appropriate engagement with alcohol
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 18
(PN_AC_SELF). PN_AC_SELF is a self-reported measure of participant’s opinions of
appropriate frequency of actual alcohol consumption per year, (See Figure 1) contrasts
participant’s attitudes with their self-reported measures of drinks consumed within the last week,
AC_R_S. AC_R_S found (β= .527, p< .001) for the confound of self-attitude of consumption,
suggesting that the subjective view of the individual significantly affects consumption rates of
both frequency and volume. Contributing to this theme, AC found (β= .633, p< .0001) for the
same predictor variable of PN_AC_SELF (See Figure 2).
When we statistically controlled for confounds involving cannabis consumption, the
previous theme of self-expressive attitudes toward consumption exposed itself as the highest
predictor variable for recreational cannabis engagement. PN_CC_SELF is a self-reported
measure of participant’s opinions of appropriate frequency of actual cannabis consumption per
year. Regression analysis for self-reported attitudes toward appropriate cannabis consumption
(PN_CC_SELF) revealed that (β= .981, p< .001), supporting the association that self-expressive
attitudes about appropriate consumption patterns reflects upon actual consumption rates (See
Figure 3).
Thus, as regression analysis of alcohol and cannabis consumption of undergraduate
students disclosed, the perceived normative substance consumption of the individual proved to
be the single best predictor of actual intake rates. Subsequently, a moderate relationship between
alcohol consumption and perceived normative consumption of friends was exposed and
concluded to impact the decision-making processes of undergraduate students. Age was not
found to significantly impact the participant in alcohol consumption and the notion of legality of
a substance was not found to significantly impact the decision to engage in cannabis use.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 19
Discussion
The tested hypotheses did not yield significant results consistent with our proposed
theory in which minimum legal drinking age affected alcohol consumption patterns and legality
affected recreational cannabis engagement admits undergraduates students. Thus, we cannot
conclude that policy such as the minimum legal drinking age of 21 affects the decision-making
processes of the individual with regards to alcohol consumption. In addition, no significant
relationship was isolated between acknowledgement of legality and intentional recreational use
of cannabis. Despite statistically controlling for many confounds within our study, the
possibility of another variable affecting the analyzed relationships between age and alcohol or
policy and cannabis is too high. Although gender and class standing had little to no effect on
substance consumption, the self-perceived appropriate consumption patterns of the individual
and close friends were the best predictor variables for actual intake of substances.
Relation to Previous Research
Our findings support Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, the idea that behaviors
about substance consumption are learned through models such as family or friends (McLeod,
2011). We found a moderate significance behind a participant’s belief of consumption relative
to their friends and how that was reflective in their own intake. As Wardell and Read (2013)
speculated, the concept of Reciprocal Determinism evidently influences the individual to some
extent as the perpetual cycle of social normative views shapes substance consumption and the
consumption itself molds the perspective on social norms. Self-expressive attitudes toward
appropriate substance consumption proved to be the single best predictor of real consumption by
students, both Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and Reciprocal Determinism sway our self-
perceptions as we define individually where our boundaries are constructed. Rasual et al. (2011)
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 20
proposed an additional explanation that may contribute to the individual fashioning of our
defined appropriate levels of consumption, Attribution Theory claims that immersed within a
social context the individual derives and decodes situational meaning in order to create a cause
and effect relationship. Therefore in conjunction with our findings, an individual may compile
information from previous encounters socially that contribute to their understanding of
appropriate levels of consumption given particular social contexts and aid in defining individual
stances on engagement.
Strengths and Limitations
The construct validity and reliability of our variables was considerably strong in our
research design as consistency was both maintained and the variables effectively measured what
our hypotheses required. Age was defined by the minimum legal drinking age law of 21, our
consumption variable was defined by quantitative frequency and volume scores and legality was
measured by self-reported acknowledgment of state and federal policy by the participants. Face
and construct validity we also generally strong within this study, as overall the proposed study
addressed our hypotheses and the specific content was exact in assessing what was necessary for
analysis. Concurrent validity was established by isolating the two predictor variables in question
that theoretically affected substance consumption and examined as separate correlations
contributing to the dependent variable through Multiple Regression Analysis. There were
several limitations to our research design; we were unable to establish external validity, as the
sample size of our study was smaller than anticipated and too small to necessarily apply to our
findings for more massive populations of undergraduate students. There was not enough given
time for this study to establish convergent or predictive validity and a test-retest application of
this design would allow for parameters that potentially could establish discriminant validity.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 21
Implications. This research indicates that mechanisms such as perceived normative
values and expectations influence individuals in their micro-processes. Despite failing to find a
correlation between age and alcohol, the self-expressed attitudes of the participant revealed
significant effects on the actual intake levels. When a participant implied that they did not
partake in excessive amount of drinking this was reflective in the quantitative data analyzed. In
addition, participants demonstrated that close social circles such as their peers influenced the
boundaries and conceptions of their perceived appropriate levels of consumption and this
significantly affected their real quantities of drinking. The participants expressed attitudes
toward appropriate cannabis engagement also reflected this significant relationship in actual
consumption. Therefore it is imperative to understanding undergraduate’s decision to engage in
substance consumption as reflective of their own contrived margins and mechanisms on macro
levels such as policy and law do not necessarily hold any weight in this process. This is
invaluable to future work with undergraduate and other populations as we strive to create more
effective substance abuse prevention and treatment programs and reform policy that is effective
and applicable to the individual in varying contexts.
Future Research. New questions have exposed themselves following this study that
future research should aim to elaborate on and contribute to the scientific community.
Considering that the highest significance levels were only found for individual self-expressed
attitudes toward appropriate substance consumption we wonder how we can identify those
factors that construct these boundaries and focus on the impact each factor has on the decision to
engage in substance abuse. Confounds such as the extent of social contexts modifying perceived
norms of consumption patterns, the order and degree that factors such as developmental
upbringing and exposure to enabling environments alter self-employed boundaries and how
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 22
individuals classify their notion of appropriate versus inappropriate should be explored in regards
to consumption of substances both licit and illicit.
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 23
References
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%40sessionmgr10&vid=1&hid=6&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1za
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Students: Results From 4 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study
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Rl#db=f5h&AN=12065640
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Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2005 and 2006.
http://www.drugabusestatistics.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k6NSDUH/tabs/Sect2peTabs1to42
.htm#Tab2.5.Accessed October 29th, 2013.
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Rasul, J. W., Rommel, R. G., Jacquez, G. M., Fitzpatrick, B. G., Ackleh, A. S., Simonsen, N., &
Scribner, R. A. (2011). Heavy episodic drinking on college campuses: Does changing the
legal drinking age make a difference? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(1), 15-
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Wardell, J. D., & Read, J. P. (2013). Alcohol expectancies, perceived norms, and drinking
behavior among college students: Examining the reciprocal determinism hypothesis.
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Wechsler, H., & Nelson, T. F. (2010). Will increasing alcohol availability by lowering the
minimum legal drinking age decrease drinking and related consequences among youths?
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Table 1.
Regression Analysis of Age and Alcohol Consumption.
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Model Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error
Beta Tolerance
VIF
1
(Constant) -4.723 4.059 -1.164 .248
Sex of Participant .385 .416 .065 .925 .358 .822 1.217
Age of Participant .129 .184 .067 .699 .487 .434 2.303
Academic Year .350 .533 .055 .657 .513 .576 1.736
Percieved Norms Alcohol Consumption 1
.298 .229 .092 1.301 .197 .803 1.246
Percieved Norms Alcohol Consumption 2
.611 .345 .131 1.771 .081 .740 1.351
Percieved Norms Alcohol Consumption 3-Self
.887 .108 .633 8.250 .000 .688 1.453
Percieved Norms Alcohol Consumption 3-Friends
.599 .203 .232 2.955 .004 .655 1.526
Percieved Norms Alcohol Consumption 3-General
.135 .176 .058 .768 .445 .703 1.423
a. Dependent Variable: AC
Table 2.
Regression Analysis of Legality and Cannabis Consumption.
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Model Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig. Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance
VIF
1
(Constant) -.512 .615 -.833 .408
Legality 1 -.042 .270 -.006 -.157 .876 .876 1.142
Legality 2 -.148 .187 -.028 -.794 .430 .908 1.101
Percieved Norms Cannabis Consumption 1
-.221 .084 -.130 -2.618 .011 .451 2.219
Percieved Norms Cannabis Consumption 2
.384 .159 .125 2.418 .018 .415 2.412
Percieved Norms Cannabis Consumption 3-Self
.700 .034 .981 20.336 .000 .475 2.105
Percieved Norms Cannabis Consumption 4-Friends
.041 .041 .050 .978 .331 .429 2.333
Percieved Norms Cannabis Consumption 5-General
-.079 .064 -.065 -1.220 .226 .392 2.549
a. Dependent Variable: Cannabis Consumption 1
Figure 1.
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Self-Reported Number of Alcoholic Drinks Consumed in Past Week and Perceived Self-
Expressive Norms of Alcohol Consumption.
Figure 2.
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Total Alcohol Consumption (AC) and Perceived Self-Expressive Norms of Alcohol
Consumption.
Figure 3.
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Cannabis Consumption and Perceived Self-Expressive Norms of Cannabis Consumption.
Appendix A
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Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative
Appendix B
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 32
Exempt IRB Aprroval
Appendix C
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 33
Informed Consent
College of Social and Behavioral SciencesDepartment of Psychology
NAU Box 15106Flagstaff, Arizona 86011
(928) 523-3063
Project Title: Fall 2013 Psychology 302W (3949) Student Research Projects
Dear Participant,
You are being asked to participate in a research project conducted through the Psychology Department at Northern Arizona University sponsored by Gregory Busath. Additional faculty sponsor is Matthew Anderson. The researchers are required to receive your informed consent before you participate in this project.
The administrator of this research will explain to you: (1) the purpose of the project; (2) what you will be asked to do and how long your participation will last; (3) how your personal information, if collected, will be kept confidential; (4) if you will receive any compensation; (5) the possible risks; and (6) potential benefits of participation.
Your participation in this research is voluntary. If you refuse to participate, there are no penalties or loss of benefits or services that you are otherwise entitled. If you decide to participate and then withdraw or skip a question there are also no penalties or loss of benefits or services. Whether or not you choose to participate in this project will have no effect on your relationship with NAU now or in the future.
A basic explanation of the project is written below. Please read this explanation and discuss any questions you have with the research administrator.
After any questions you may have are answered and you decide to participate in the research, please sign on the last page of this form in the presence of the person who explained the project to you. If you like, you can retain a copy of this form for your records.
1. PROJECT PURPOSE:
These questionnaires have been created by student researchers in a Psychology 302W (Research Methods) class at Northern Arizona University. Each questionnaire represents a serious effort to further scientific knowledge on a variety of topics such as drug and alcohol usage. The research is supervised by a faculty member in psychology and is exempt from review by the Institutional Review Board at NAU because data is intended strictly for classroom purposes.
The following questionnaires/surveys are included in this packet:
1. Anonymous Demographic Information2. Alcohol Consumption Among Undergraduate Students3. Cannabis Recreational Engagement Survey
2. EXPLANATION OF PROCEDURES:
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 34
If, upon reading this informed consent form, you decide that you would like to participate, you will be asked to complete several questionnaires. Each questionnaire will take about 15 to 20 minutes to complete. You will be given physical paper and pencil to complete this survey. Although the subject matter and content will vary widely, a typical questionnaire will consist of a series of statements and/or questions asking you to rate your feelings, thoughts, and/or behavior.
For example, some questionnaires may ask you to agree or disagree with a statement such as:I see myself as open to new experiences…
1 = disagree strongly, 2 = disagree moderately, 3 = disagree a little, 4 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 = agree a little, 6 = agree moderately, 7 = agree strongly.
After completing the questionnaires you will be “debriefed,” in writing, about the general purpose of the questionnaires you completed. You will also be able to learn the outcome of each study at the Undergraduate Research Symposium in December.
Your responses will be kept stored away and no identifying information will be collected. Once the survey data are transformed in electronic data format, your responses will be shredded.
Remember that your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You may discontinue participation in this study at any time without penalty.
3. CONFIDENTIALITY:
All information obtained from the inventories is strictly confidential. To protect the confidentiality of your responses, the only individuals who will have access to your information are the faculty sponsor, graduate assistants assigned to the course, and student researchers in Psychology 302W. No other individuals will be able to view the information you provide.
4. COMPENSATION:
You will not be compensated for your participation in this research.
5. BENEFITS:
By participating in this study, you will help Psychology 302W students complete their course requirements and learn about research methods. As a participant, you will have the opportunity to learn about real psychological research firsthand.
6. RISKS:
There is a minimal risk of harm from completing these surveys. In other words, the risks associated with participation are anticipated to be no greater than the risks encountered in daily life. If a question or questions causes you emotional discomfort, please know that you do not have the prerogative to decline participation in this study. You also have the right to discontinue or refuse participation at any time during the survey. Further, you are encouraged to contact the faculty sponsor and lab instructor, Gregory Busath and Matt Anderson, with any questions or concerns.
7. CONSENT:
I have read the above information about the project titled, Fall 2013 Psychology 302W(3949)
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 35
Student Research Projects, and have been given an opportunity to ask questions. I agree to participate in this project, and if desired, have been given a copy of this consent document.
Name of Faculty Sponsor: Gregory Busath Sponsoring Department: Psychology, FacultyBusiness Phone/E-mail: (928) 523-1855 [email protected]
Name of Additional Faculty Sponsor: Matthew Anderson Sponsoring Department: Psychology, Lab InstructorBusiness Phone/E-mail: (602) 908-3104 [email protected]
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 36
Appendix D
Survey
** A drink is a bottle of beer, a glass of wine, a wine cooler, a shot of liquor or a mixed drink
Think back over the last two weeks. How many times have you had five or more drinks in one sitting?None ____Once ____Twice ____3 to 5 times ____6 to 9 times ____10 or more times ____
Please indicate to the best of your ability how many drinks per week you consume: ______
To what extent has your alcohol use changed within the last 12 months?
Increased _____About the same ____Decreased ____I have not used alcohol ____
Which statement below about drinking alcoholic beverages do you think best describes your own attitude?____ Drinking is never a good thing to do.____ Drinking is alright, but a person should not get drunk.____ Occasionally getting drunk is okay.____ Occasionally getting drunk it okay if that’s what a person wants to do.
Which statement below about drinking alcoholic beverages do you feel best represents the most common attitude among students in general here at Northern Arizona University? ____ Drinking is never a good thing to do.____ Drinking is alright, but a person should not get drunk.____ Occasionally getting drunk is okay.____ Occasionally getting drunk it okay if that’s what a person wants to do. How often do you think that you or your peers in each of the following categories consume alcohol?
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 37
a. YourselfNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
b. Your friendsNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
c. Students in generalNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
During the past 30 days, how many days did you consume alcoholic beverages?
0 days ____1-2 days ____3-5 days ____6-9 days ____10-19 days ____20-29 days ____All days ____How often do you think the average student consumes alcohol?
Never ____
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 38
Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
Are you aware that although an ongoing debate for legality of Marijuana exists on a state-level, federal consumption of Marijuana is outlawed? Yes ____ No ____
Considering that Marijuana is federally outlawed and only legal in Arizona for medicinal use, do you believe this sways your decision to engage? Yes ____ No ____
Which statement below about using Marijuana do you think best describes your own attitude?____ It is never a good thing to use.____ Trying it out one or two times is okay.____ Occasional use is okay. ____ Frequent use is okay if that’s what the individual wants to do.
Which statement below about using Marijuana do you feel best represents the most common attitude among students in general here at Northern Arizona University?____ It is never a good thing to use.____ Trying it out one or two times is okay.____ Occasional use is okay. ____ Frequent use is okay if that’s what the individual wants to do.
How often do you think that you or your peers in each of the following categories engage in Marijuana use?
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 39
a. YourselfNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
b. Your friendsNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
c. Students in generalNever ____Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
During the past 30 days, how many days did you consume Marijuana?
0 days ____1-2 days ____3-5 days ____6-9 days ____10-19 days ____20-29 days ____All days ____How often do you think the average student uses Marijuana?
Never ____
Running head: SOCIAL NORMS AND SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 40
Once per year ____6 times a year ____Once a month ____Twice a month ____Once a week ____3 times per week ____5 times a week ____Every day ____
* The following questions have been taken verbatim or modified slightly for use in this questionnaire from Southern Illinois University’s Core Institute Drug and Alcohol Survey and the Core Institute Survey of Alcohol and Other Drugs Norms
** This measurement of an alcoholic beverage is taken from the Core Institute Drug and Alcohol Survey
SOCIAL NORMS AFFECTING SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 41
Appendix E
Resources
1. Core Alcohol and Drug Survey
2. Cline Library EBSCOhost search
3. Cline Library RefWorks
4. Microsoft Word
5. IBM SPSS
6. Microsoft Powerpoint
SOCIAL NORMS AFFECTING SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 42
Appendix F
Protocol
Survey questions were lifted from the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey and additional
questions were chosen from the Core Campus Survey of Alcohol and Other Drug Norms.
Survey was compiled, questions were unaltered or slightly modified to exclude substances
deemed irrelevant to study purpose, and surveys were then sent to instructor to print copies for
data collection week. Instructor initially distributed informed consent forms followed by the
survey, after completion the surveys were collected face down and immediately enclosed in a
folder. Instructor then moved folder with surveys to confidential filing cabinet in lab for future
data input and analysis.
SOCIAL NORMS AFFECTING SUBSTANCE CONSUMPTION 43
Appendix G
Debriefing Form
Thank you for providing data for the Research Methods in Psychology (PSY302W (3949)) student projects conducted at Northern Arizona University during the fall 2013 semester which explored the question, “Affect of Social Norms on Substance Consumption Patterns of Psychology 302W Students?”
Your participation was essential to the completion of this study.
As you recall, while demographic information was collected, the surveys were completed anonymously. This preserves the confidentiality of your responses. There was no deception used in the collection of data.
The results of these studies will be presented during the Undergraduate Research Symposium held in December of 2013 at the Northern Arizona University Skydome.
If any of the questions you were asked today have upset you and you would like to talk about them, please contact your instructor or one of these sources:
Campus Health Center (928) 523-2131
NAU Counseling Services (928) 523-2261
Again, thank you for your time and support of this process. If you have any questions or concerns regarding any of these projects, you may contact adjunct faculty member Gregory Busath (928 523-1855, [email protected]).
Additional thanks by,
Victoria WarnockUndergraduate [email protected]
Crystal LittlebenUndergraduate [email protected]