RESEARCH DESIGNRESEARCH DESIGN

CHE SU BT. MUSTAFFACHE SU BT. MUSTAFFA(M: 90013)(M: 90013)

AHSGS COLLOQUIUM 2015AHSGS COLLOQUIUM 201526/1/201426/1/2014

SOCSOC

222

OutlineOutline

• DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN• TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS• QUANTITATIVE vs QUALITATIVE or COMBINED?• ISSUES

– Ontology– Epistemology– Axiology

•

333

IntroductionIntroduction

• When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting critical dates for completion of project stages until we know what sort of building is being constructed.

• The first decision is whether we need a high rise office building, a factory for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential home or an apartment block.

• Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan, obtain permits, work out a work schedule or order materials.

444

IntroductionIntroduction

• Social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A research design is not just a work plan.

• A work plan details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan will follow from the project's research design.

• The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.

555

666

The generation of information and understanding

(perhaps) consisting of

as opposed to

unsupported opinion

New conceptsNew modelsNew theories

So we need evidence

as opposed to

anecdote

Determinants arevalidity

reliabilitygeneralisability

What is research?What is research?

777

7

Research designResearch design

refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint that will guide the research process.

Developing ResearchHypotheses

Intriguing Observation,Intellectual Curiosity

Defining ResearchProblem & Objectives

Testing Hypo.:Data Analysis &Interpretation

Sampling Design

Refinement of theory(Inductive Reasoning)

Data Coding,And

Editing

Developing OperationalDefinitions for

Research Variables

Building the Theoretical Framework and the

Research Model

Data Collection

More Careful Studyingof the Phenomenon

THE PROCESS OF

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

888

Research designResearch design

• The research design answers the question: How are we going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses?

• What would be scope of my study?” or “What data do I need to collect?” or something like “What methods will I use to collect the data and how will I justify them?”

999

Definitions Definitions

• A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served."

• Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of investigation to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance."

101010

• A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures."

111111

• when designing research we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?

• in social research the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire, observation, document analysis), design of questions are all subsidiary to the matter of `What evidence do I need to collect?

121212

FunctionFunction

• Research designs help researchers to lay out their research question, methodologies, implementation procedures, and data collection and analysis for the conduct of a research project.

• Generally there are three types of research design: quantitative, qualitative design, and mixed method design.

131313

Quantitative vs Qualitative designQuantitative vs Qualitative design

141414

l 14

Definitions of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research Quantitative research is an inquiry

approach useful for describing trends and explaining the relationship among variables found in the literature. To conduct this inquiry, the investigator specifies narrow questions, locates or develops instruments using statistics. From the results of these analyzes, the researcher interprets the data using prior predictions and research studies. The final report, presented in standard format, display researcher objectivity and lack of bias.

Qualitative Research Quantitative research is an inquiry approach

useful for exploring and understanding a central phenomenon. To learn about this phenomenon, the inquirer asks participants broad, general questions, collects the detailed views of participants in the form of words or images, and analyzes the information for description and themes. From this data, the researcher interprets the meaning of the information drawing on personal reflections and past research. The structure of the final report is flexible, and it displays the researcher’s biases and thoughts.

151515

l 15

Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Process of Research

Steps in the Research Process

Analyze and Interpret Data

Report and Evaluate

Collecting Data

Specifying a Purpose

Reviewing the Literature

Identifying a Problem

Quantitative Characteristics

Qualitative Characteristics

Description of trends and Explanation Oriented

Exploratory/ Understandinga Central Phenomenon

•Major Role•Justify Problem

•Minor Role•Justify Problem

•Specific and Narrow•Measurable/Observable

•General and Broad•Participants’ Experience

•Pre-determined Instruments•Numeric Data•Large numbers

•Emerging Protocols•Text or image data•Small Number

•Statistical•Description of Trends•Comparisons/Predictions

•Text Analysis•Description/Themes•Larger meanings of findings

•Standard and Fixed•Objective and Unbiased

•Flexible and Emerging•Reflexive and Biased

161616

l 16

Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in the Process of Research

Steps in the Research Process

Analyze and Interpret Data

Report and Evaluate

Collecting Data

Specifying a Purpose

Reviewing the Literature

Identifying a Problem

Research DesignsTwo Approaches

QuantitativeQualitative

QuantitativeQualitative

QuantitativeQualitative

QuantitativeQualitative

QuantitativeQualitative

QuantitativeQualitative

•Experimental•Correlational•Survey

•Ethnography•Grounded Theory•Narrative

•Mixed•Action

171717

l 17

Quantitative Designs and Uses

ExperimentalResearch

CorrelationalResearch

SurveyResearch

Explaining whether anintervention influencesan outcome for onegroup as opposed to another group

Associating orrelating variablesin a predictablepattern for onegroup of individuals

Describing trends forthe population ofpeople

InterventionResearch

Non-InterventionResearch

181818

l 18

Qualitative Research Designs and Uses

EthnographicResearch

Grounded TheoryResearch

NarrativeResearch

Exploring the sharedculture of a peoplegroup

Exploring commonexperiences ofindividuals todevelop a theory

Exploring individualstories to describethe lives of people

191919

l 19

Combined designs and uses

Mixed MethodResearch

ActionResearch

Combining quantitative andqualitative data to bestunderstand and explain aresearch problem.

Using quantitative and qualitative data for individuals to study problems that they face in their setting

202020

212121Question Quantitative Qualitative

What is the purpose of the research?

l To explain and predictlTo confirm and validatelTo test theory

lTo describe and explainlTo explore and interpretlTo build theory

What is the nature of the research process?

l Focusedl Known variableslEstablished guidelineslPredetermined methodslSomewhat context-freelDetached view

lHolisticlUnknown variableslFlexible guidelineslEmergent methodslContext-boundlPersonal view

222222

Question Quantitative Qualitative

What are the data like, and how are they collected?

l Numeric datalRepresentative, large

samplelStandardized

instruments

lTextual and/or image-based

datalInformative, small samplelLoosely structured or

nonstandardized observations

and interviews

How are data analyzed to determine their meaning?

lStatistical analysislStress on objectivitylDeductive reasoning

lSearch for themes and categorieslAcknowledgment that

analysis is subjective and

potentially biasedlInductive reasoning

How are the findings communicated?

lNumberslStatistics, aggregated

datalFormal voice,scientific

style

lWordslNarratives, individual quoteslPersonal voice, litery style

IDEALQUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Research process is deductive.

Research process is inductive.

Measure objective facts. Document social reality, meaning is constructed.

Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth meaning.

Firewall between research process and researchers’ values.

Values are present & explicit (empathy).

Cross-contextual. Contextual dependence.

Many cases. Few cases.

Statistical analysis Thematic analysis

Highly structured research process.

Loosely structured research process.

Particularistic, specific Holistic perspective

Separation from data Intimacy with data

Generalize to population Generalization to properties and contexts

IDEALQUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

252525

When should I use qualitative methods?•When variables cannot be quantified•When variables are best understood in their natural settings•When variables are studied over real time•When studying intimate details of roles, processes, and groups•When the paramount objective is “understanding”

Qualitative MethodsQualitative Methods

262626

Qualitative MethodsQualitative MethodsWhat skills do I need?What skills do I need?•Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue.•Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values.•Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listening•Must be open to embracing multiple realities.•Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.

272727

Qualitative MethodsQualitative MethodsBefore collecting data, you have to determine what you want to accomplish.

Tight versus Loose DesignAsk yourself:

– How much time do I have?– What resources are available?– What is the purpose of the study?– In what am I really interested?

More structure can prevent waste– If we already know about the context, it would be wasteful to go exploring– If you have targeted topic, you can reduce data at the collection stage and

cut down on analysis time– Loose produces more data, more “surprise discoveries” can be made

Design

282828

Qualitative MethodsQualitative MethodsChoose your unit of analysis.

•Individuals– Certain experiences– Experiences in particular settings– Identities such as student with disabilities, ex-con

•Groups – Demographic groups– Intervention groups– Types of people such as ball players, secretaries– Those in one setting versus another– Organizations

Design

292929

Quantitative Methods• Secondary sources• Primary sources• Observation• Interview• Questionnaire

• Measurement and Scaling • Difference between concept and

variable• Concepts, indicator and variable

• Levels of measurement scales• Ordinal• Nominal• Interval• Ration

• Types of scale• Numerical• Semantic differential• Likert

• Goodness of measurement instrument

• Validity • Reliability• Sensitivity

303030

30

Quantitative MethodsQuantitative Methods

• Quantity is the unit of analysis– Amounts– Frequencies– Degrees– Values– Intensity

• Uses statistics for greater precision and objectivity• Based on the deductive model

31

Model for Conceptualizing Quantitative Research

• Overall purpose or objective

• Research literature

• Research questions and hypotheses

• Selecting appropriate methods

• Validity and reliability of the data

323232

32

Creating the Foundation Creating the Foundation for Quantitative Researchfor Quantitative Research

• Concept – Abstract thinking to distinguish it from other elements

• Construct – Theoretical definition of a concept; must be observable or

measurable; linked to other concepts

• Variable – Presented in research questions and hypotheses

• Operationalization – Specifically how the variable is observed or measured

333333

33

Research Hypotheses Research Hypotheses for Quantitative Research for Quantitative Research

• Educated guess or presumption based on literature

• States the nature of the relationship between two or more variables

• Predicts the research outcome

• Research study designed to test the relationship described in the hypothesis

COMBINED QUALITATIVE AND COMBINED QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DESIGNSQUANTITATIVE DESIGNS

353535

The idea of combining qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study owes much to past discussion about mixing methods, linking paradigms to methods, and combining research design in all phases of a study.

By 1978 Denzin used the term triangulation, a term borrowed from navigation and military strategy, to argue for the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.

The concept of triangulation was based on the assumption that any bias inherent in particular data sources, investigator, and method would be neutralized when used in conjunction with other data sources, investigators, and methods.

363636

• These methods might be drawn from “within methods” approaches, such as different types of quantitative data collection strategies (e.g., a survey and an experiment).

• Alternatively it might involve “between methods,” drawing on qualitative and quantitative data collection procedures (e.g., a survey and in depth interviews)

373737

Models of combined designsModels of combined designs

• It is advantageous to a researcher to combine methods to better understand a concept being tested or explored

• Consider integrating the paradigms at several phases of the research process

• Use the two phases design, the dominant less dominant design, or the mixed methodology design to combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study

383838

• The first model -the two phase design approach, in which the researcher proposes to conduct a qualitative phase of the study and a separate quantitative phase of the study.

• The advantage of this approach is that the two paradigms are clearly separate; it also enables a researcher to present thoroughly the paradigm assumptions behind each phase.

• The second model - the dominant less dominant design. In this design the researcher presents the study within a single, dominant paradigm with one small component of the overall study drawn from the alternative paradigm.

393939

• The third model is the mixed methodology design. This design represents the highest degree of mixing paradigms of the three design. The researcher would mix aspects of the qualitative and quantitative paradigm at all or many methodological steps in the design.

• The paradigms might be mixed in the introduction, in the literature review and theory use, and in the purpose statement and the research questions.

• This approach adds complexity to a design and uses the advantages of both the qualitative and the quantitative paradigms.

404040

The models and design phasesThe models and design phasesThe introduction• In the two phase design the researcher would

introduce a qualitative phase of the study. Typically this presentation might take the form of introducing a two phase project.

• An alternative design is to present two introductions, spaced apart in the presentation, with each introducing a separate phase of the study.

414141

• In the dominant less dominant design the researcher would present the introduction from the framework of the dominant paradigm in the study.

• For instance, in a quantitative-dominant study the writer might advance an a priori theory to be tested and use the impersonal voice.

• In a mixed methodological design the introduction might be presented in the approach consistent with either paradigm, but the author would suggest explicitly that the study will be based on both paradigms.

424242

The literature and theoryThe literature and theory

• In a two phase design the literature and theory would be used inductively in a qualitative phase of the study and deductively in the quantitative phase.

• An exception, of course, is the qualitative designs with a strong theory-orientation, such as critical ethnography.

• In the dominant less dominant design the literature and theory would be used in an approach consistent with the dominant paradigm.

434343

• In a mixed methodology design it is difficult, if not impossible, to mix the two paradigms in the use of theory and the literature.

• Despite the apparent incompatibility of an inductive versus deductive approach to research, one finds in practice theory and literature used without a strict interpretation of the inductive and deductive associations with the paradigms.

444444

Purpose Statement and Research Purpose Statement and Research Questions/HypothesesQuestions/Hypotheses

• In the two phase design model two sets of purpose statements and research questions are presented, each in the phase to which they apply. Their form represents the characteristics of the paradigm used in the phase.

• The dominant less dominant design would use a purpose statement and questions/hypotheses posed in the language of the dominant design.

454545

• In the mixed methodology design the researcher could present two purposes for the study – one qualitative and one quantitative – and present them in the language characteristic of both paradigms.

464646

The methodsThe methods• In the two phase design the methods and the result

of the qualitative phase of the study are reported separately from the methods and results of the qualitative phase.

• In a dominant-less dominant design the methods and results relate to the dominant paradigm in use, with a small segment for methods and results for the less-dominant paradigm.

• In a mixed – methodological design study, one finds “mixed methods” presented where the author collects both qualitative and quantitative data.

474747

How to Choose a Research DesignHow to Choose a Research Design

• Does it adequately test the hypothesis?• Does it identify & control extraneous factors?• Are results generalizable?• Can the hypothesis be rejected or retained via

statistical means?• Is the design efficient in using available

resources?

484848

Which method to choose?Which method to choose?

• What design you choose depends on different factors. • What information do you want? The aims of the study. • The nature of the phenomenon - Is it feasible to collect the data,

and if so, would it be valid/reliable?• How reliable should the information be? • Is it ethical to conduct the study? • The cost of the design • Is there little or much current scientific theory and literature on the

topic?•

494949

49

Which method to choose?Which method to choose?

• Issues of ontology-the nature of reality• Issues of epistemology- the nature of

knowledge• Issues of axiology- the role of values

505050

All the best and Good Luck