Research Article Are Famine Food Plants Also...

Research ArticleAre Famine Food Plants Also Ethnomedicinal Plants?An Ethnomedicinal Appraisal of Famine Food Plants ofTwo Districts of Bangladesh

Fardous Mohammad Safiul Azam, Anup Biswas, Abdul Mannan, Nusrat Anik Afsana,Rownak Jahan, and Mohammed Rahmatullah

Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative,House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new), Dhanmondi, Dhaka 1209, Bangladesh

Correspondence should be addressed to Mohammed Rahmatullah; [email protected]

Received 27 November 2013; Revised 30 December 2013; Accepted 6 January 2014; Published 20 February 2014

Academic Editor: Menaka C. Thounaojam

Copyright © 2014 Fardous Mohammad Safiul Azam et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work isproperly cited.

Plants have served as sources of food and medicines for human beings since their advent. During famines or conditions of foodscarcity, people throughout theworld depend onunconventional plant items to satiate their hunger andmeet their nutritional needs.Malnourished people often suffer from various diseases, much more than people eating a balanced diet. We are hypothesizing thatthe unconventional food plants that people eat during times of scarcity of their normal diet are also medicinal plants and thus canplay a role in satiating hunger,meeting nutritional needs, and serving therapeutic purposes. Towards testing our hypothesis, surveyswere carried out among the low income people of four villages in Lalmonirhat and Nilphamari districts of Bangladesh. People andparticularly the low income people of these two districts suffer each year from a seasonal famine known as Monga. Over 200informants from 167 households in the villages were interviewed with the help of a semistructured questionnaire and the guidedfield-walk method. The informants mentioned a total of 34 plant species that they consumed during Monga. Published literatureshows that all the species consumed had ethnomedicinal uses. It is concluded that famine food plants also serve as ethnomedicinalplants.

1. Introduction

Human beings need food for survival and to satiate theirhunger. Plants have always constituted a major food sourcefor people throughout the world since the advent of humans.During times of natural disasters like inclement weatherconditions, populations suffering from severe food shortagesbecome heavily reliant on wild food plants for survival [1].This has given rise to the concept of famine plants [2]. RodaleandMcgrath [3] stated that famine plants have been eaten andutilized for centuries. Certain “wild-foods” are enjoyed andtherefore collected and consumed every timewhen ready andthese are important “famine-foods” during periods of foodshortage [4].

The human population of the western Sahel has beenreported to depend on a number of wild plant foods, and

this dependency increases during drought conditions [5].However, scarcity of food or in practicality, famine condition,is also a common occurrence with people who live in povertyand so cannot afford their daily requirements of a normaland conventional diet. Such food scarcity/famine (famineand food scarcity have been considered equivalent in thispaper in the sense that both conditions lead to inadequateintake of daily conventional food items) can be observedamong the people of Bangladesh, about a third of those wholive below the poverty level income, defined as less thanUS$ 1 per day. Moreover, people of the northern districtsof Bangladesh are subjected each year to a seasonal famineknown as Monga. Monga usually occurs twice a year; thegreater Monga (boro Monga) occurs during the lean seasonpreceding the harvest of paddy in the Bangla months ofAshwin and Kartik (mid-September to mid-November), and

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2014, Article ID 741712, 28 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/741712

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

the smaller Monga (choto Monga) occurs during the leanseason preceding the harvest of paddy in between the Banglamonths of Chaitra and Jaistha (mid-March to mid-June). Itis to be noted that rice (obtained after dehusking paddy) isthe staple cereal of the people of Bangladesh and is the majoritem consumed by the poorer rural people with lentils andan occasional sidedish of a vegetable. Monga occurs due toa number of factors, lack of adequate water supply duringthe above months and lack of diversification of jobs (mostpeople being agricultural laborers with little cultivable landof their own).The agricultural laborers, landless farmers, andthe marginal farmers suffer from acute food shortage duringMonga [6].

Lalmonirhat and Nilphamari districts are two districts inthe northern part of Bangladesh, which suffer from Monga.The people in these districts, particularly the rural poor,are the worst sufferers and suffer during Monga from acutefood shortages. We have previously shown that a numberof nonconventional plant items are consumed by the poorpeople of the northern districts of Bangladesh during Monga[7]. In fact, such consumption of nonconventional plant itemsduring times of food scarcity has been reported by us forother districts of Bangladesh, like Rangamati and Kurigram[8, 9]; Rangamati district does not suffer from Monga, butfood scarcity exists among segments of the mainstreampopulation as well as tribal people. Also notably, Rangamatidistrict is in the southeastern portion of the country. Duringour survey in Kurigram district on famine food plants, wenoted a distinct correlation between nonconventional plantsconsumed during food scarcity and their folk medicinalusage; in other words, most of the plants consumed had folkmedicinal uses [10].

Chronic lack of food causes the people to suffer frommalnutrition with consequent wasting away of body andweakening of the body’s immune systems [11]. This can causea number of diseases to occur because of the body’s weakdefenses against invading pathogens. Lack of proper diet cannot only cause shortage ofmacronutrients like carbohydrates,proteins, and lipids, but also cause lack of vitamins andessentialmicronutrients with concomitant arising of ailmentslike anemia, night blindness, beriberi, pellagra, kwashiorkor,and marasmus, to name only a few. Thus nonconventionalfood items should not only be edible, but also satiate thehunger and meet the body’s nutritional needs adequately.

The Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers reportedlyused to have over 800 plant foods, and that this traditionaldiet may have been low in carbohydrates but high in fiber,leading to protection of the Aborigines from a genetic pre-disposition to insulin resistance (a physiological condition inwhich the natural hormone, insulin, becomes less effectivein lowering blood sugars) and its consequences like diabetesmellitus, coronary heart disease, and obesity [12]. Theseconventional food plants andmedicine are interrelated as alsobeen shown by other authors. Research in several regions hasillustrated that many wild plants that are retained in localfood cultures are inseparable from traditional therapeuticsystems [13, 14]. Since ancient times, the thinking of “foodas medicine” has existed in Chinese medical theories andChinese food therapy [15, 16]. Etkin and Ross [17, 18] showed

from their West African research that many wild plantswere used both in therapeutics and for dietary purposes. Wefurther hypothesize that through trial and error, the humanpopulation have selected famine food plants items, whichnot only fulfill hunger satiating and nutritional needs, butalso serves a therapeutic purpose. It then follows from ourhypothesis that famine food plants, in general, must also haveethnomedicinal uses.

The objective of the present survey was to conduct anethnomedicinal appraisal of famine food plants consumed bypoor villagers in four villages (Sailmari, Khurdobichondoi,Paschim Dewwabar, and Schatunama) of two adjoiningdistricts, namely, Lalmonirhat andNilphamari, which are twoof the most Monga-prone districts in Bangladesh, and havesubstantial segments of the population suffering from foodscarcity during Monga. The two districts are bordered on thesouth by Rangpur district, on the north by West Bengal Stateof India, on the east by Kurigram district, and on the westby Dinajpur and Panchagarh districts (Figure 1). The area ofthe four villages where the present survey was carried outapproximates 50 square kilometers. An indigenous commu-nity, namely the Santals, inhabits portions of the two districtscovered. The Santals are considered to be original settlersin this area since prehistoric times; however, the majorityof the population (over 98%) of the two districts at presentcomprises of mainstream Bengali-speaking population.

The villages surveyed lacked any industry; as a con-sequence, the people are dependent on agriculture. Threeof the villages Sailmari, Khurdobichondoi, and PaschimDewwabar fell under Kaliganj and Hatibandha Upazilas(subdistricts) of Lalmonirhat district, while Schatunuma fellunder Dimla Upazila of Nilphamari district (Figure 1). As perNational Information Services provided by the Governmentof Bangladesh [19], the total population of Kaliganj andHatibanda Upazilas was 216,868 and 239,568, respectivelywith a literacy rate of 24, and 21.4% (it is to be noted thata person is considered literate in Bangladesh if the personcan only sign his or her name without even going to primaryschool). The total population of Dimla Upazila is 280,076with an average literacy level of 42.86%. Small farmers (i.e.farmers without land or having less than one-third acre ofland per family) constituted over 80% of the populationin the villages surveyed; these farmers mostly worked asagricultural laborers in other people’s land.

The surveyed villages did not have any forest land. Thevillages, however, contained fallow land and “char” (riverislands on the Teesta River) areas. There was some vegetativecover in the fallow lands and chars; the vegetation mostlyconsisted of wild herbs, shrubs, and a few trees, which weretropical and subtropical in nature.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Area and InvestigativeMethods. Thepresent surveywas conducted between October 2010 and August 2012.A preliminary survey was conducted among the villagersof a number of villages in Lalmonirhat and Nilphamaridistricts, which according to news reports of the countryhave a substantial number of households, who were affected

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

NilphamariLalmonirhat

Figure 1: Map of Bangladesh showing the districts, Upazilas, and study sites (villages). Actual study sites are marked on the map asX.

by Monga. From this preliminary survey, four villages asmentioned abovewere chosen in the two districts on the basisof the number of households, whose incomes were belowthe poverty level, and as a consequence, were more affectedby Monga. More detailed surveys (comprising of a total ofnine visits, each visit lasting four days on an average) wereconducted in these four villages among a total of 167 house-holds who mentioned that they consume nonconventionalplant items not only during Monga, but also at other timesof food scarcity, caused due to their low income levels. Alltogether, 238 adult members (219 females and 19 males) fromthese households were interviewed. It is to be noted thatwomen, particularly the adult married women members ofrural households, are in general responsible for cooking foodand collecting nonconventional plant items (during times offood scarcity) and so possess more information on faminefoods than the male members of the household. Althoughcollecting nonconventional edible plants from the wild orfallow lands and roadsides is also shared by children alongwith adult female members of the household, such childrenwere not interviewed in the present survey.

2.2. Mode of Interview and Plant Specimen Collection. In-formed consent was first obtained from the Head of eachhousehold (in most cases being the oldest active male mem-ber) to gather information on their monthly income levels,

availability of adequate food throughout the year, prevalenceof diseases, occupation, literacy, consumption of nonconven-tional plant food items during times of food scarcity in theirhouseholds, and the therapeutic uses of the nonconventionalplant species. The male Heads of households themselvessuggested that information on consumption of nonconven-tional plants be gathered from the female adult membersof each household. Information was collected and recordedwith the help of a semistructured questionnaire, open-endedinterviews, and the guided field-walk method of Martin [20]and Maundu [21]. In this method, the women informantstook the interviewers on guided field walks through areasfrom where they usually collected their nonconventionaledible plants, pointed out the plants, and described the modeof consumption of these plants and the plant parts used forconsumption, as well as medicinal values of the plants. Allsuch plant specimens were collected from the spot, pressed,dried [22], and brought back to Dhaka for complete iden-tification by the Bangladesh National Herbarium. Voucherplant specimens were deposited with the Plant CollectionWing of the University of Development Alternative. Nomen-clature of plants was compiled from the Plant List database(http://www.theplantlist.org/). Lalmonirhat and Nilphamariare adjoining districts, and it was noticed that the patternof consumption of nonconventional plants was basically thesame for each household in all four villages of the twodistricts.


Corm, 2.04 Bark, 2.04

Leaf stalk, 4.08

Stem, 18.36

Leaf, 44.89

Fruit, 12.24

Flower, 6.12

Root, 4.08

Tuber, 4.08

Figure 2: Percentage distribution of various plant parts consumedduring times of food scarcity.

2.3. Search of Databases for Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plants.Ethnomedicinal uses of the plant reports were collectedthrough searching various databases like PubMed, SCOPUS,and Google Scholar.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Demographic Characteristics. Of the 219 females inter-viewed, 76 females (34.7%) were in the age group of 21–30years, 88 females (40.2%)were in the age group of 31–40 years,and 55 females (25.1%) were in the age group of 41–50 years.100% of the females were married and described their occu-pation as housewives. The literacy rate among the femaleswas 3.1%. Of the 19 males interviewed, 16 males (84.2%)described their occupation as agricultural laborers, while 3males (15.8%) described themselves as small farmers withland holding not exceeding 1/3 acres. Literacy rate among theinterviewed males was 7.9%. It may be noted that the literacyrate among the surveyed populationwas observed to be lowerthan theUpazila average.The informantsmentioned that partof this lower literacy rate was due to age, for only recentlythe Government of Bangladesh has made primary education(up to Grade V) compulsory for both males and females.The other factor mentioned by the informants was that theycould not even send children to schools regularly because thechildren were often engaged in foraging for wild edible plantsbecause of chronic food shortages.

3.2. General Dietary Information. According to all infor-mants, their main diet during food availability consistedof rice, which was consumed along with lentil soup (dal),vegetables, and occasionally fish or meat. Since rice containsvery low amount of protein, lentils served as themain proteinsource in the absence of meat or fish items. During timesof food scarcity, rice could not be afforded, and so theyconsumed nonconventional edible plants or plant parts alongwith lentil soup, if the latter could be afforded. Various types

of lentils (pulses) are available in Bangladesh, the most costlybeing Lens esculenta and Lens culinaris (masoor dal) andVigna radiata (mung dal). However, the poorer people cannotusually afford these two pulses and consume instead Lathyrussativus (khesari dal).

3.3. Plant Habitat. Among the plants whose parts were con-sumed, with the exception of Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cor-chorus capsularis, Moringa oleifera, Musa sapientum, andRaphanus sativus, the rest of the plants were collected fromthe wild (fallow land, roadsides, open fields, or marshyareas). Aquatic wild edible plants included Ipomoea aquatica,Marsilea minuta, Enhydra fluctuans, Nelumbo nucifera, andNymphaea pubescens.

3.4. Plants, Plant Parts, and Mode of Consumption duringFamines. The various informants mentioned a total of 34nonconventional plant species that they consumed duringtimes of food scarcity. The plants were distributed into 26families. Among these plants species, the parts consumedwere leaves, stems, barks, fruits, seeds, flowers, tubers, andcorms. The results are shown in Table 1. Leaves formed themajor plant part consumed and constituted 44.9% of thetotal. Leaves were followed by stems at 18.3% and fruits at12.2%. The results are shown in Figure 2. In other parts ofthe world like Niger in Africa, leaves have been reportedto be primarily consumed during famines and have beenshown to be excellent sources of proteins andmicronutrients,particularly of plants like Amaranthus viridis andM. oleifera[23]. Notably, the leaves of these two plants were also found tobe consumed by the people of the present survey areas duringtimes of food scarcity.

Fruits were usually eaten directly in the raw state, tubersand corms in the mashed state following boiling in water,and leaves and stems taken following frying or cooking inthe form of vegetables. Since the households were too poorto afford spices, essentially a little oil or a small amount oftable salt was added for cooking and making the dish morepalatable. The three exceptions to this generalized mode ofconsumption were Centella asiatica, M. minuta, and Oxaliscorniculata. In all these three cases, juice obtained fromsqueezed leaves was added to lentil soup, which was thenconsumed. The reason for this unusual mode of consump-tion was attributed to age-old practices of the community.Among these plants, not all plant parts consumed werefully nonconventional. For instance, during regular times offood availability, villagers would consume leaves and stemsof Amaranthus tricolor, seeds of A. heterophyllus, leaves ofC. asiatica, leaves, stems, and tubers of Colocasia esculenta,leaves ofC. capsularis, leaves of I. aquatica, fruits ofMusa par-adisiaca, leaf stalks of N. pubescens, and leaves of R. sativus,but only occasionally. M. sapientum and Musa paradisiacafruits were consumed during regular times, but during timesof food scarcity, other parts of the plant along with fruits wereconsumed.

3.5. Food Uses of Famine Food Plants of Surveyed Areas inOther Parts of the World. It is of interest that the plants


Table1:Non

conventio

nal(famine)food

plantsof

four

villagesinLalm

onirh

atandNilp

hamarid

istric

ts,Ba

ngladesh.

Seria

lnum

ber

Species

Family

Localn

ame

(Eng

lishname)

Part(s)u

sed

Mod

eofcon

sumption

Localm

edicinaluse(s)

1Ab

romaaugusta

(L.)

L.f.

Malvaceae

Ulotk

ombo

l(D

evil’s

cotto

n)Ba

rk,roo

tJuiceo

btainedfro

mcrushedbark

istakenwith

alittlesalt.

Smashedroots

arec

ooked.

Rootsu

sedagainstm

enstr

ualproblem

s,leucorrhea,stomachpain,and

sexu

alweakn

ess.Ba

rkused

againstjaund

ice.

2Alternantherasessilis

(L.)R.

Br.exDC.

Amaranthaceae

Shantishak

(Sessilejoy

weed)

Leaf,stem

Friedwith

little

oiland

water.

Leaves

used

againstscabies

andeczema.

3Am

aranthus

spinosus

L.Amaranthaceae

Kantak

huria

(Spiny

Amaranth)

Leaf,stem

Friedwith

little

oiland

water.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainstb

oils,

stomachpain,and

weakn

ess.

4Am

aranthus

tricolor

L.Amaranthaceae

Choriedang

ashak

(Joseph’scoat

Amaranth)

Leaf,stem

Friedwith

little

oiland

water.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainstskin

diseases

anddysentery.

5Am

aranthus

virid

isL.

Amaranthaceae

Khaikhu

ria(G

reen

Amaranth)

Leaf,stem

Friedwith

little

oiland

water.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainstb

oils,

constip

ation,

andsevere

malnu

trition

.

6Ar

tocarpus

heterophyllus

Lam.

Moraceae

Kanthal

(Jackfruit)

Seed

Roastedseedsa

reeatendirectlyor

inthem

ashedform

.Seedsu

sedagainstcon

stipatio

n.

7Bo

mbaxceibaL.

Bombacaceae

Shim

ul(Silk

cotto

ntre

e)Ro

otCu

tintosm

allpiecesa

ndbo

iledwith

alittle

salt.

Rootsu

sedagainstsexualw

eakn

ess.

8Ca

ryotaurensL

.Arecaceae

Chag

uwa

(Solitary

fishtail

palm

)Fruit

Fruitsaree

aten

raw.

Nolocalm

edicinaluses

repo

rted.

9Ce

ntellaasiatica(L.)

Urb.

Apiaceae

Khu

dimanim

uni

(Indian

penn

ywort)

Leaf

Juiceo

btainedfro

mcrushedleaves

isaddedto

lentilsoup

.Leaves

used

againstind

igestio

n,diarrhea,

anddysentery.

10Ch

enopodium

album

L.Ch

enop

odiaceae

Bothua

(Lam

b’squ

arters)

Leaf,stem

Friedwith

little

oiland

water.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainstliver

diseases,helminthiasis,hem

orrhoids,

constip

ation,

andbloatin

g.

11Co

locasia

esculen

ta(L.)Scho

tt.Araceae

Kochu

(Eleph

ant’s

ear)

Leaf,stem,tub

er

Leaves

andste

msa

refriedwith

little

oiland

water.Tub

ersa

rebo

iledin

water

containing

saltandconsum

edin

them

ashedform

.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainst

indigestion.

Tubersused

against

tuberculosis,

rheumatism

,and

paralysis.

12Co

rchoruscapsularis

L.Tiliaceae

Paatshak

(Jute)

Leaffro

myoun

gplants

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked

with

little

saltandwater.

Leaves

used

againststomachpain,liver

disorders,andlossof

appetite.

13Dioscorea

esculen

ta(Lou

r.)Bu

rkill

Dioscoreaceae

Boro

alu

(Lessery

am)

Leaf,tub

erBo

iledin

water

andthen

takenin

the

mashedform

after

mixingwith

oiland

hotp

eppers.

Tubersused

againstm

alnu

trition

.

14Diplaziu

mesculen

tum

(Retz.)

Sw.

Dryop

terid

aceae

Dhakias

hak

(Vegetablefern)

Leaf

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked.

Leaves

used

againstfever.


Table1:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnum

ber

Species

Family

Localn

ame

(Eng

lishname)

Part(s)u

sed

Mod

eofcon

sumption

Localm

edicinaluse(s)

15Eh

retia

acum

inataR.

Br.

Boraginaceae

Kath

guwa

(Kod

oweed)

Fruit

Fruitsaree

aten

raw.

Nolocalm

edicinaluses

repo

rted.

16En

hydraflu

ctua

nsLo

ur.

Asteraceae

Hanchishak

(Water

cress)

Leaf

Friedwith

saltandthen

cooked.

Leaves

used

againstd

iabetes,lowsemen

density,and

weakn

ess.

17Ficush

ispidaL.

Moraceae

Kho

ksha

(Hairy

fig)

Fruit

Fruitsaree

aten

raw.

Fruitsused

againstd

iabetesa

ndhypertensio

n.

18Glinus

oppositifoliu

s(L.)Au

g.DC.

Molluginaceae

Teetas

hak

(Bitter

leaf)

Leaf

Leaves

areb

oiledin

water

follo

wed

bydiscarding

thew

ater

andcook

ingthe

boiledleaves

asvegetable.

Leaves

used

againstind

igestio

n,fever,

andbu

rningsensations

inhand

sorfeet.

19Ipom

oeaaquatica

Forssk.

Con

volvulaceae

Kolm

ishak

(Water

spinach)

Leaf

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked

with

saltandwater.

Leaves

used

againstchicken

poxand

rheumatism

,and

toincrease

lactationin

nursingmothers.

20Ipom

oeabatatas(L.)

Poir.

Con

volvulaceae

Mistialoo

(Sweetp

otato)

Leaf

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked

with

saltandwater.

Leaves

used

againstd

iarrheaa

nddebility.

21Leucas

aspera

(Willd.)

Link

Lamiaceae

Kanshika

(Whitedead

nettle)

Leaffro

myoun

gplants

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked

with

alittlesalt.

Leaves

used

againstb

odypain,cou

ghs,

andmucus.

22Malva

verticillata

L.Malvaceae

Napas

hak

(Chinese

mallow)

Leaf

Coo

kedwith

little

water

andsalt.

Nolocalm

edicinaluses

repo

rted.

23Marsilea

minutaL.

Marsileaceae

Dhelm

anim

uni

(Dwarfw

ater

clover)

Leaf

Leaves

ares

queezedto

obtain

juice,

which

isconsum

edwith

lentilsoup

.Leaves

used

againstedema,sexu

alweakn

ess,mucus

andfever.

24Moringa

oleiferaLam.

Moringaceae

Saazna

(Drumstick

tree)

Leaf,immature

fruit

Leaves

arec

ookedwith

alittlesoda

andconsum

ed.Fruits

arec

ookedas

vegetables.

Leaves

andfruitsused

againstfever,boils,

cold,and

jointp

ain.

25Musaxparadisia

caL.

Musaceae

Anajeek

ola

(Plantain)

Flow

er,fruit,

pseudo

stem

Immaturefl

owersa

retakenin

the

mashedform

with

alittlesaltaft

erbo

iling

.Unripefruits

areb

oiledand

takenin

them

ashedform

orcooked

asvegetable.Pseudo

stemsfrom

youn

gplantsarec

ookedas

vegetable.

Fruitsused

againstanemia,hem

atem

esis,

anddysentery.Flow

ersa

ndpseudo

stems

used

againstchron

icdysentery.

26Musaxsapientum

L.Musaceae

Aeetak

ola

(Banana)

Flow

er,fruit

Immaturefl

owersa

rebo

iledandtaken

inthem

ashedform

with

alittlesalt.

Ripe

fruitsaretaken

rawor

smashed

andkept

inwater

for10–

12ho

urs

follo

wed

bydrinking

them

ixture.

Fruitsagainststomachpain,diarrhea,

andskin

erup

tions.Flowersu

sedagainst

diabetes.

27Ne

lumbo

nucifera

Gaertn.

Nelu

mbo

naceae

Padm

a,Dhepra

(Sacredlotus)

Leafstalk

Leafsta

lksa

refriedwith

alittlesalt.

Leaves

andleafsta

lksu

sedagainst

weakn

ess.


Table1:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnum

ber

Species

Family

Localn

ame

(Eng

lishname)

Part(s)u

sed

Mod

eofcon

sumption

Localm

edicinaluse(s)

28Ny

mphaeapubescens

Willd.

Nym

phaeaceae

Shapla,Shaluk

(Hairy

water

lily)

Leafsta

lk,corm

Leafsta

lksa

refriedwith

alittlesalt.

Cormsa

reroastedandtakenwith

alittle

salt.

Nolocalm

edicinaluses

repo

rted.

29Oxalis

cornicu

lata

L.Oxalid

aceae

Amrul

(Creeping

woo

dsorrel)

Leaf

Juiceo

btainedfro

mcrushedleaves

istakenwith

lentilsoup

.Leaves

used

againstd

ysentery

andas

antid

otetopo

ison.

30Ra

phanus

sativ

usL.

Cruciferae

Mula

(radish

)Leaf

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked

inwater

with

somes

altand

alittleoil.

Nolocalm

edicinaluses

repo

rted.

31Saccharum

spontaneum

L.Po

aceae

Keshur,K

ashia

dand

a(W

ildsugarc

ane)

Stem

Stem

sare

chew

edandthee

nsuing

juiceistaken

orally.

Stem

juiceu

sedagainstjaund

icea

ndsexu

alweakn

ess.

32Scopariadu

lcisL

.Scroph

ulariaceae

Mistip

ata

(Sweet

broo

mweed)

Leaf

Leaves

arec

ookedwith

alittlesalt.

Leaves

used

againstfever,dysentery,

bloo

ddysentery,andgastric

ulcer.

33Sesbaniagrandiflora

(L.)Pers.

Fabaceae

Bokful

(Augustfl

ower)

Flow

erFried.

Flow

ersu

sedagainstb

iliarydisordersa

nddiabetes.

34Spilanthesp

anicu

lata

Wall.ex

DC.

Asteraceae

Oshun

shak,

Roshun

shak

(Parac

ress)

Leaf,stem

Cutintosm

allpiecesa

ndcooked.

Leaves

andste

msu

sedagainst

rheumatism

.


22.05

7.35 7.35 8.825.88 4.41

7.35 5.88 4.41

26.47

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Dist

ribut

ion

frequ

ency

(%)

(%)

Gas

troin

testi

nal

Sexu

al d

isord

er

Hep

atic

diso

rder

Skin

diso

rder

Wea

knes

s

Rheu

mat

ism

Feve

r

Dia

bete

s

diso

rder

diso

rder

Resp

irato

ry

Misc

ella

neou

s

Figure 3: Frequency distribution (%) of famine food plants used fortreatment of variousmedical disorders. Besides the disorders shownin the figure, other disorders for which famine food plants were usedhave been classified in general as Miscellaneous.

consumed during times of food scarcity in the surveyed areasare also used as normal or famine foods in other regionsof the world, although the same plant part may not beconsumed. Food uses of some of the plants are shown inTable 2. For instance, leaves and seeds of Abroma augusta areconsidered edible in Papua New Guinea and Sikkim, India,respectively [24, 25]. The surveyed population consumedthe barks and roots of the plant. Leaves of Alternantherasessilis are also considered edible in Papua New Guinea [24];the surveyed population consumed leaves and stems. Leavesof Amaranthus spinosus and Amaranthus viridis are eatenas leafy vegetables in Assam, India [26]; the local peopleconsumed both leaves and stems. The flowers of Bombaxceiba are considered edible in Arunachal Pradesh, India [27];the local people consumed the roots of the plant.

3.6. Local Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plants Consumed duringFamines. With the exception of five plants, the rest 29 plants(85.29% of total) were reported by the informants to havemedicinal uses. The frequency of plant use in differentcategories of disorders is shown in Figure 3. Gastrointestinaldisorders had the maximum frequency of ethnomedicinaluse (22.05%), followed by skin disorders (8.82%). Othermajor disorders against which plants were reported to haveethnomedicinal uses included sexual disorders, hepatic dis-orders, and fever (7.35% each). The rural population andparticularly the surveyed rural poor households were foundto live under unhygienic conditions and with poor sanitationand drinking water quality. These factors along with possiblefall of immunity due to malnutrition [11] can lead to variousdiseases, and gastrointestinal disorders and skin diseaseswould constitute the major disease forms. Other studies havealso indicated the prevalence of gastrointestinal disordersamong the Bangladeshi rural population [28, 29].

3.7. Ethnomedicinal Uses of the Famine Food Plants in OtherRegions of the World Including Bangladesh. To validate our

hypothesis that, through trial and error, the human popula-tion has selected famine food plants items, which not onlyfulfill hunger satiating and nutritional needs, but also servesa therapeutic purpose, it was of interest to examine publishedreports on ethnomedicinal uses of the famine food plantsof the survey areas in other parts of the world, includingBangladesh. The results are presented in Table 3. It is tobe noted that only a selection of available reported eth-nomedicinal uses of the plants are presented in Table 3. Notsurprisingly, the ethnomedicinal uses of the local famine foodplants were much greater when other regions of the worldwere taken into account. However, some local medicinal useswere in common with uses in other regions (i.e., treatment ofmenstrual problems with A. augusta or use of C. asiatica fortreatment of gastrointestinal disorders).

Taken together, the available ethnomedicinal reportson the nonconventional plants consumed by the villagerssurveyed, strongly validates our hypothesis that faminefood plants are also ethnomedicinal plants. That the exactethnomedicinal value be actually known is possibly notnecessary; just the mere observation that consumption ofthese plants satiate hunger, meet nutritional needs to alesser or greater extent, and somehow prevents diseases fromoccurring can be valid reasons for selection of particularnonconventional plants and not others. For instance, theinformants did not mention any medicinal uses for theplants, namely, Caryota urens, Ehretia acuminata, Malvaverticillata, N. pubescens, and R. sativus (Table 1); however,all four plants have reported ethnomedicinal uses in otherparts of the world (Table 3). The reasons for discarding otherwild or nonconventional plants can be due to a variety ofreasons ranging from toxicity and lesser palatability to lesserfulfillment of nutritional needs, with all these factors beingeasily manifested.

The question then arises as to why did not the villagerssurveyed in the present study consume these nonconven-tional plant items on a regular basis? One answer providedby the villagers themselves was that they did not find thesenonconventional plant items as palatable (in their wordstasty) as their regular diet of rice and lentils. A further answercould be that they were unaware of all the health benefitsthat these nonconventional plants offered (as also suggestedfrom a comparison of local medicinal uses of the plantsversus ethnomedicinal uses in other parts of the world), andso they stuck to their millennia old dietary habits. Anotherpossible reason could be that they once were aware of theethnomedicinal benefits of the plants consumed but havelost some of that knowledge over time. In fact, “optimumforaging strategy” theory [30] implies that all animals foragein such a way as to maximize their net energy intake perunit time. We extend this hypothesis to include that humansforage or rather use famine food plants in such a mannerwhich besides maximizing their net energy intake per unittime also provides them with health benefits in the form ofpreventing or curing diseases. This also makes sense; duringmalnutrition arising out of food scarcity, humans may havereduced strength and weakened body defenses; as such, theywould include food, which would offer both nutritional aswell as therapeutic benefits. It is interesting to note that


Table 2: Reported food uses of the famine food plants.

Species Use as food plantAbroma augusta L. Leaves are considered edible in Papua New Guinea [24] and seeds in Sikkim, India [25].Alternanthera sessilis (L.)R. Br. ex DC. Leaves are considered as wild edibles in Papua New Guinea [24].

Amaranthus spinosus L. Consumed as leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Amaranthus tricolor L. Considered an edible vegetable in North India [34].Amaranthus viridis L. Consumed as leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Fruits and seeds consumed in Malaysia [35].Bombax ceiba L. Flowers eaten as vegetable in Arunachal Pradesh of India [27].Caryota urens L. Pith used as famine food in South India [36].Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Chenopodium album L. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Considered a leafy vegetable in Assam (India) [26].Corchorus capsularis L. Leaves are eaten in the cooked form in some Asian countries [37].Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.)Burkill Tubers are reported as wild edible in the islands of Remote Oceania [38].

Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Leaves consumed in Yunnan, China [39].Ehretia acuminata R. Br. Fruits are eaten raw by aboriginals in Australia [40].Enhydra fluctuans Lour. Leaves and stems consumed as leafy vegetable by ethnic communities in Tripura, India [41].Ficus hispida L. Fruits are eaten raw in Arunachal Pradesh of India [27].Glinus oppositifolius (L.)A. DC. Young leaves and stems consumed as vegetable in West Bengal, India [42].

Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Leaves and stems are cooked and consumed in Malaysia [35].Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Leaves and stems are cooked and consumed in Malaysia [35].Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Young leaves consumed during famine in Kurigram district, Bangladesh [10].Malva verticillata L. Young leaves consumed as soup in Korea [43].Marsilea minuta L. Leaves and stems consumed as vegetable in Jharkand, India [44].

Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaves, fruits, flowers consumed in the cooked form in many countries of South Asia and Africa[45].

Musa paradisiaca L. Fruits consumed in the unripe state in tropical countries [46].Musa sapientum L. Ripe fruits consumed throughout the world [47].Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Consumed as vegetable in various parts of India [48].Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Roasted endosperm consumed by rural communities in Assam, India [49].Oxalis corniculata L. Consumed by tribal communities of Central India during times of food scarcity [50].Raphanus sativus L. Dietary vegetable in Asian countries, particularly China, Japan, and Korea [51].

Saccharum spontaneum L. Stems used to mitigate thirst or hunger by tribes in ParambikulamWildlife Sanctuary, Kerala,India [52].

Scoparia dulcis L. Consumed as vegetable in northeasternThailand [53].Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Flowers and buds consumed as vegetable in India [54].Spilanthes paniculataWall.ex DC.

Special food item prepared from the plant during religious festivals by the Mising communityof Assam, India [55].

another study in Northeast Thailand also found that halfof the weedy vegetables consumed by the people are alsoregarded as sources of medicine [31].That various wild plantscan serve as both food and medicine has been reported fromvarious regions of the world including Palestine and China[32, 33].

The major finding of this study is that, since faminefood plants have the real possibility of multiple ethnomedic-inal uses, such plants throughout the world merit furtherscientific studies to fully explore their medicinal potentials.Moreover, since famine food plants aremostly wild but edibleand can grow under inclement weather conditions without


Table3:Re

ported

ethn

omedicinaluses

ofthen

on-con

ventionalfoo

dplantsshow

nin

Table1.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

1Ab

romaaugusta

L.

Root

juicetaken

orallyby

tribalandruralp

eopleinWestR

arrh

region

ofWestB

engal,India,forb

lood

dysentery,diarrhea,

andnightw

ettin

g[56];pow

dero

fbarkandrootsc

onsumed

thric

eadaywith

boiledwater

bytheK

hamtitribeo

fArunachal

Pradesh,India,foru

rinaryprob

lems[57];flo

werstaken

orallyby

theT

onchon

gyatrib

eofB

andarban

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh,

form

entalsickn

ess[58];ste

mjuicetobe

takenorally,

advisedby

folkmedicinalpractitionersin

Begu

mganj,N

oakh

ali

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh,for

irregular

menstr

uatio

n,painfulm

enstr

uatio

n,andbu

rningsensations

intheu

terus[59];root

juice

takenorallyas

uterineton

icby

ethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

tofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[60];leafjuice

orallytaken,

advised

ford

iabetesb

yfolkmedicinalpractitionersof

Vasu

Biharv

illage,Bo

grad

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[61];crushed

stemstaken

orally

inVitbiliav

illageo

fPabna

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh,for

treatmento

fdebilityandinfertilityin

wom

endu

etouterinep

roblem

s[62];leafjuice

takenorallyford

iabetesa

ndroot

juicefor

sexu

aldisorder

bytheG

arotribalcommun

ityof

Netrakona

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[63];leafjuice

takenorallyforh

eatstroke

inBrahmanbaria

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[64].

Antidiabetic

,antioxidant,

anti-inflammatory,wou

ndhealing,hypo

lipidem

ic,

antifun

gal,antib

acteria

l,insecticidal,uterin

ediso

rders

[65].

2Alternanthera

sessilis

(L.)R.

Br.

exDC.

Who

leplantu

sedby

ethn

icgrou

psin

Sialkotd

istric

t,Pakistan,for

headache,dizziness,snake

bite,and

vomiting

ofbloo

d[66];plant

alon

gwith

leaves

ofHibisc

usrosa

sinensis

tiedwith

apiece

ofclo

thby

ethn

icgrou

psof

Diso

ivalleyforestarea

oftheJorhatd

istric

tofA

ssam

,Ind

ia,for

bone

fracture

andwou

nds[67];driedleaves

used

fortreatmento

fjaund

iceb

yPalliyar

tribalsinSirumalaiHills,Western

Ghats,Tam

ilNadu,India[

68];root,stem,and

leafdecoctiontakenorallyby

thetrib

also

fBa

rgarhdistric

t,Oris

sa,Ind

ia,for

bloo

ddysentery[69];w

holeplantu

sedfortreatmento

fwou

ndsb

ydifferent

tribal

commun

ities

ofUtta

raKa

nnadad

istric

t,Ka

rnataka,India[

70];leaves

andwho

leplantslocaltrib

alpeop

leof

Kaptipada

ForestRa

nge,Oris

sa,Ind

ia,for

treatmento

ffevers,op

hthalm

ia,gon

orrhea,and

pruritis[71];who

leplantu

sedby

thelocal

peop

leof

Amarkantak

region

,MadhyaP

radesh,Ind

ia,for

burningsensation,

diarrhea,skindisease,dyspepsia

,hemorrhoids,liver

andspleen

diseases,and

fever[72];plantjuice

orallyused

againstchron

icdysenteryin

Jajpur

distric

t,Odisha,India[

73];leaves

used

inNoakh

alid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh,for

treatmento

fgon

orrhea,low

semen

coun

t,and

leucorrhea

[59];leavesu

sedby

localIrulatribalso

fKalavaivillage,V

ellored

istric

t,TamilNadu,India,fortreatmento

fheadache,hepatitis,andasthma[

74];leaves

used

bypeop

leof

AlagarH

ills,Ea

stern

Ghats,

TamilNadu,India,fortreatment

ofeyesight

[75];leafjuice

used

bytheN

athpeop

leof

Assam,Ind

ia,toincrease

lactationin

nursingmothersandfor

treatmento

fhaira

ndsto

machtro

uble[76].

Anti-infl

ammatory[77]

hematinic[78],w

ound

healing

[79],antidiabetic

[80].

3Am

aranthus

spinosus

L.

Leaves

areb

oiledin

cowmilk

andorallytakenin

Kiku

kuvillage,M

ulebad

istric

t,Tanzania,for

treatmento

fpeptic

ulcers

[81];fresh

root

infusio

nalon

gwith

saltorallytakenforthroatinfectio

nsby

theT

ripuritrib

esof

TripuraS

tate,Ind

ia[82];

root

paste

appliedtopically

fore

czem

aora

bscesses

inJajpur

distric

t,Odisha,India[

73];root

paste

topically

used

byHoo

ralis

tribeinSathyamangalam

forests

ofWestern

Ghats,

TamilNadu,India,forw

ound

sand

blisters[83];decoctionof

who

leplanto

rally

takenfortreatmento

fHIV

/AID

SatTo

kombere

(farn

orth

Cameroo

n)[84];ash

ofwho

leplanttaken

orallyfortreatmento

fkidneysto

nes;fre

shleaves

arec

ookedalon

gwith

chicoryplantand

fenu

greekandtakenorallyforlow

bloo

dpressure

andblackcataractof

eyeb

ylocalcom

mun

ities

inarid

region

sofP

akistan

[85];leafjuice

alon

gwith

leafjuice

ofMangifer

aindica

andwho

leplantjuice

ofSida

rhom

bifolia

used

bytheT

ripuratrib

alcommun

ityof

Com

illad

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh,for

treatmento

fjaund

ice[86];root,bark,andste

morallytakenin

Kurig

ram

distr

ict,Ba

ngladesh,for

stopp

age

ofurinationanddefecatio

n[87];upp

erpartso

fthe

plantu

sedas

afebrifugeb

ythetrib

esof

Lalganjblock

ofdistr

ict

Mirz

apur,U

ttarP

radesh,Ind

ia[88];usedform

enorrhagia,gon

orrhea

(roo

ts),and

snakeb

ite(roo

ts)andto

increase

milk

flowin

cows(ste

ms)by

theN

athpeop

leof

Assam,Ind

ia[76].

Antiprotozoal,

anti-inflammatory,antio

xidant,

antim

alarial,analgesic

,im

mun

omod

ulatory,

hepatoprotectiv

e,antifertility,

antid

iabetic

,antihyperlip

idem

ic[89].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

4Am

aranthus

tricolorL

.

Who

leplantu

sedin

Kurig

ram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh,for

treatmento

fanemiaand“m

eho”

(diabetes)[87];w

holeplantu

sedin

Ivanur

PanchayatinCu

ddalored

istric

t,TamilNadu,India,to

improvee

yepo

wer

[90];curry

prepared

from

greenleaves

takenorallyto

stopdiarrhea;seeds

takenorallyforg

eneralgastric

prob

lems;seedsfrie

din

butte

rtaken

orallyto

lessen

pregnancypainsb

ytheL

epchatrib

eofD

zong

uvalley,bo

rderingKhangchendzon

gaBiosph

ereR

eserve,inNorth

Sikk

im,

India[

91];who

leplantu

sedby

thelocalpeop

leof

Mansoora,Malegaon,

India,as

astringent

andfortreatmento

fmenorrhagia,diarrhea,anddysentery[92];leafp

asteappliedtopically

byethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,Assam

,India,forc

utsa

ndwou

nds[60];leafpaste

used

tocure

wou

ndsinDarikalGaonof

Tezpur

inAs

sam,Ind

ia[93];leaves

cooked

andeatenas

vegetablea

streatmentfor

anem

iain

Semiliguda

blockof

Koratpur

distric

t,Odisha,India[

94].

Hepatop

rotective,nu

tritive,

bloo

dtonic[95].

5Am

aranthus

virid

isL.

Who

leplantsandste

msu

sedfortreatmento

fbronchitis,piles,leu

corrhea,breastabscess,menorrhagiaby

localtrib

alpeop

leof

KaptipadaF

orestR

ange,O

rissa,Ind

ia[71];usedforb

oils(roo

ts)andmalnu

trition

inpregnant

mothers(le

aves

andste

ms

arec

ookedandeaten)

inKu

rigram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[87];roo

tdecoctio

nused

bytribalso

fSam

ahni

Valley,Pakistan,to

controlm

enstrualprob

lemsa

ndbackbo

neache

durin

gpregnancy[96];plant

used

againstcou

gh,infl

ammation,

high

bloo

dpressure,and

asurinativeb

ypeop

lein

arid

region

sofP

akistan

[85];leavesu

sedagainststomachcolic

andas

laxativ

eby

tribalso

fDarjeeling

Hills,India[

97];leaves

takenorallyford

ysentery,asa

diuretic,and

toalleviateinternalfever

inNizam

abad

distric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia[98];usedagainstsnake

bite(stem)a

ndscorpion

sting

(leaf)b

ytheN

athpeop

leof

Assam,Ind

ia[76];w

holeplantu

sedin

Bhop

aldistric

t,India,fortreatmento

fstone

diseases

[99];tendersho

otstaken

asvegetabletoim

provee

yesig

htby

thee

thnicc

ommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[60];leafjuice

takenorallyfor

chronicd

ysentery

invillageso

fNatorea

ndRa

jshahid

istric

ts,Ba

ngladesh

[100].

Antinociceptiv

e,antip

yretic,

bloo

dtonic[95].

6Ar

tocarpus

heterophyllus

Lam.

Pedu

nclejuicetaken

orallythric

edailyforsnake

bitesinWestR

arrh

region

ofWestB

engal,India[

56];latexapplied

topically

astre

atmento

fskindisease,wou

nd,and

scorpion

sting

inJorhatdistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[67];leavesu

sedforskin

diseases,ulce

r,asthma,anddiarrhea

inTamilNadu,India[

101];ash

ofrin

dspinea

ppliedtopically

onthroator

tong

uefor

treatmento

fulce

rsin

Nasikdistric

t,Maharashtra,Ind

ia[102];used

againstb

loating(unripefruit),con

stipatio

n(ripefruits),

edem

a,ulcers(le

afash),skindiseases

(topicalapp

licationof

youn

gleafandroots),asthm

a,anddiarrhea

inNoakh

alid

istric

t(oraladm

inistratio

nof

youn

gleaves

androots),B

angladesh[59];usedagainstg

astro

intestinaldisordersinIlo

ilo,the

Philipp

ines

(plant

partsn

otmentio

ned)

[103].

Antioxidant,anti-infl

ammatory,

antib

acteria

l,antic

ariogenic,

antifun

gal,antin

eoplastic

,antid

iabetic,w

ound

healing

[104].

7Bo

mbaxceibaL.

Stem

bark

used

fortreatmento

fherpesinfectio

nin

CoastalKa

rnataka,India[

105];skindiseases,fem

aled

iseases,and

snake

bitein

Manipur,Ind

ia(plant

partused

notm

entio

ned)

[106];leaves

ares

oakedin

water

andthed

ecoctio

nused

fortakinga

bath

fortreatmento

fbod

ypain

bytheO

rang

Asliin

Kampu

ngBa

won

g,Perak,WestM

alaysia

[107];decoctionof

root

used

bythep

eopleo

fKadhi

areaso

fKhu

shab,P

unjab,Pakistan,tokillabdo

minalworms[108];leafp


for

treatmento

fsnake

biteby

theM

ulluku

rumatrib

eofW

ayanad

distric

t,Ke

rala,Ind

ia[10

9];seedused

bytribalso

fChitte

riHills,India,to

treatdiabetes

[110];flo

wer

paste

appliedtopically

bytheC

hakm

acom

mun

ities

ofCh

ittagon

gHill

Tracts,

Bang

ladesh,for

treatmento

fboils[111];rootso

fthe

planttaken

orallywith

seedso

fHyptis

suaveolen

sbytheM

arakhsectof

theG

arotribeinMym

ensin

ghdistric

t,Ba

ngladesh,againstgono

rrhea[

112];usedin

Samba

distric

tofJam

muandKa

shmir

againstd

iarrhea,dysentery,menorrhagia,stomachcomplaints,diabetes,m

enstrualdisorders,andforc

onception,

andas

anaphrod

isiac

(plant

partused

notm

entio

ned)

[113];root

used

againstd

iabetesb

ythetrib

esof

Pedabayalu

Mandalam,

Visakh

apatnam

distric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia[114];used

againstu

rinaryprob

lems(fruits)

anddiarrhea

(stem

bark

juice)

bytheG

ondtribeo

fAdilabaddistric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia[115].

Aphrod

isiac,anti-infl

ammatory,

hepatoprotectiv

e,antic

ancer,

anti-HIV,anti-H

elicobacter

pylori,

antia

ngiogenic,analgesic

,antio

xidant,hypotensiv

e,hypo

glycem

ic,antim

icrobial

[116].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

8Ca

ryotaurensL

.

Decoctio

nof

root

used

asag

alactagogueb

ynu

rsingmothersin

Tinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[60];infl

orescencejuice

and

nutexu

datesu

sedfora

sthma,as

amild

laxativ

e,andas

acoo

lant

bythea

borig

inalso

fKalrayanandShervarayanHills,

Easte

nGhats,

TamilNadu,India[

117];todd

yprepared

from

plantsap

used

bytheG

onds

ofAd

ilabaddistr

ict,And

hra

Pradesh,India,to

healurinaryprob

lems[115];ash

prepared

bybu

rningoldleaves

isorallytakenwith

honeyfortreatmento

ftympanitis

(inflammationof

middlee

ar)b

ythetrib

also

fSim

ilipalB

ioreserve,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[118].

Antioxidant

[119].

9Ce

ntellaasiatica

(L.)Urb.

Leaves

either

eatenas

paste

orcooked

andeatenas

vegetablea

gainsthepatic

diseases

likejaund

ice,cirrho

sis,and

liver

injury

bytheH

alam

tribeo

fTrip

uraS

tate,Ind

ia[120];who

leplantjuice

orallytakenforsyphilis

andulcerb

ytheC

hakm

atrib

alcommun

ities

ofCh

ittagon

gHill

Tractsregion

,Bangladesh[111];used

againstleucorrheaa

ndeczemab

ytheM

alasarstrib

alhealerso

fVelliang

iriHills,India(

plantp

artu

sedno

tmentio

ned)

[121];who

leplantcoo

kedandeatenfortreatmento

fsto

machdisorder

bytheB

orotribeo

fManas

NationalP

ark,As

sam,Ind

ia[122];who

leplantu

sedfortreatmento

fherpesin

Coasta

lKarnataka,Ind

ia[105];decoctionof

stemsa

ndleaves

takenorallyforc

ough

reliefand

crushedleaves

andste

ms

appliedto

burnsb

ytheK

alanguya

tribeinTino

c,Ifu

gao,Lu

zon,

Phillipines

[123];leaves

areg

roun

dedwith

fresh

turm

eric

andappliedagainstskindiseases

bytheK

urichyas

tribeinKa

nnur

distric

t,Ke

rala,Ind

ia[124];who

leplantu

sedagainstfever

andsunstro

keby

theM

anavalakuruchi

peop

leof

Kanyakum

arid

istric

t,TamilNadu,India[

125];pasteof

who

leplantu

sed

againstcarbu

ncle;crushed

leaves

arem

ixed

with

resin

from

Artocarpus

heterophyllusand

takenorallywith

fire-roasted

Channa

punctatusfi

shfortreatmento

fpilesb

ytheT

ai-K

hamyang

tribeo

fAssam

,Ind

ia[126];leafjuicetaken

orallyfor

bloo

dpu

rificatio

n,bloo

dclo

ts,andappend

icitisb

ytheK

anitrib

alsinPechiparaiforests

ofSouthern

western

Ghats,

Tamil

Nadu,India[127];leafjuice

used

bythetrib

alcommun

ities

ofCh

itrakoo

t,MadhyaP

radesh,Ind

ia,againstric

ketsin

child

ren

[128];used

againstsyphilis,m

entald

isorders,andskin

diseases

bytheB

aiga

tribalsinAmarkantak

Meikalforesto

fMadhya

Pradesh,India(

plantp

artn

otmentio

ned)

[129];leaves

used

againstrheum

atism

anddysenteryby

tribalsa

ndlocal

inhabitantso

fRajou

ri-Po

onch

ofJammuandKa

shmirState,India[

130];plant

juiceo

rally

takenby

theM

arakhsectof

the

GarotribeinMym

ensin

ghdistric

t,Ba

ngladesh,againstexcessiveb

leedingdu

ringmenstruation[112];rawrootsa

ndleaves

aretaken

orallywith

routinefoo

dby

theA

katribeo

fWestK

amengdistric

t,ArunachalPradesh,India,to

improvea

ppetite

durin

gjaun

dice

[131];driedandpo

wderedwho

leplantsorallytakenagainstazoosperm

iaandstr

eptospermiain

Bansoa,

WestC

ameroo

n[132];decoctionof

who

leplantapp

liedtopically

alon

gwith

coconu

toilagainstw

ound

sbytheM

alayali

tribes

ofPacham

alaiHills,TamilNadu,India[

133].

Antiulce

r,wou

ndhealing,

antitum

or,m

emoryenhancing,

neurop

rotective,

cardioprotectiv

e,hepatoprotectiv

e,antio

xidant,

immun

omod

ulatory,

radiop

rotective,antid

epressant,

antip

soria

tic,antitu

bercular,

antileprotic

,antifilaria

l,antiv

iral,

antip

rotozoal,sedative,

antispasm

odic,

anti-inflammatory[134].

10Ch

enopodium

album

L.

Who

leplantu

sedas

laxativ

etocure

constip

ationby

theinh

abitantso

fnorthernpartof

Narad

esert,Pakista

n[135];

decoctionof

leaves

andste

msc

ookedas

vegetablea

ndtakenorallyagainsttub

erculosis,jaund

ice,fevers,glottisp

ain,

flu,

phlegm

,dropsy,inflammation,

kidn

ey,and

gallbladderstones,andas

diuretic,blood

purifi

er,and

caloric

amon

glocal

commun

ities

inarid

region

sofP

akistan

[85];w

holeplantu

sedagainstjaund

iceb

yinhabitantso

fJalalpu

rJattan,

Punjab,

Pakista

n[136];who

leplantu

sedagainstanemiaandconstip

ationby

tribalsa

ndlocalinh

abitantso

fRajou

ri-Po

onch

ofJammuandKa

shmirState,India[

130];decoctio

nof

who

leplantu

sedas

diureticandforw

omen’sste

rility

intradition

almedicineo

feastA

natolia,Turkey[137];who

leplantu

sedagainstrheum

atism

/arthritisinBe

tuld

istric

t,MadhyaP

radesh,

India[

138];w

holeplantu

sedagainstjaund

icea

ndliver

diseases

inMandi

Bahaud

indistric

t,Pakistan

[139];seedsu

sedas

stim

ulant,diuretic,carminative,andantispasm

odicby

tribes

ofHam

irpur

valley,Him

achalP

radesh,Ind

ia[14

0];usedin

Bhop

aldistr

ict,India,fortreatmento

fstone

diseases

(plant

partused

notm

entio

ned)

[99];coo

kedleaves

used

inurinary

troub

les,andcolic

pain;leafextractused

inpiles,coug

hs,and

worms;ste

mused

inkidn

eysto

ne,hepaticdisorder,jaund

ice,

andas

agalactagogue;who

leplantu

sedas

laxativ

e;root

powderu

sedin

spermatorrhea

inSialkotd

istric

t,Pakistan

[141];

tend

ershoo

tsused

againstcon

stipationandcoug

hsby

ethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[60];w

hole

plantexceptroo

tfor

preventio

nof

hemorrhoids

(piles)in

Chuadang

adistric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[142].

Antipruritic,antinociceptiv

e[14

3].

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13Ta

ble3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

11Co

locasia

esculen

ta(L.)

Scho

tt.

Who

leplantalong

with

bulbof

Alliu

msativ

umandbark

ofCinn

amom

umverum

iscooked

with

turm

ericandginger

follo

wed

byseparatio

nof

theliquidpo

rtion,

which

isthen

orallytakenagainstrheum

atism

anddebilityin

Dinajp

urand

Thakurgaon

distric

ts,Ba

ngladesh

[144];tub

ersa

refriedin

mustard

oiland

takenas

vegetablea

gainstrheumaticpain

and

paralysis

inthreev

illages

ofKu

rigram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[87];leavesu

sedby

tribalso

fChitte

riHills,India,to

cure

piles

[110];leaves

used

againstjaund

iceb

ytheT

ai-K

hamyang

sofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[126];leaves

friedin

casto

roilused

forrelieving

jointp

ainby

theG

ondtribeo

fBhand

arad

istric

t,Maharashtra,Ind

ia[14

5];raw

leaves

areo

rally

takenby

theP

aliyan

and

Pulayantribes

oflowe

rPalni

Hillso

fTam

ilNadu,India,againststone

form

ationin

theu

rinarytractand

forfrequ

ent

urination[14

6];rhizomep

asteappliedin

cuts,

burns,andscorpion

sting

sbyethn

icgrou

psof

Diso

ivalleyforestarea

ofthe

Jorhatdistric

tofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[67];pasteprepared

from

tuberisu

sedtopically

againstswellin

gsandcooked

rhizom

eis

eatenforh

elmintic

infestations

bytheK

attunayakastrib

esof

Mud

umalaiWild

lifeS

anctuary,N

ilgirisd

istric

t,TamilNadu,

India[

147];w

holeplantu

sedagainstseverejaund

ice,constip

ation,

andas

adigestiv

eaid

inSh

itolP

arav

illageo

fJhalokati

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[148].

Hypoglycemic,antifu

ngal

antic

ancer,hypo

lipidem

ic,

anti-inflammatory,nervineton

ic[14

9].

12Co

rchorus

capsularisL.

Freshleafdecoctionadministered

orallyagainststomachache

inchild

renin

North

Beng

al,Ind

ia[150];leafjuiceo

rally

taken

tocure

dysenteryby

tribalso

fBargarh

distric

t,India[

69];seedsa

ndleaves

used

assto

machicb

yBh

iltribeo

fBibdo

d,MadhyaP

radesh,Ind

ia[151];seedsu

sedas

stomachicb

ythetrib

esof

Pedabayalu

Mandalam,V

isakh

apatnam

distric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia[114].

Cardiop

rotective,

antiinfl

ammatory,

antin

ociceptiv

e[152].

13Dioscorea

esculen

ta(Lou

r.)Bu

rkill

Tuberisa

ppliedas

poultic

eonsw

ellin

gsby

ethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

tofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[60].

Antioxidant

[153].

14Diplaziu

mesculen

tum

(Retz.)

Sw.

Boiledyoun

gfro

ndsa

retakenwith

boiledric

easlaxativeb

ytheA

ditribes

ofDehang-DebangBiosph

ereR

eserve

inArunachalPradesh,India[

154];roo

tsareb

oiledin

water

tillthe

volumeis1/4th

oftheo

riginalvolume;3m

Lof

the

decoctionistakenwith

2mLho

neyon

anem

ptysto

machfor15days

againstsperm

atorrhea

bytribalcommun

ities

inSimilipalB

iosphere

Reserve,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[155];decoctionof

rhizom

eiso

rally

takenagainsth

aemop

tysis

andcoug

hsby

tribalcommun

ities

ofPo

baRe

served

Forest,

Assam,Ind

ia[156];juiceo

btainedfro

mah

andful

ofleaves

isorallytakento

get

relieffrom

cold

andcoug

hsby

inhabitantso

fKolliHills,Ea

stern

Ghats,Tam

ilNadu,India[

157];m

acerated

rootsa

reused

againstskindisordersinRa

jbarid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[158];macerated

bark

ofrootso

rally

takenford

etoxificatio

nof

medicineo

verdosageb

ytheT

onchon

gyatrib

einBa

ndarbandistr

ict,Ba

ngladesh

[159];leaves

used

totre

atheadache

byindigeno

uspeop

leof

Manokwari,WestP

apua

[160].

Antioxidant,centralnervou

ssyste

mstimulant[161].

15Eh

retia

acum

inataR.

Br.Ex

tracto

fleavesm

ixed

with

water

andtakenorallyon

cedaily

for2

-3days

againstd

ysentery

byCh

oreitribes

ofsouthern

Assam,Ind

ia[162].

Non

ereported.

16En

hydraflu

ctua

nsLo

ur.

Leafandtwigextracttaken

with

equalamou

ntof

Ipom

oeaa

quaticaa

ndJussiaea

repens

administered

orallyatad

oseo

f1teaspo

onthric

edailyfor1

weekby

theC

hakm

acom

mun

ityof

TripuraS

tate,Ind

ia,ash

epatop

rotective[120];1/2

cupof

leaf

infusio

norallytakenas

remedyagainstgon

orrhea

bytribalso

fMayurbh

anjd

istric

tofN

orth

Oris

sa,Ind

ia[16

3];stem

used

againstu

lcer,gastric

,and

who

leplantagainstconstip

ationby

different

tribes

ofCa

char

distric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[164

];extract

obtained

from

boiledplantsused

asantid

iabetic

bytheM

eitei-P

angalcom

mun

ityof

Thou

bald

istric

tofM

anipur,n

ortheast

India[

165];one

teaspo

onleafjuicem

ixed

with

equalamou

ntso

fCentella

asiaticaandcucumberjuice

orallytakenagainst

hypertensio

nandexcessbilesecretionby

theT

ripuriand

Reangtribes

ofTripuraS

tate,Ind

ia[166];leaves

used

forh

eadache,

eyed

iseases,hoo

kworm

infection,

andbiledisorder

byinhabitantso

fSim

ilipalB

iosphere

Reserve,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[167];leaf

andste

mjuicetaken

orallybefore

mealsas

treatmentfor

diabetes

bytheM

arakhsectof

theG

arotribeinMym

ensin

ghdistric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[168];tend

ershoo

tsorallytakenas

alaxativeb

yethn

iccommun

ities

inTinsuk

iadistric

t,Assam

,Ind

ia[60];w

holeplantscooked

andeatenas

vegetablea

gainstedem

ainanypartof

theb

odyby

theG

arocommun

ityof

Tang

ail

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[169];plantjuice

used

againstgon

orrhea;leafjuice

appliedtopically

forp

ricklyheats,andleafjuice

orallytakenagainstsperm

atorrhea

byteag

ardentribes

ofDarrang

andUdalgurid

istric

ts,As

sam,Ind

ia[170].

Centralnervou

ssystem

depressant

activ

ity[17

1],

hepatoprotectiv

e[172],

antio

xidant

[173].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

17Ficush

ispidaL.

Exud

atefrom

rootstaken

orallyby

ethn

icgrou

psin

Diso

iValleyRe

serveF

oresto

fJorhatd

istric

t,Assam

,Ind

ia,against

diabetes,and

curryprepared

from

leafistakenin

jaun

dice

[67];fruits

used

ashepatoprotectiv

ebysomee

thnicc

ommun

ities

ofTripuraS

tate,Ind

ia[120];50

gdriedste

mbark

isbo

iledin

water

with

100g

driedste

mandroot

bark

ofFicus

beng

halensis;

thed

ecoctio

nistakenon

cead

ayfora

perio

dof

6weeks

againstd

iabetesb

ytheP

alliyar

tribalsinSirumalai

Hills,Western

Ghats,Tam

ilNadu,India[

68];fruitsandbark

used

againstleprosy,for

bloo

dpu

rificatio

n,andforincreasing

lactationby

Kani

tribalso

fAgasthiyarm

alaiBiosph

ereR

eserve,sou

thernWestern

Ghats,

India[

174];leavesa

ndseedsu

sed

byKa

virajeso

fChalnaa

rea,Khu

lnad

istric

t,againstd

iuretic

,vom

iting

,and

derm

atitis[175];fruits

orallytakenas

anxiolytic

inNatorea

ndRa

jshahid

istric

ts,Ba

ngladesh

[100];ste

mused

forc

ureo

fwou

ndsb

ytribalsinBu

ldhana

distric

t,India[

176];

paste

offruitsrubb

edby

tribalcommun

ities

totre

atheadache

inJalgaondistric

t,North

Maharashtra,Ind

ia[177];leaves

used

againstringw

orm

bythetrib

esof

Paderu

Mandalam,V

isakh

apatnam

distric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia[114].

Antineoplastic

,cardiop

rotective,

neurop

rotective,


18Glinus

oppositifoliu

s(L.)

A.D

C.

Who

leplantp


againstskindiseases

bytradition

alhealerso

fSou

thOris

sa,Ind

ia[179];used

against

gastrointestinaldisordersinAs

huganj

ofBrahmanbaria

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

(plant

partused

notm

entio

ned)

[64];w

hole

plantjuice

used

inNoakh

alid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

forimprovem

ento

fapp

etite

andas

digestivea

id;w

holeplantjuice

alon

gwith

casto

roilisappliedto

earsto

cure

eara

che;who

leplantjuice

appliedtopically

foritch,andskin

diseases

[59];leavesa

recooked

andeatenfork

eeping

theb

odyc

oolinPirojpur

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[180];extracto

rcurry

offre

shleaves

takenorally

againstskindiseases;leafextractappliedtopically

onwou

ndsb

yinhabitantso

fthree

distr

ictsof

WestB

engal,India[

181].

Antioxidant,hepatop

rotective,

immun

omod

ulatory,

antip

rotozoal[182],antio

xidant,

antih

yperglycem

ic[183].

19Ipom

oeaaquatica

Forssk.

Freshleafpaste

isappliedon

wou

ndsa

ndbo

ilsby

theY

anaditrib

eofSrih

arikotaIsla

nd,A

ndhraP

radesh,Ind

ia[184];fried

leaves

areo

rally

takenforh

eadreeling;leafjuicea

long

with

cow“ghee”(clarifi

edbu

tter)istakenforg

onorrhea;leafjuice

istakenas

bloo

dpu

rifier

andpu

rgativeinSouthOris

sa,Ind

ia[179];crud

eextractof

leaves

appliedto

wou

ndsa

ndbo

ilsby

the

Choreitribes

ofSouthern

Assam

,North

Easte

rnIndia[

162];juice

obtained

from

macerated

who

leplantiso

rally

takenas

antid

otetopo

isoning

andagainstchicken

poxin

Kurig

ram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[87];w

holeplantu

sedin

digestivep

roblem

sandliver

diseases

byruralp

eopleo

f“Ch

atara”blockof

Sonebh

adra

distric

t,Utta

rPradesh,Ind

ia[18

5];leavesa

reorally

takenforleucorrheaa

ndto

increase

lactationin

nursingmothersin

Shito

lParav

illage,Jhalokatid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[148];

used

againstgastro


ilo,P

hilip

pines(plantp

artu

sedno

tmentio

ned)

[103];leafjuice

used

injaun

dice,urin

arytro

uble,

andnervou

shindrance

bytheN

athpeop

leof

Assam,Ind

ia[76];tendersho

otsu

sedin

diabetes

andas

galactagogue

byethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[60].

Antidiabetic

,antioxidant,

antic

ancer,anti-inflammatory,

antia

rthritic,antim

icrobial,

antiu

lcer,noo

tropic,

antie

pileptic,centralnervou

ssyste

mdepressant,anx

iolytic

,hypo

lipidem

ic,diuretic

,analgesic

,antisc

orpion

veno

m[186].

20Ipom

oeabatatas

(L.)Lam.

Leaves

areo

rally

takenas

bloo

dtonica

ndleaves

arem

ixed

with

saltto

treatwhitlo

win

Nigeria[187];leaves

aretop

ically

appliedagainstb

oilsby

theB

ench

ethn

icgrou

pof

Ethiop

ia[188];tubersused

bytribalsinCh

itteriH

ills,India,to

treat

diabetes

[110];leaves

used

fortreatingging

ivitisa

ndtoothacheinanim

alsinSh

itolP

arav

illage,Jhalokatid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[148];roo

tsused

asaphrod

isiac

bytribes

ofLalganjblock

ofMirz

apur

distric

t,Utta

rPradesh,Ind

ia[88];usedas

digestive(tend

erleaves

eatenbo

iled)

bytheK

arbitribeo

fAng

long

distric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[189];bo

iledtuberswith

skin

onareo

rally

takenfork

idneyprob

lemsinOyo

State,Nigeria[19

0];leaveso

rally

takenagainstd

iabetesinYo

ruba

medicineo

fsouthwestern

Nigeria[19

1].

Antioxidant,antidiabetic,w

ound

healing,antiu

lcer,antibacteria

l,antim

utagenic[19

2].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

21Leucas

aspera

(Willd.)L

ink

Leaves

used

againstgastritisinSialkotd

istric

t,Pakistan

[66];pasteof

plantu

sedagainstp

ainandinflammation;

decoction

ofplanto

rally

takenwith

1-2seedso

fSyzygium

arom

aticu

mforc

hron

icph

legm

aticfeverinno

rthern

partof

NaraD

esert,

Pakista

n[135];leafandtwigjuicetaken

orallyby

theC

hakm

atrib

eofT

ripuraS

tate,Ind

ia,againstchild

hood

jaun

dice

and

liver

cirrho

sis[120];plantextracttakenorallywith

plantextractof

Phyllanthus

amarus

andbo

iledleaves

ofEclipta

prostra

taandbu

tterm

ilktwicea

dayfora

perio

dof

onew

eekagainstjaund

iceb

ytheP

alliyar

tribes

ofIndia[

68];leaves

used

against

gastritisin

Jalalpur

Jatta

n,Gujratd

istric

t,Pakistan

[136];leaves

boiledin

water

andthev

apor

inhaledto

cure

headache

and

feverb

ytradition

alhealerso

fKancheepu

ram

distric

t,TamilNadu,India[

193];leafjuice

mixed

with

common

salttaken

orallyby

Kani

tribalsinIndiatocure

indigestionin

child

ren[127];who

leplantare

boiledin

mustard

oiland

topically

appliedfortreatmento

fseverep

ainin

Farid

pura

ndRa

jbarid

istric

ts,Ba

ngladesh

[194];leaves

andflo

wersu

sedfor

treatmento

fcolicin

Greater

Khu

lnaD

ivision

,Bangladesh[195],macerated

root

isorallytakenwith

tables

altfor

excessive

menstr

ualbleedingby

theT

ongcho

ngya

tribalcommun

ityof

RoangchaariinBa

ndarbandistr

ict,Ba

ngladesh

[196];leaves

arer

ubbedover

scorpion

bitte

narea

inNagapattin

amdistric

t,TamilNadu,India[

197];leafjuice

mixed

with

water

isorally

takenagainstscabies;roo

tjuice

mixed

with

goat’smilk

istakenthreetim

esad

ayforfou

rdaystocure

poiso

nous

bitesb

yvillagersin

Kumaragiri

Hills,Salem

distric

t,TamilNadu,India[

198].

Antifu

ngal,anti-infl

ammatory,

analgesic

,antioxidant

[199].

22Malva

verticillata

L.

Rootsu

sedby

localinh

abitantsa

gainsturinarycomplaintsinKe

darnathWild

lifeS

anctuary

inWestern

Him

alaya,India

[200];driedandpo

wderedrootsu

sedagainstd

andruff

,febrileilln

ess,andheadache

bylocalinh

abitantsB

aleM

ountains

NationalP

ark,Southeastern

Ethiop

ia[201];root

decoctionisorallytakenagainstu

rinarytractinfectio

nby

theB

hotia

tribal

commun

ityof

inIndian

CentralHim

alayar

egion[202];leaves

aree

aten

asvegetablea

gainststo

machailm

entsby

ethn

iccommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[60].

Antidiabetic

[203].

23Marsilea

minuta

L.

Leafjuicetaken

with

curd

forinsom

niaa

ndleaves

friedin

“ghee”(clarifi

edbu

tter)takenorallyfore

pilepsyby

ruralp

eople

ofJajpur

distric

t,Odisha,India[

73];driedandpo

wderedleaves

takenwith

hotw

ater

incase

ofdiabetes

bytheV

alayian

tribalpeop

leof

AlagarkoilH

illso

fMaduraidistr

ict,TamilNadu,India[

204];w

holeplantu

sedby

tribalsa

gainstbo

dyache

inJharkand

,Ind

ia[205];who

leplantu

sedin

coug

hs,spasticcond

ition

sofleg

muscle

s,insomnia,andas

sedativ

ebylocal

andtribalpeop

leof

KumaunHim

alaya,Utta

rakh

and,India[

206];decoctio

nof

leaves

takenwith

ginger

tocure

coug

hand

bron

chitisb

yvillage

peop

leof

Rajasth

an,Ind

ia[207];who

leplantsused

incoug

handspastic

cond

ition

oflegmuscle

;who

leplantp

astetakenwith

curd

prepared

from

blackcow’smilk

fore

pilepsyandleafjuiced

ropp

edin

nostrilso

fnosefor

cure

ofmigraineb

ytribalso

fSim

ilipalB

iosphere

Reserve,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[155];leaves

used

againstd

iabetesb

yIrulatrib

eofK

alavai

village,V

ellore

distric

t,TamilNadu,India[

74];who

leplantjuice

takenorallyagainstgastro

intestinald

isordersb

ya

Chris

tiancommun

ityresid

ingin

Mirz

apur

village

ofDinajp

urdistric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[208];fre

shleaves

andpetio

lejuiceu

sed

againstm

igraineb

ytribalso

fHadotip

lateau,sou

theaste

rnRa

jasthan,

India[

209].

Hepatop

rotective[210],antistress

[211],antitussiv

e,expectorant

[212],antid

iabetic

[213],

antia

ggressive[214],antitu

mor

[215].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

24Moringa

oleifera

Lam.

Leaves

takenorallyto

redu

cebo

dyheat;flow

ersa

dvise

dto

betakenas

food

toincrease

sperm

prod

uctio

nin

men

andto

treatindigestionandeyed

iseases

bytradition

alhealersinKa

ncheepuram

distric

tofT

amilNadu,India[

193];decoctio

nof

leaves,barks,seeds,and

rootsu

sedfortreatmento

fskindiseases,headache,rheumatism

,and

inflammationandas

adetoxifyingagentb

yvillagersarou

ndKimbo

zaforestreserveinMorogoro,Tanzania[216];seed

powdertaken

with

aglassof

lukewarm

water

againstind

igestio

nandflatulenceinNorth

Beng

al,Ind

ia[150];fre

shleafjuiceo

rally

takenagainst

menstr

ualp

ainin

ruralareas

ofKe

rala,Ind

ia[217];bark

used

forfever

andfits;leaves

used

againstcon

stipatio

n;flo

wers

used

againstcou

ghsa

ndmales

terility

andfruitsused

againstinfertility

inmen

andwom

enin

TamilNadu,India[

101];fresh

juiceo

froo

tbarkused

againstd

entalcariesinCoastalDakshinaK

annada,Ind

ia[218];leaf,flow

er,and

bark

used

against

stomachpain

andto

increase

fertilityby

Kani

tribalso

fPechiparaiH

ills,TamilNadu,India[

127];decoctio

nof

bark

alon

gwith

barkso

fAlstoniascholaris,M

angifer

aindica

andAe

glemarmelo

susedfortreatmento

fjaund

iceb

yfolkmedicinal

practitionersin

Bang

ladesh

[219];seedsu

sedfortreatmento

fepilepsyby

folkmedicinalpractitionersof

Brahmanbaria

,Narsin

ghdi,and

Rajsh

ahid

istric

tsof

Bang

ladesh

[220];bark

decoctiontakenorallyagainstp

uerperalfever,pain,jaund

ice,

anddebilityinvillageso

fSylhetd

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[221];ste

msa

retakenorallyagainstrheum

atism

;flow

ersa

recooked

like

vegetablea

ndeatenas

treatmentfor

chickenpo

xby

theP

ahan

tribeo

fNatored

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[222];leafjuicetaken

orallyagainstd

iabetesb

ytheG

arotribalcommun

ityof

Netrakona

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[63].

Anti-infl

ammatory,antio

xidant,

antim

icrobial,

antih

yperlip

idem

ic,antifertility,

antic

ancer,hepatoprotectiv

e,antiu

lcer,centralnervou

ssystem

depressant

[223].

25Musaparadisia

caL.

Root

tinctureisu

sedagainstw

eakerectio

n;ste

mjuicetaken

orallyforlow

sperm

coun

t,andtworoastedun

ripefruits

taken

orallydaily

asan

aphrod

isiac

bytheIFA

Nkaripeop

leof

Akw

aIbo

mState,Nigeria[224];juicee

xtractof

leafsheath

used

againstsnake

veno

mby

theK

anitrib

esof

Agasthiyarm

alaiBiosph

erer

eserve,Ind

ia[17

4];fruits

takenorallywith

leafand

stem

juiceo

fBasellarubraandsugartopreventexcessiv

ebleedingfollo

wingchild

birthin

Kurig

ram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[87];fruits

used

fortreatingdiarrhea

anddysenteryby

theZ

outribeo

fChu

rachandp

urdistric

t,Manipur,Ind

ia[225];rip

efruittaken

orallywith

“lightningbu

gs”toenhancefem

alefertility

inDhemajid

istric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[226].

Antidiarrheal,antiulcer,

antim

icrobial,antihypertensive,

hypo

glycem

ic,

hypo

cholesterolemic,

antio

xidant,antiallergic,

antisnake

veno

m[227].

26Musasapientum

L.

Root

tincturetaken

orallyagainstw

eakerectio

nandas

anaphrod

isiac

bytheIFA

Nkaripeop

leof

Nigeria[224];leaves

steeped

inho

twater

andtakenorallythric

edailyforo

neweekby

theK

anuritrib

eofn

ortheaste

rnNigeriato

treatanem

ia,

yello

wfever,andmalaria[228];fruitsused

inTh

ailand

asalaxative[

229];stem

andleaves

used

form

emoryenhancem

ent

andantia

ging

inSagamu,Nigeria[230];inflo

rescence

used

againstb

addreaming,bedwettin

gby

child

ren,

insanityand

unusualbehavior,andheadache

bytheT

ai-K

hamyang

sofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[126];leafandste

mjuicetaken

orallyagainstfever

byvillagersof

Vasu

Viharv

illage,Bo

grad

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[61];leafjuice

appliedto

earsfore

arache

duetocold,and

root

juicetaken

orallyforh

elminthiasis

inDhamrai,Ba

ngladesh

[231];exud

ates

ofrotte

nroot

appliedto

wou

ndsb

ytheIgede

peop

leof

Nigeria[232];fruitswith

blackpepp

eraretaken

orallyforrespiratory

prob

lemsa

ndflo

wersa

reused

indiabetes

andgenitald

isorders,whileplantisu

seddysentery,high

bloo

dpressure,and

rheumaticpain

inSonebh

adra

distric

t,Utta

rPradesh,India[

185].

Antidiarrheal,antiulcer,

antim

icrobial,hypoglycemic,

hypo

cholesterolemic,

antio

xidant,diuretic

,wou

ndhealing,antia

llergic[227].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

27Ne

lumbo

nucifera

Gaertn.

Rhizom

eextractused

againstd

ysentery

inBu

ldhana

distric

t,Maharashtra,Ind

ia[233];paste

ofyoun

gleaves

alon

gwith

fruitsof

Phyllanthus

emblica

appliedon

forehead

togetrelieffro

mheadache;flow

erpetald

ecoctio

nisorallytakenagainst

diarrhea;you

ngflo

wer

paste

isused

asac

ardioton

icandforfever

andliver

ailm

ents;

driedseed

powdertaken

with

cowmilk

againsth

eadache;youn

gseed

paste

appliedtopically

forskindiseases;pow

deredroot

takenforringw

orms;root

paste

taken

inlemon

juicefor

pilesinSouthOris

sa,Ind

ia[179];driedflo

wer

powdertaken

with

ghee

orallyfortreatmento

fpilesb

ythe

Mulluku

rumatrib

eofW

ayanad

distric

t,Ke

rala,Ind

ia[10

9];flow

erjuiceu

sedby

tribalsinCh

itteriH

ills,India,to

treat

diabetes

[110];rhizom

esused

bytribalso

fPedabayaluMandalam,A

ndhraP

radesh,Ind

ia,totre

atdysentery[114];tuberis

eatenrawas

treatmentfor

gastrointestinalprob

lemsb

yvillagersof

GingeeH

ills,Villu

puram

distric

t,TamilNadu,India

[234];who

leplantu

sedin

hearttroub

le,urinarydiseases,bleedingpiles,andas

nerveton

ic;seeds

used

durin

gpregnancy

andalso

used

asdiuretic,sedative,andexpectorant(plantp

artu

sedno

tmentio

ned)

inSonebh

adra

distric

t,India[

185];seed

powderistaken

with

honeyfor4

0days

byGon

dtribeo

fAdilabaddistric

t,And

hraP

radesh,Ind

ia,for

infertility[115];

decoctionof

red-flo

wered

planto

rally

takenon

anem

ptysto

machon

cead

ayby

tribalso

fSim

ilipalB

iosphere

Reserve,

Oris

sa,Ind

ia,for

treatmento

fblood

dysentery[118].

Anti-ischemic,antioxidant,

hepatoprotectiv

e,anti-inflammatory,antifertility,

antia

rrhythmic,antifibrosis,

antiv

iral,antip

roliferative,

immun

omod

ulatory(seeds),

antid

iarrheal,hypoglycemic,

sedativ

e,diuretic,

anti-inflammatory,antio

xidant,

antip

yretic,immun

omod

ulatory

(rhizome),hypoglycemic,

antio

xidant,aldoser

eductase

inhibitory,antibacteria

l,aphrod

isiac,antipyretic,

antip

latelet(flo

wer),

cardioprotectiv

e,antiv

iral,

antio

xidant,lipolytic,

hypo

cholesterolemic,antiobesity,

hepatoprotectiv

e,antic

ancer

(leaves)[235].

28Ny

mphaea

pubescensW

illd.

Rhizom

eextracttakenwith

sugarc

andy

takenorallytwicea

dayfor3

days

againstleucorrheab

ytribes

ofKinw

atforest,

Nandeddistric

t,Maharashtra,Ind

ia[236];paste

ofrhizom

esandseedso

fPipernigrum

appliedexternallyon

neck

against

goiterb

ytribalso

fBou

dhdistric

t,Odisha,India[

237];decoctio

nof

rhizom

eofred-flow

ered

plantu

sedagainstb

lood

dysentery;rhizom

ejuice

takenforleucorrhea;po

wderedrhizom

ewith

honeytakenforp

iles,dysentery,anddyspepsia

;roo

tjuicetaken

tokeep

stomachcoolandgetrelieffrom

burningsensations

durin

gurination;

root

paste

ofred-flo

wered

plant

takenform

enorrhagia;roo

tpastealon

gwith

flowerso

fHibisc

usrosa-sinensis,barkof

Ficusreligiosa,andseedso

fSesam

umindicum

takenfora

bortion[179];root

istie

don

wasteof

pregnant

wom

anto

preventabo

rtionby

theTh

arutribeo

fDevipatan

divisio

n,India[

238];roo

tsused

againstd

ysentery

bytribes

ofPedabayalu

Mandalam,V

isakh

apatnam

distric

t,India[

114].

Hepatop

rotective[239],

antic

ancer[240].

29Oxalis

cornicu

lata

L.

Leaves

used

againstd

iarrheaa

nddysenteryin

Gujratd

istric

t,Pakistan

[136];plantp

astefilteredandused

aseyed

ropagainst

eyed

iseases

byethn

icgrou

psof

Diso

iValleyRe

serveF

orest,India[

67];leaves

used

againstd

ysentery

bytribes

ofMirz

apur

distric

t,India[

88];leafjuicew

ithcurd

isorallytakenagainstd

iarrheaa

nddysenteryby

theM

ulluku

rumatrib

eofW

ayanad

distric

t,India[

109];usedagainststomachcomplaints,piles,colic,and

dysenteryin

Manipur,Ind

ia(plant

partused

not

mentio

ned)

[106];extracto

faerialvegetativep

ortio

ntakenwith

sugara

gainstabdo

minalpain

anddiarrhea

bytheT

aiAho

mtribeo

fDibrugarh

distr

ict,As

sam,Ind

ia[241];who

leplantu

sedagainsto

ralailm

entsin

Dharw

addistric

t,Ka

rnataka,India

[242];leafpaste

isappliedover

forehead

totre

atheadache;leavesa

reconsum

edas

saladforind

igestio

nandlossof

appetite

bytheK

hamtitribeo

fArunachalPradesh,India[

57];ste

m,bark,androot

used

againstd

yspepsia,piles,anem

ia,and

tympanitis

bytribalso

fKaptip

adaF

orestR

ange,Ind

ia[71];w

holeplantjuice

isorallytakenagainstd

ogbiteandsnakeb

iteby

theK

hatriyaa

ndKa

shya

clanso

fthe

Bagdip

eopleo

fRajbaridistr

ict,Ba

ngladesh

[243].

Antiin

flammatory,anxiolytic,

antic

onvulsa

nt,antifu

ngal,

antiu

lcer,

antin

ociceptiv

e,anticancer,

antid

iabetic

,hepatop

rotective,

hypo

lipidem

ic,

abortifacient,antim

icrobial,

wou

ndhealing,antid

iarrheal,

antia

mebic,antiepileptic[244

].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

30Ra

phanus

sativ

usL.

Rootsu

sedagainstjaund

iceinBa

ngladesh

[245];used

againstw

hoop

ingcoug

hin

Tunisia

andIta

ly(plant

partused

not

mentio

ned)

[246

];leaves

androotso

rally

takenagainstacidityin

Firozabaddistric

t,India[

247];usedagainstsyphilis

inSamahni

Valley,AzadKa

shmir,

Pakistan

[248];used

againstcou

ghsinJalgaondistric

t,India[

249];roo

tsused

against

urinarytro

ubleby

tribes

ofPedabayalu

Mandalam,V

isakh

apatnam

distric

t,India[

114];rootsa

reconsum

edto

regu

lariz

edigestivec

omplaintsinBu

ldhana

distric

t,India[

233];fresh

leafjuiceiso

rally

takenwith

sugarc

andy

andbu

tterm

ilkto

cure

pilesinDharm

abad

Taluka

ofNandeddistr

ict,India[

250];fresh

rootso

rleavesa

reeatenrawagainstu

rinarycomplaints

andas

adiuretic

bytribes

ofNortheastGujarat,Ind

ia[251];seedsa

retakenorallyagainstsexuald

ebilityby

nativ

esof

Bargarhdistric

t,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[252].

Antihypertensive,antio

besity,

antid

iabetic

,con

stipation,

coug

h[253].

31Saccharum

spontaneum

L.

Who

leplantu

sedforimprovem

ento

fapp

etite

andtre

atmento

fabd

ominalpain

inGujratd

istric

t,Pu

njab,Pakistan

[136];

pulpof

crushedleaves

used

againstp

usform

ationin

anypartof

theb

odyin

Jaun

sar-bawar,D

ehradu

ndistr

ict,India[

254];

crushedrootsa

rebo

iledin

water

andorallytakenagainstasthm

ainMirz

apur

village

ofDinajp

urdistric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[208];

paste

prepared

from

rootso

fthe

plantand

rootso

fCynodon

dactylon

takenwith

cowmilk

andsugare

arlyin

them

orning

for1

mon

thagainstleucorrheainMeerutd

istric

t,Utta

rPradesh,Ind

ia[255];used

againstgastro


ilo,

Philipp

ines

(plant

partused

notg

iven)[103].

Antiurolithiasis[256],

antio

xidant

[257].

32Scopariadu

lcisL

.

Stem

infusio

nisused

bythee

thnicc

ommun

ities

ofTinsuk

iadistric

t,As

sam,Ind

iaagainstgastritis[60];decoctionof

leaves

takencontinuo

uslyfora

weekfortreatmento

fsorethroatb

yKo

ltrib

also

fSim

ilipalB

ioreserve,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[118];leaves

andtwigstaken

orallyas

ahepatop

rotectivea

gent

(i.e.,

againstjaund

ice)by

theD

arlong

tribeo

fTrip

uraS

tate,Ind

ia[120];

crushedroot

extracto

rally

takenforstomachpain,urin

arydisorders,andkidn

eysto

neby

theK

urichyatrib

eofK

erala,

India[

124];leaves,flo

wers,andfruitsareg

roun

dinto

apasteandused

againstw

ound

sand

tocontrolbleedingby

theK

ani

tribalso

fTam

ilNadu,India[

127];usedagainstd

iarrheainTrinidad

andTo

bago

(plant

partused

notm

entio

ned)

[258];

decoctionof

leaves

ofthep

lant

alon

gwith

leaves

ofEclipta

alba

andCy

nodondactylon

used

againstd

iabetesb

ytheS

antal

tribeo

fThakurgaon

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh

[259];who

leplantextractisorallytakenagainstu

rinarydiseases

bytheK

urichar

tribeo

fWayanad

distric

t,Southern

Western

Ghats,

Kerala,Ind

ia[260];who

leplantu

sedagainstcou

gh,bronchitis,and

kidn

eytro

ubleby

peop

leof

Golaghatd

istric

t,As

sam,Ind

ia[261];leafjuiceo

rally

administered

bytheP

ankh

otribal

commun

ityin

Rang

amatid

istric

t,Ba

ngladesh,againstspermatorrhea

[262];leafjuiceu

sedby

folkmedicinalpractitionersin

Kurig

ram

distric

t,Ba

ngladesh,against“m

eho”

(diabetes)[87];plant

decoctionused

bytheD

arlong

tribeo

fTrip

uraS

tate,

India,againstjaund

ice[120];pasteof

tend

ershoo

tsalon

gwith

Paederiascandens

inther

atio

of2:

1taken

3tim

esperd

ayfor

2days

durin

gmenstruationagainstfem

aleinfertility

inDhemajid

istric

tofA

ssam

,Ind

ia[226];macerated

leaves

taken

orallyagainstfever

bytheIgede

peop

leof

Nigeria[232];50

gwho

leplanttogetherw

ith50

gwho

leplanto

fPhyllanthu

sam

arus

and50

gSida

acuta(w

holeplant)arem

adeintoap

asteandmixed

with

250m

Ldrinking

water

andtakenorally

twicea

dayfor1-2

days

totre

atsnakeb

iteby

tribes

ofSouthSurguja,Ch

hattisgarh,India[

263];leafgroun

dinto

apasteand

used

forw

ound

healingby

tribalpeop

lein

Southern

India[

264];leafextractisorallyadministered

byMeche

peop

leof

Jhapa

distr

ict,easte

rnNepal,againstcontinuo

usweeping

bybaby

[265].

Antidiabetic

,analgesic,

anti-inflammatory,antiv

iral,

antim

alarial,neurotropic,

antic

ancer,hypertensiv

e,sedativ

e,diuretic[266].

33Sesbania

grandiflora

(L.)

Pers.

Bark

used

inVisakh

apatnam

distric

t,India,by

tribalpeop

leagainstd

iarrhea[

114];leaves

used

againstskinliceb

yrural

peop

leof

Mayurbh

anjd

istric

t,Oris

sa,Ind

ia[163];leaves

prepared

intheform

ofsoup

andtakenorallyby

theV

alaiyantribe

ofAlagarkoilH

ills,Maduraidistric

t,TamilNadu,India,as

verm

ifuge

andagainstp

eptic

ulcer[204];50m

Lof

leafdecoction

takenorallyon

anem

ptysto

machas

verm

ifuge

andagainststomachailm

entsby

tribalandruralp

eopleo

fSiru

malaiHills,

Dindiguld

istric

t,TamilNadu,India[

267];leaf,youn

gfruitand

bark

used

againsth

eadachea

ndfeverb

ytheM

alayaraya

tribeo

fVannapu

ram

village

inIduk

ki,K

erala,India[

268];coo

kedflo

werstaken

orallyagainstd

izzinessin

Mysorea

ndCoo

rgdistric

ts,Ka

rnataka,India[

269];leafd

ecoctio

ntakenorallyforb

odycoolingby

Kani

tribalso

fTiru

nelveli

hills,

Western

Ghats,

India[

270];coo

kedleaves

areo

rally

takento

give

coolingeffecttoinfected

eyes

bytheIrulaandtheS

oliga

tribeo

fSathyam

angalam

forests

ofErod

edistric

t,TamilNadu,India[

271].

Wou

ndhealing,antim

icrobial,

hypo

lipidem

ic,antiulcer,

anti-inflammatory,antia

rthritic,

antio

xidant,antihelm

intic

,antid

iarrheal,analgesic,diuretic

,centraln

ervous

syste

mdepressant,laxative[272].


Table3:Con

tinued.

Seria

lnu

mber

Species

Repo

rted

ethn

omedicinaluses

Repo

rted

pharmacological

activ

ities

34Spilanthes

paniculata

Wall.

exDC.

Usedagainsttoo

thache

byTripuratrib

almedicinalpractitionersin

TripuraS

tate,Ind

ia[82];leafjuice

isorallytaken(1

teaspo

onthric

edailyfor3

-4days)a

gainstjaun

dice

andcirrho

sisby

theH

alam

tribeo

fTrip

uraS

tate,Ind

ia[120];flo

wer

headsa

rechew

edagainsttoo

thache

inCoastalDakshinaK

annada,Ind

ia[218];flo

wersa

ndfruitsared

irectlychew

edby

the

Aditrib

esof

Lower

Dibangdistric

tofA

runachalPradesh,India,fortoo

thache

[273];leaves

areu

sedagainstd

iarrhea,

dysentery,andhigh

bloo

dpressure

bytheN

agaa

ndKu

kitribes

ofSenapatidistric

t,Manipur

State,India[

274];leavesa

reorallytakenby

theA

patani

tribeo

fArunachalPradesh,India,againstcon

stipatio

n[275].

Antifu

ngal,antipyretic,local

anaesthetic

,bioinsecticide,

antic

onvulsa

nt,

antio

xidant,aph

rodisia

c,analgesic

,pancreatic

lipase

inhibitor,antim

icrobial,

antin

ociceptiv

e,diuretic,

vasorelaxant,anti-h

uman

immun

odeficiency

virus,

toothacher

elieve,



any particular care [1], they can potentially be sources of bothfuture foods and medicine.

4. Conclusion

Famine food plants have generally beenmentioned as uncon-ventional dietary items and consist of wild edible plants. Itwas our hypothesis that such plants also serve therapeuticpurposes and can be considered ethnomedicinal plants.Through local surveys among famine-affected population oftwo districts of Bangladesh on the unconventional plantsthey consume during famine periods, along with local andother reported ethnomedicinal uses on these plants, we havevalidated our hypothesis.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ Contribution

FardousMohammad Safiul Azam, Anup Biswas, AbdulMan-nan,NusratAnikAfsana, andRownak Jahan participated andcompleted the survey and searched relevant ethnomedicinalliterature under the supervision of Mohammed Rahmatullahand submitted an initial report of the survey. MohammedRahmatullah analyzed the data and wrote the paper. Allauthors edited the paper and read and approved the finalpaper.

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