What it research?

According to Mugenda Mugenda, to research is to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomena. It can also be defined as a process of arriving at effective solution to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

It is also the systematic investigation into and study of material and resources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions

A detailed study of a subject especially in order to discover new information or reach a new understanding.

Research is the science of seeking, organizing, analyzing and interpreting data.

Kerlinger (1993) defined scientific research as systematic control, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

According to bless and Achola (1988) a “scientific research ,is a systematic investigation of a question, a phenomenon, and or a problem following some principle”

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Empirical-each step is based on observation, experience and perceptions

Systematic and logical- observations are done systematically

Replicable-anyone carrying the study in the same field will get the same results.

Steps involved when carrying out a scientific research

1. Identification of the problem

2. Making a clear statement of the problem

3. Stating an hypothesis

4. Designing the study

5. Reviewing the related literature

6. Collecting data

7. Organizing the data collected

8. Analyzing the data

9. Interpreting the data in report writing

10. Drawing conclusions

11. Giving recommendations

1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEMA problem is a question of concern that can be answered through the collection of data

Sources of problemsa)personal experiences

Everybody has in one way or has been exposed to some interesting or challenging situations in the school or outside school. This would be poor performance, post election violence etc

b) Deduction from theories

These are theories or general principles whose applicability are not known till tested. Such theories can be found in politics, personality, learning, economics and others. One may be interested in proving the worthiness of such a theory in your situation

c) Literature review

Experiments can be repeated at different times and in different situations still yield similar results. Repeating helps to increase generalisability and confidence in the findings

d) Practical issues

Society is always faced with many burning issues, which are not easily explainable e.g. cost sharing, universal and free primary education, sex equality and women’s status you may investigate in one of the views

e) Deductive reasoning

This is a conclusion that is made from particular to general e.g creating a general rule by seeing similarities among specific situations, such are called syllogism e.g tom is god in math, tom is a boy therefore boys are good in math’s.

F. inductive reasoning

This is the conclusion from general to specific. it points new relationships as one proceeds from general to specific e.g boys are independent, therefore tom is independent

g. other sources

Direct observation of the needs of educational programme Knowledge and experience of educational personel e.g teachers, curriculum

specialists Related literature-dissertation abstracts journal, educational index Research report or topic Mass media

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

It should be researchable or verifiable i.e can be investigated through collection and analysis of data

It must have a theoretical or practical significance- must contribute to improvement of knowledge

Clarity- it should be stated in clear and concise terms Ethical-it should involve psychological damage to the people being investigated It has a basis in the research literature It relates to an academic discipline It should have potential significance-that is important to you and others as well It should be feasible i.e in terms of cost (time and money). You can be able to

carry it within the stipulated time and affordable -should also be manageable There should be availability of data to address it

It must be one that you can adequately investigate given your research skills available time and other resources.

STEPS INVOLVED IN CLEARLY IDENTIFYING A RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM Establishing the clinical relevance of the problem Identify the gaps in the literature and naming important variables Identifying the purpose of the study Writing a research question

HOW TO IDENTIFY A PROBLEM

As you identify a problem, there are few questions to ask yourself:

What was the issue /problem you want to study

What is the concern being addressed “behind” this study?

Why do you want to undertake this study?

Why is this study important to the scholarly community?

2. Statement of the problem

A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles the researcher.

Steps in writing an effective statement of the problem

a) Reflection-the researcher should write down research ideas/puzzles he or she has been debating based on the selected topic. Reflection involves assessing the selected research topic and title and thinking the best way to reflect the riddle in the topic/title.

Reflect on key issues in the topic and the independent and dependent variable of the study.

b) Identification-the researcher should try to identify key uncertaininties.the researcher should try and answer the following; is there something wrong or disturbing the society, theoretically unclear or in dispute related to the topic/title selected? Why is this problem?

c) Formulation- the researcher should formulate it by clearly why it is a problem and how it affects the society and how and why she knows about the problem.

d) Justification-the researcher should explain the repercussions likely to follow in the long run if the problem is not addressed.

CHALLENGES FACED IN ARTICULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Lack of clarity-the issue being addressed is hardly noticeable in the research problem.

Lack of unity between the research problem, objectives and literature review. There should be a relationship between the research problem, objectives and the literature review. The research should have an influence on the whole topic being investigated.

Lack of urgency-some research problems should do not reflect the urgency of the study, it lacks any supportive evidence that if not tackled , the repercussions would be serious for the country in general and individuals in particular.

Emotional language-some statements lack objectivity and reflect the researchers emotional views over the selected topic.

3. HYPOTHESIS

An hypothesis is agues or an assumption

It is also a tentative explanation for certain behavior patterns, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur(gay 1996)

In research it is, a hypothesis is a statement that describes an unknown but tentatively reasonable outcome for the existing phenomena.

It is also a tentative answer to what the researcher considered as ought to be the possible outcome of an existing problem or phenomena

Orodho and kombo, (2004) defines hypothesis as educated guess about possible differences, relationship or causes of research problems.

An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be.   It is an informed/educated guess.

It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables.  It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.

Mouton's (1990: Chapter 6) and Guy's (1987: 116) presentation of the hypothesis:

Mouton: Statement postulating a possible relationship between two or more phenomena or variables.

Guy: A statement describing a phenomenon or which specifies a relationship between two or more phenomena

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual hypothesis

Research hypothesis

Statistical hypothesis

a) CONCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS

This is a statement about the relationship between theoretical concepts. These are mainly ideas that can never be directly tested because they cannot be measured

They must be operationalised or made before they are tested discipline facilitates academic achievement or negative retarded development.

B) STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS

It states an expected relationship between the numbers representing statistical properties of data for example mean, variance and correlation

It consists of null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis for example the mean difference scores in sociology by students in the institute of open learning and those in the department of sociology at Kenyatta university is zero

C) RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

This is the statement about the expected relationship between observable and measurable events.

WAYS OF STATING HYPOTHESIS

a) Null hypothesis

b) Alternative hypothesis

Null- it states that there is no difference between variables studied, confirmation of these hypothesis is based on reflecting the null. For example there is no significant difference between an individual success in life and his/her academic qualification.

NOTE

An important requirement for hypotheses is testability. A condition for testability is clear and unambiguous concepts.

A research hypothesis (in empirical research) has to do with relationships between empirical phenomena.  the concepts in a research hypothesis must possess single references (indicators) or denotations to identifiable phenomena in reality.

A central theoretical thesis refers to hypotheses in more theoretical studies.

Alternative hypothesis-it states that there is a value or relationship between the two variables

Directional hypothesis-it states that the relationship between the variable being studied or difference between experimental treatments that a researcher expects to emerge. For example there is a positive and significant relationship between teacher qualification and student performance in mathematics.

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

They facilitate extension of knowledge in an area- they provide tentative explanations of face and phenomena and can be tested and validated.

It provides a researcher with rational statements consisting of elements expressed in a logical order or relationship s which seek to describe or to explain conditions or events that have not yet been confirmed. It enables the researcher to relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions.

They provide direction for research-they represent objectives and thus help the researcher to determine the type of data needed to test the preposition

They provide the basis for reporting the conclusions of the study –on the basis of these conclusions , a researcher can make the research report interesting and meaningfull to the reader

-It enables the researcher to collect data that either supports or rejects it.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE HYPOTHESIS

It states clearly and concisely as possible the expected relationship ( difference) between two or more variables

It defines the selected variables in operational and measurable terms

Its testable and verifiable- it is possible to support or not support the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data

The wordings are clear and precise

It gives logical arguments to justify the hypothesis

THE PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF A HYPOTHESIS

It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested.

It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.

It gives direction to an investigation.

It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.

  

CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS

It should have elucidating power.

It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.

It must be verifiable.

It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms. It should correspond with existing knowledge.

GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

Reflect on issues of concern

Analyze the research problem, title, objectives and literature review-these identifies key variables that the researcher can use as base to define the relationships.

Generate operational definitions for all the variables

State the research hypothesis-it should clearly state the relationship that the researcher thinks exists between the independent variable

Formulate- then write down the relationship between the variable s ensuring that they are measurable and if accomplished will answer the research question

Evaluate- evaluate to find out if it addresses all sections of the research problem

CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

Lack of clarity-in some studies, the hypothesis does not clearly state the relationship between two or more variables

At times, variables stated in the hypothesis are too many and cannot be achieved within the time frame stated

Some of the formulated hypothesis are not testable or verifiable

Some hypothesis does not address all aspects of the research problems.

4. DESGNING THE STUDY

5. REVIEWING OF RELATED LITERATURE

Literature review shows what others have done about the study

Literature review is reading and incorporating previous studies that are related to your work.

SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

This is how wide or narrow should the literature review be i.e when should one stop reviewing

What kind of literature is related to my topic

GUIDELINES TOWARDS IN DETERMINING SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

If ones topic has been studied for a longer period of time, there is in-depth study of the topic, therefore cover to a large length.

In newly researched areas ,review any relevant material

Avoid the temptation including all available resources

Another indicator is constantly re-encountering material already reviewed.

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

It enables a researcher to determine what has been done that is related

To the present study

It enables a researcher to avoid unnecessary repetition of what has already been done.

It helps the researcher to redefine his/her research problem

It helps the researcher to select adequate samples

It also helps the researcher to select the appropriate study method

REASONS FOR REVIEWING LITERATURE

To determine what has been done to avoid duplication

Providing justification of your study because it helps to indicate what needs to be done.

Providing the researcher with understanding and further insight for the development of logical framework into which the problem fits.

Points out some research strategies, methods and instruments that have been found productive or faulty, so that the researcher can correct it, or use others.

Make researcher familiar with previous studies hence facilitate interpretation of the results

Helps determine new methods and techniques

It puts together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Journals

Dissertations/ theses

Encyclopedia

News papers

Internet

Periodicals

Grey literature

International indices

Books

Papers presented at conferences

Abstracts

SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

It Is not easy to review literature in terms of what to extract from it. Therefore, the decision is based on personal judgment plus research problem

GENERAL GUIDELINES IN LITERATURE REVIEW

Avoid the temptation of including everything in the literature- critically pick the most valuable part of the literature that is related to your problem of study.

Heavily researched areas provide adequate references which are directly related to your studies rather than general.

Anew or little researchable question may not need literature which is directly related to it but which is some meaningful way.

EXTRACTING LITERATURE

This is critically examining which literature to take or to leave out. Extracting literature is a complex process, which involves many activities such as locating, describing, summarizing, classifying and synthesizing the literature.

To locate means trying to find out where such literature exists

To describe refers to the process of pointing out certain features by giving more of its details

To cite means to bring out the feature as said by the author

To evaluate means giving your own opinion on the statement

To summarize means picking only major points/parts of the literature

To synthesize requires you to put different ideas together to make logical sense

WAYS TO HELP IN LITERATURE REVIEW

Have a plan

Start with the most recent because this will include earlier works and improved ideas

Read sources of literature to determine the relevant feature to your study

Select appropriate indexes

Start by selecting the most general but relevant features of your study and proceed to the most specific

Take note of procedures used, samples, instruments, major finding and conclusions.

Indicate how it relates to your study

Specify the author and title of study, year of publication and pages where such ideas are found,

Do not reproduce literature but paraphrase, use short and direct quotess

6. COLLECTING DATA This is the gathering of information to serve or prove some facts

In research, the term “data collection” refers to gathering specific information aimed at proving or refuting some facts

In data collection the researcher must have a clear vision of te instruments to be used, the respondents and the selected area.

PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION

To stimulate new ideas-it helps in identifying areas related to the research that needs improvement or further evaluation.

To highlight a situation and therefore create awareness and improvement

To influence legislative policies and regulations

To provide justification for an existing program or illustrate a need for a new program.

It is the only way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of the study.

It promotes decision making and resource allocation that are based on solid evidence rather than on isolated occurrences, assumptions, emotion, and politics.

SOURCES OF DATA

There are two major sources of data:

a)primary sources-this is gathered directly from the respondents. This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussion, observation and experimental studies.

b) Secondary sources-these is data neither collected directly nor specifically for the user. it involves gathering data that has already been collected by someone else. For example from books, published material, documentations or electronically stored information.

ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

It is usually available more cheaply-it is quicker and easier than collecting from scratch

Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient form; can give researcher access to unavailable organizations, individuals or locations.

It allows the researcher to extend the “time base “ of their study by providing data about the earlier state of the system to be studied.

Secondary data are likely to be pre-processed eliminates the time –consuming and hence costly analysis stage

DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

The method of data collection is not known to the user of data hence reliability on the researchers skills and propriety of the collector

The user has no accessibility to raw data to check validity of findings

The researcher relies on the integrity of the people who collected the data and analyzed it.

STEPS IN DATA COLLECTION

a) Define the sample-define the target population i.e. respondents and their accessibility

b) Reflect on the research design-this is whether survey, a case study or an experiment, this enables the researcher to be sure of the format in which data will be collected. Design and select sample in such a way that you obtain results that have precision and accuracy.

c) Ensure research instruments are ready-that is the questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups, discussions and experimental treatments should be in order. If using tape collectors, cameras, computer software’s to be used, consider expertise and cost of operating system.

d) Define the data to be collected-be clear on the information being sought, be clear on sample also whether male or female ratio.

e) Request permission to collect data from relevant authorities-the researcher must make sure that he has been granted permission from relevant authorities to carry out the research. Send also an advance letter to the sample respondents, explaining the purpose of the study. This helps in getting the right information.

f) Pre-test- this is a pilot study. The researcher should pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample .these is the only way to ensure that everything “works” particularly the instruments.

IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TEST

It enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.

It enables the researcher to find out if the wording is clear and all questions will be interpreted in the same way by respondents.

It enables the researcher to detect what response is provoked and find out if there is any bias

It enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the data will be collected and the topic area addressed

COLLECTION OF DATA

a) Use of questionnaires- the respondents fill in answers in written forms and researcher collects the forms with the completed information.

Various methods of collecting the questionnaires

Distribute to respondents and give them time to fill then collect immediately.

Distribute to respondents and give them time to fill then collect later at an agreed time and date.

Mail questionnaires to the respondents, after they have answered email the back.

b) Use of interviews-these involves identification of respondents and requesting them to answer certain questions .the researcher notes down the answers given.

Some interviews are carried out through the phone and information received is recorded by the researcher. To get good information persuade the respondent to willingly participate.

c). focus group discussion-the researcher must have specific topics to be discussed.

tape record should also be used to keep records.

e) observation- the researcher must have a checklist to ensure that actual behavior

Is observed. In experiments, the observer must note down what has been

Observed.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING DATA COLLECTION

Collect data only which is needed for the purpose of the study i.e pick only relevant information

Inform the respondents about the general nature the study. This helps them to give the right information

Protect the confidentiality of the information collected and means of collecting data should be able to provide confidentiality.

Ensure that processing and use of data conforms with the pledges made and that appropriate care is taken with directly identifying information

Apply appropriate techniques to control statistical disclosure

WHILE IN THE FIELD ENSURE THE FOLLOWING

Punctuality in appointments

Friendliness

Use of clear and simple language

Be careful about question construction-the manner in which questions are constructed will result in inaccurate responses

Have various ways of probing –some respondents tend to give false answers to particular questions.

It is important to acknowledge that certain psychological factors, such as fear or low self-esteem can induce incorrect responses. Great care must be taken to design a study that minimizes this effect.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION

Justify the research via an analysis of the balance of costs i.e the benefits must overweigh the costs.

Confidentiality-maintain confidentiality at all costs i.e subjects must not know each other

Researchers are responsible for their own work and their contribution to the whole study, that is accept individual responsibility for the conduct of research and the consequences.

The researcher must obtain informed consent from any subjects used in the study to ensre that the subjects participate voluntary

The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with the researchers and research subject. Don’t exploit subjects by changing agreement made with them.

The researcher must take all measures to protect the subjects physically and psychologically

The researcher must fully explain the research in advance, and “debrief “subjects afterwards.

CHALLENGES FACED BY RESEARCHERS IN DATA COLLECTION

Lack of proper strategies can invalidate results and badly mislead the users of the information gathered. Some of the challenges faced are:

The researcher failing to carry out pilot study- pre-test helps in curbing short comings likely to be experienced during the actual study.

Lack of sufficient follow up on non respondents-failure to follow non respondents can ruin an otherwise well-designed study, return to households where respondents were not at home.

Inadequate quality controls-the researcher gives assistant researcher questionnaires without maximum supervision, these results in guessing. without proper checking errors may go undetected

Poor targeting- errors in defining and selecting sample during data collection will bias the results by making the sample less representative of the target population

Poor implementation-some errors are caused by the way data collection is implemented. Some of the errors include:

Question errors-worded wrongly

Interviewer error-makes an error when answering a question

Recording error-interviewer makes an error while asking the question

Coding error- responses are wrongly coded.

7. DATA ORGANIZATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

DATA ORGANIZATION

This refers to orderliness in research data. This is the putting the data into some systematic form, this organization includes identifying ( and correcting) errors in the data, coding the data, and storing it in appropriate form.

Collected data is known to be ‘raw” information and not knowledge by itself. Organization from raw data to knowledge is as follows:

From raw data to information- data becomes information when it is relevant to the problem

From information to facts-facts are what the data reveals

From facts to knowledge- facts therefore lead to new information, new experience and views.

Knowledge is expressed together with some statistical degree of confidence- before analyzing the collected data; the researcher has to ensure the data is well organized. procedure in data organizing involves:

a) Pre-processing

This is done to correct problems that are identified in the raw data. The pre-processing stages are:

The elimination of unusable data-elimination of one of the questions which provide the same answers.

Interpretation of ambiguous answers: develop a strategy of dealing with them

Contradicting data from related questions-this would be due to circumstances surrounding the question for example wrangles.

b) The development of a coding scheme

The core function of coding process is to create codes and scales from responses, which can then be summarized and analyzed in various ways

A coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible answers are to be treated, and what numerical codes are to be assigned to particular responses. for example , the researcher may allocate for yes, 2 to no, and 0 for I don’t know.

Challenges during coding:

a) Treatment of missing data- do you ignore the question, or change and interpret it

b) Missing of an essential question-the researcher forgot to ask it.

HOW TO ADDRESS THESE CHALLENGES:

Cross-reference the missing answer with the answers related to the question

Interpolate from other answers to create a “pattern” for the respondent , and look to see how other respondents of the same ‘type “ have answered the question

Look at the distribution of answers and interpolate from that

Give missing data its own code, such as did not answer

Exclude the respondent from the analysis i.e if he has failed to answer a no. of questions

Exclude question from the analysis-if a number of respondents did not answer it.

c) Deciding on data storage

Decide between long term and short term data storage. Short term storage is necessary for a short time before analysis. There are two major storage forms i.e. electronic and non electronic form. (Paper)

ADVANTAGES OF PAPER STORAGE:

It has low cost

It allows for speedy retrieval

It is easy to distribute

It is comprehensible

Advantages of paper storage

It is fragile

It is bulky

It is not extensive

Electronic storage

Advantages

It is extensible

It is easy to distribute

It is easy to interchange options

It has low volume

Disadvantages

Equipment costs are high

It has limited access

It is fragile

d) CHOOSING A STATISTICAL SOFT WARE

Choose statistical software that will be used in analysis of data. In choosing a statistical package considers the following:

Characteristics of data to be used that is descriptive or analyzing relationships

Analyses that will be performed

Technical and financial constraints

TYPES OF STATISTICAL SOFTWARE PACKAGES

a) Word processor

Advantages-

No time wastage because data in word form enters directly into processor

You can put directly data into word processor

If researcher is creating a report from this data to explain it then he/she can directly use the data

Disadvantages

Lack of analytical tools

b) Spreadsheet

This is the most versatile analysis and storage combination tools

Advantages

It allows rage range of conventional summary statistics

Some include range of exploratory data analysis

It is possible to form cross tabulations

Most offer graphical presentation of the results of an analysis

Spreadsheets are able to interchange data with other systems

Disadvantages

Statistical functions supported by spreadsheets are mostly restricted to descriptive statistics and basic inferential statistics

Graphics in spreadsheets are usually restricted to a certain number of fairy fundamental graphic structures( bar charts, pie charts),if the researcher wants to use more esoteric systems he/she has to transfer data either via a statistical package or directly to a graphic package

C) DATA BASE

The researcher may use store his/ her data where he can take advantage of the manipulative options.

ADVANTAGES

a) They have a high level o changeability with other systems

b) It is a good point for storing raw data because if a researcher wants to manipulate the data, he /she can use by transferring the information to other alternative system

D) STATISTICAL SYSTEMS

These are applications which carry out a wide range of statistical techniques. They offer advanced data manipulation.

E) GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS

These are not storage systems, however they are display representation of the results.they emphasize:

Advanced display options including chart types

Interchange with word processors and other graphic systems

Before choosing a storage device or software brainstorm on the following:

How will data collected be stored

How will data be accessed by the software package

Will the statistical package be able to create new query as well as variables/

What amount of data will be used for the analysis? Will the statistical be able to handle the data base size?

Does the current staff have the knowledge to operate the statistical package

What is the financial implication of the package?

DATA ANALYSIS

This is the examining of what have been collected and making deductions and inferences it involves scrutinizing the required the acquired information and making inferences. The methods used in data analysis depend on whether the research is qualitative or quantitative.

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

IT involves intensive data collection, over a period of time in a natural setting. This analysis will vary with the purpose of the research , the complexity of the research design and the extent with which the conclusions can be reached easily (orodho and kombo.2002:116). The analytical technique will determine the recording style that will be used during the data collection exercise

The techniques used are as follows

a) a quick impressionist summary: this involves the following

summarizing key findings

explanation

interpretation and conclusion

note:

this type of analysis is used in situations that require urgency in decision making for example outbreak of cholera, typhoid

When the results generated are already obvious. This is suitable when 80% of the respondents gives similar answer for a cause of given problem.

It does not require data transcription