RepublicThis article is about the form of government. For thepolitical ideology, see Republicanism. For other uses,see Republic (disambiguation).A republic (from Latin: res publica) is a form of gov-ernment or country [1] in which power resides in electedindividuals representing the citizen body[2][3] and govern-ment leaders exercise power according to the rule of law.In modern times, the denition of a republic is commonlylimited to a government which excludes a monarch.[3][4]Currently, 147 of the worlds 206 sovereign states use theword republic as part of their ocial names.Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in theirideology and composition. In the classical and medievalperiod of Europe, many states were fashioned on theRoman Republic, which referred to the governance ofthe city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors.The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition,today referred to as "civic humanism", is sometimes con-sidered to derive directly from Roman republicans suchas Sallust and Tacitus. However, Greek-inuenced Ro-man authors, such as Polybius[5] and Cicero, sometimesalso used the term as a translation for the Greek politeiawhich could mean regime generally, but could also be ap-plied to certain specic types of regime which did notexactly correspond to that of the Roman Republic. Re-publics were not equated with classical democracies suchas Athens, but had a democratic aspect.Republics became more common in the Western worldstarting in the early 19th century, eventually displacingabsolute monarchy as the most common form of gov-ernment. Inmodernrepublicstheexecutiveislegit-imized both by a constitution and by popular surage.Montesquieu included in his work "The Spirit of theLaws" both democracies,where all the people have ashareinrule, andaristocraciesor oligarchies, whereonly some of the people rule, as republican forms ofgovernment.[6]Most often a republic is a sovereign state, but there arealso sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as re-publics, or which have governments that are describedas 'republican' in nature.For instance, Article IV of theUnited States Constitution guarantee[s] to every State inthis Union a Republican form of Government.[7] Simi-larly, the Soviet Union was constitutionally described as afederal multinational state, composed of 15 republics,two of which Ukraine and Belarus had their own seatsat the United Nations.1 EtymologyThe term originates as the Latin translation of Greekword politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, trans-lated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translatedby Renaissance scholars as republic (or similar terms invarious western European languages).The termpoliteia can be translated as formof government,polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word fora specic type of regime as the modern word republic is.(One of Plato's major works on political science was ti-tled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Repub-lic. However, apart from the title, in modern translationsofTheRepublic, alternative translations ofpoliteia arealso used.[8]) However, in Book III of his Politics (1279a),Aristotle was apparently the rst classical writer to statethat the term politeia can be used to refer more speci-cally to one type of politeia: When the citizens at largegovern for the public good, it is called by the name com-mon to all governments (to koinon onoma pasn tn po-litein), government (politeia)". And also amongst clas-sical Latin, the term republic can be used in a generalway to refer to any regime, or in a specic way to refer togovernments which work for the public good.In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states hadcommune or signoria based governments. In the late Mid-dle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writingabout the nature of these states and the dierences fromother types of regime. They used terms such as libertaspopuli, a free people, to describe the states. The terminol-ogy changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest inthe writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer us-ing classical terminology. To describe non-monarchicalstates writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adoptedthe Latin phrase res publica.[9]While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describethe states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies,the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings inthe original Latin.The term can quite literally be trans-lated as public matter.[10] It was most often used by Ro-man writers to refer to the state and government, evenduring the period of the Roman Empire.[11]In subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealthcame to be used as a translation of res publica, and its usein English was comparable to how the Romans used theterm res publica.[12] Notably, during The Protectorate ofOliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the mostcommon term to call the new monarchless state, but the12 2 HISTORYword republic was also in common use.[13]Presently, the term republic commonly means a systemof government which derives its power from the peoplerather than from another basis, such as heredity or divineright. This remains the primary denition of republic inmost contexts.2 HistoryWhile the philosophical terminology developed in classi-cal Greece and Rome, as already noted by Aristotle therewas already a long history of city states with a wide varietyof constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the MiddleEast. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages,many free cities developed again, such as Venice.2.1 Classical republicsMain article: classical republicThe modern type of republic itself is dierent fromA map of the Roman Republicany type of state found in the classical world.[14][15] Nev-ertheless, there are a number of states of the classical erathat are today still called republics. This includes ancientAthens, Sparta and the Roman Republic. While the struc-ture and governance of these states was very dierentfrom that of any modern republic, there is debate aboutthe extent to which classical, medieval, and modern re-publics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock hasargued that a distinct republican tradition stretches fromthe classical world to the present.[10][16] Other scholarsdisagree.[10] Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the clas-sical republics had a form of government with few linksto those in any modern country.[17]The political philosophy of the classical republics haveinanycasehadaninuenceonrepublicanthoughtthroughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers andpoliticians advocating for republics, such as Machiavelli,Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily onclassical Greek and Roman sources which described var-ious types of regimes.Aristotle's Politicsdiscussesvariousformsofgovern-ment. One form Aristotle namedpoliteia, which con-sisted of a mixture of the other forms. He argued thatthis was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybiusexpanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on theidea of mixed government. The most important Romanwork in this tradition is Ciceros De re publica.Over time, the classical republics were either conqueredby empires or became ones themselves. Most of theGreek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empireof Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded dramat-ically conquering the other states of the Mediterraneanthat could be considered republics, such as Carthage. TheRoman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire.2.2 Other ancient republicsSakya RepublicThe termrepublic is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city states, especially if outside Europe and thearea which was under Graeco-Roman inuence.[10] How-ever some early states outside Europe had governmentsthat are sometimes today considered similar to republics.In the ancient Near East, a number of cities of the EasternMediterranean achieved collective rule. Arwad has beencited as one of the earliest known examples of a repub-lic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are de-scribed as sovereign.[18] The Israelite confederation of theera before the United Monarchy has also been consid-ered a type of republic.[10][19] In Africa the Axum Em-pire was organized as a confederation ruled similarly toa royal republic.[20] Similarly the Igbo nation of what isnow Nigeria.[21]Ancient Nepal had number of early republics such asLicchavi Republic of Vaishali, Sakya republic of Kapil-vastu (Present day Lumbini zone, Nepal, the birthplaceof Buddha) and the Videha republic of Mithila (Presentday Janakpur zone of Nepal, birthplace of Sita).[22]Intheearly20thcenturyanumberofIndianschol-ars, most notably as K.P. Jayaswal, argued that a2.4 Mercantile republics 3Vaishali was the capital of Vajjian Confederacy, believed to bethe worlds rst republicnumber of states in ancient India had republicanforms of government.[23][24][25] There are no survivingconstitutions or works of political philosophy from thisperiod in Indian history but surviving religious texts do re-fer to a number of states having Gaa sangha, or council-based, as opposed to monarchical, governments.2.3 Icelandic CommonwealthThe Icelandic Commonwealth was established in 930 ADby refugees from Norway who had ed the unicationof that country under King Harald Fairhair. The Com-monwealth consisted of a number of clans run by chief-tains, and the Althing was a combination of parliamentand supreme court where disputes appealed from lowercourts were settled, laws were decided, and decisions ofnational importance were taken.One such example wasthe Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, where the Alth-ing decreed, in order to prevent an invasion, that all Ice-landers must be baptized, and forbade celebration of pa-gan rituals.Contrary to most states, the Icelandic Com-monwealth had no ocial leader.In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs, theCommonwealth began to suer from long conicts be-tween warring clans. This, combined with pressure fromthe Norwegian king Haakon IV for the Icelanders to re-join the Norwegian family, led the Icelandic chief-tains to accept Haakon IV as king by the signing of theGamli sttmli ("Old Covenant") in 1262. This eec-tively brought the Commonwealth to an end. The Al-thing, however, is still Icelands parliament, almost 800years later.[26]2.4 Mercantile republicsIn Europe newrepublics appeared in the late Middle Ageswhen a number of small states embraced republican sys-tems of government. These were generally small, butwealthy, trading states, like the Italian city-states and theGiovanni Battista Tiepolo, Neptune oers the wealth of the seato Venice, 174850. This painting is an allegory of the powerof the Republic of Venice.Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risento prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by theRenaissance, Europe was divided with those states con-trolled by a landed elite being monarchies and those con-trolled by a commercial elite being republics.[12]Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in theimportant trading cities. Despite their wealth they had lit-tle power in the feudal systemdominated by the rural landowners, and across Europe began to advocate for theirown privileges and powers. The more centralized states,such as France and England, granted limited city charters.Beginning of the Republic of Metz. Election of the rst Head-Alderman in 1289, by Auguste Migette. Metz was then a freeimperial city of the Holy Roman Emperor.In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire, 51of the largest towns became free imperial cities. Whilestill under the dominion of the Holy Roman Emperormost power was held locally and many adopted repub-lican forms of government.[27] The same rights to im-perial immediacyweresecuredbythemajortradingcities of Switzerland. The towns and villages of alpineSwitzerland had, courtesy of geography, also been largelyexcluded fromcentral control. Unlike Italy and Germany,much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudalbarons, but by independent farmers who also used com-munal forms of government.When the Habsburgs triedto reassert control over the region both rural farmers andtown merchants joined the rebellion. The Swiss werevictorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed,and Switzerland has retained a republican form of gov-ernment to the present.[19]Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and4 2 HISTORYalso one with the weakest central government. Manyof the towns thus gained considerable independence andadopted commune forms of government. Completelyfree of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded,gaining control of the rural hinterland.[27] The two mostpowerful were the Republic of Venice and its rival theRepublic of Genoa. Each were large trading ports, andfurther expanded by using naval power to control largeparts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an ideol-ogy advocating for republics rst developed. Writers suchas Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius ofPadua, and Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-statesas heirs to the legacy of Greece and Rome.Two Russian cities with powerful merchant classNovgorodandPskovalsoadoptedrepublicanformsof government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively,whichendedwhentherepublics wereconqueredbyMuscovy/Russia at the end 15th beginning of 16thcentury.[28]The dominant form of government for these early re-publics was control by a limited council of elite patricians.In those areas that held elections, property qualicationsor guild membership limited both who could vote andwho could run. In many states no direct elections wereheld and council members were hereditary or appointedby the existing council. This left the great majority of thepopulation without political power, and riots and revoltsby the lower classes were common. The late Middle Agessaw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the HolyRoman Empire.[29] Similar revolts occurred in Italy, no-tably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence.2.5 Calvinist republicsWhile the classical writers had been the primary ideolog-ical source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe,the Protestant Reformation would be used as justicationfor establishing new republics.[30]Most important wasCalvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Con-federacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the me-dieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolitionof monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faith-ful had the right to overthrow irreligious monarchs.[31]Calvinismalso espoused a erce egalitarianismand an op-position to hierarchy. Advocacy for republics appeared inthe writings of the Huguenots during the French Wars ofReligion.[32]Calvinism played an important role in the republican re-volts in England and the Netherlands. Like the city-statesof Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were importanttrading centres, with a large merchant class prosperingfrom the trade with the New World. Large parts of thepopulation of both areas also embraced Calvinism. Dur-ing the Dutch Revolt (beginning in 1566), the Dutch Re-public emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule.However, the country did not adopt the republican formof government immediately: in the formal declarationof independence (Act of Abjuration, 1581), the throneof king Philip was only declared vacant, and the Dutchmagistrates asked the Duke of Anjou, queen Elizabethof England and prince William of Orange, one after an-other, to replace Philip. It took until 1588 before theEstates (theStaten, the representative assembly at thetime) decided to vest the sovereignty of the country inthemselves.In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded bythe Puritans and funded by the merchants of London,the revolt was a success, and King Charles I was exe-cuted. In England James Harrington, Algernon Sidney,and John Milton became some of the rst writers to arguefor rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican formof government. The English Commonwealth was shortlived, and the monarchy soon restored. The Dutch Re-public continued in name until 1795, but by the mid-18thcentury the stadtholder had become a de facto monarch.Calvinists were also some of the earliest settlers of theBritish and Dutch colonies of North America.2.6 Liberal republicsLiberal republics in early modern EuropeAn allegory of the Republic in Paris.Septinsular Republic ag from the early 1800s.A revolutionary Republican hand-written bill from theStockholm riots during the Revolutions of 1848, reading:Dethrone Oscar he is not t to be a king: Long live theRepublic! The Reform! down with the Royal house,longliveAftonbladet! deathtotheking/ Republic2.6 Liberal republics 5Republic the People. Brunkeberg this evening. Thewriters identity is unknown.Along with these initial republican revolts, early modernEurope also saw a great increase in monarchial power.The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited anddecentralized monarchies that had existed in most of theMiddle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total con-trol of the monarch as a series of writers created the ide-ology known as liberalism.Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more in-terested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in re-publics. The Cromwell regime had discredited repub-licanism, andmost thinkersfelt that republicsendedin either anarchy or tyranny.[33] Thus philosophers likeVoltaire opposed absolutism while at the same time be-ing strongly pro-monarchy.Jean-Jacques RousseauandMontesquieupraisedre-publics, andlookedonthecity-states of Greeceasa model. However, both also feltthata nation-statelike France, with20millionpeople, wouldbe im-possibletogovernasarepublic. Rousseauadmiredthe republican experiment in Corsica (1755-1769) anddescribedhis ideal political structure of small self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt that a city-stateshould ideally be a republic, but maintained that a limitedmonarchy was better suited to a large nation.The American Revolution began as a rejection only ofthe authority of the British Parliament over the colonies,not of the monarchy. The failure of the British monarchto protect the colonies from what they considered the in-fringement of their rights to representative government,the monarchs branding of those requesting redress astraitors,and his support for sending combat troops todemonstrate authority resulted in widespread perceptionof the British monarchy as tyrannical. With the UnitedStates Declaration of Independence the leaders of the re-volt rmly rejected the monarchy and embraced repub-licanism. The leaders of the revolution were well versedin the writings of the French liberal thinkers, and alsoin history of the classical republics. John Adams hadnotably written a book on republics throughout history.In addition, the widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract Common Sense, by Thomas Paine, succinctlyand eloquently laid out the case for republican ideals andindependence to the larger public. The Constitution ofthe United States, ratied in 1789, created a relativelystrongfederal republictoreplacetherelativelyweakconfederation under the rst attempt at a national gov-ernment with the Articles of Confederation and Perpet-ual Union ratied in 1783. The rst ten amendments tothe Constitution, called the United States Bill of Rights,guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to republi-can ideals that justied the Revolution.The French Revolution was also not republican at its out-set. Only after the Flight to Varennes removed most ofthe remaining sympathy for the king was a republic de-clared and Louis XVI sent to the guillotine. The stunningsuccess of France in the French Revolutionary Wars sawrepublics spread by force of arms across much of Europeas a series of client republics were set up across the con-tinent. The rise of Napoleon saw the end of the FrenchFirst Republic, and his eventual defeat allowed the vic-torious monarchies to put an end to many of the old-est republics on the continent, including the Republic ofVenice, the Republic of Genoa, the Old Swiss Confed-eracy, and the Dutch Republic. They were replaced byso-called Sister Republics.Outside Europe another group of republics was created asthe Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin Amer-ica to gain their independence. Liberal ideology had onlya limited impact on these new republics. The main im-petus was the local European descended Creole popu-lation in conict with the Peninsulares - governors sentfrom overseas. The majority of the population in mostof Latin America was of either African or Amerindiandescent, and the Creole elite had little interest in givingthese groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty.Simn Bolvar, both the main instigator of the revolts andone of its most important theorists, was sympathetic toliberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the so-cial cohesion for such a system to function and advocatedautocracy as necessary.In Mexico this autocracy briey took the formof a monar-chy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the PeninsularWar, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazilin1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy onSeptember 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted un-til 1889. In the other states various forms of autocraticrepublic existed until most were liberalized at the end ofthe 20th century.[34]The French Second Republic was created in 1848, butabolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Em-peror in 1852. The French Third Republic was estab-lished in 1870, when a civilrevolutionary committeerefused to accept Napoleon IIIs surrender during theFranco-Prussian War. Spain briey became the FirstSpanish Republic in 18734, but the monarchy was soonrestored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzer-landandSanMarinoremainedtheonlyrepublicsinEurope. Thischangedwhen, afterthe1908LisbonRegicide, the 5 October 1910 revolution established thePortuguese Republic. This would encourage new re-publics during and in the aftermath of World War I,when several of the largest European empires collapsed:the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, RussianEmpire, and Ottoman Empire were all replaced by re-publics. New states gained independence during this tur-moil, and many of these, such as Ireland, Poland, Finlandand Czechoslovakia, chose republican forms of govern-ment. Following Greeces defeat in the Greco-TurkishWar (191922), the monarchy was briey replaced bythe Second Hellenic Republic (19241935). In 1931,6 2 HISTORYthe proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (19311939) resulted in the Spanish Civil War that would be theprelude of World War II.Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. TheUnited States began to have considerable inuence in EastAsia in the later part of the 19th century, with Protestantmissionaries playing a central role. The liberal and re-publican writers of the west also exerted inuence. Thesecombined with native Confucian inspired political philos-ophy that had long argued that the populace had the rightto reject unjust government that had lost the Mandate ofHeaven.Two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia,the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Repub-lic. China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment,and a number of protest movements developed calling forconstitutional monarchy. The most important leader ofthese eorts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles ofthe People combined American, European, and Chineseideas. The Republic of China was proclaimed on January1, 1912.2.7 DecolonizationA map of the Commonwealth republicsIn the years following World War II, most of the remain-ing European colonies gained their independence,andmost became republics. The two largest colonial pow-ers were France and the United Kingdom. RepublicanFrance encouraged the establishment of republics in itsformer colonies. the United Kingdom attempted to fol-lowthe model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creat-ing independent Commonwealth realms still linked underthe same monarchy. While most of the settler coloniesand the smaller states of the Caribbean retained this sys-tem, it was rejected by the newly independent countriesin Africa and Asia, which revised their constitutions andbecame republics.Britain followed a dierent model in the Middle East; itinstalled local monarchies in several colonies and man-dates including Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman,Yemen and Libya. In subsequent decades revolutionsand coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installedrepublics. Several monarchies remain, and the MiddleEast is the only part of the world where several largestates are ruled by monarchs with almost complete po-litical control.[37]2.8 Socialist republicsSee also: Peoples Republic and Socialist stateIn the wake of the First World War, the Russian monar-A poster that commemorates the permanent President of the Re-public of China Yuan Shikai and the provisional President of theRepublicchy fell during the Russian Revolution. The Russian Pro-visional Government was established in its place on thelines of a liberal republic, but this was overthrown bythe Bolsheviks who went on to establish the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics. This was the rst republicestablished under Marxist-Leninist ideology. Commu-nism was wholly opposed to monarchy, and became animportant element of many republican movements dur-ing the 20th century. The Russian Revolution spreadinto Mongolia, and overthrew its theocratic monarchyin 1924. In the aftermath of the Second World Warthe communists gradually gained control of Romania,Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Albania, ensuring thatthe states were reestablished as socialist republics ratherthan monarchies.Communism also intermingled with other ideologies. Itwas embraced by many national liberation movementsduring decolonization. In Vietnam, communist republi-cans pushed aside the Nguyn Dynasty, and monarchiesin neighbouring Laos and Cambodia were overthrownby communist movements in the 1970s.Arab socialismcontributed to a series of revolts and coups that saw themonarchies of Egypt, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen ousted. InAfrica Marxist-Leninismand African socialismled to theend of monarchy and the proclamation of republics instates such as Burundi and Ethiopia.2.9 Islamic republicsMain article: Islamic republic3.2 Elections 7Islamic political philosophy has a long history of oppo-sition to absolute monarchy, notably in the work of Al-Farabi. Sharia law took precedence over the will of theruler, and electing rulers by means of the Shura was animportant doctrine. While the early caliphate maintainedthe principles of an elected ruler, later states becamehereditary or military dictatorships though many main-tained some pretense of a consultative shura.None of these states are typically referred to as republics.The current usage of republic in Muslim countries is bor-rowed from the western meaning, adopted into the lan-guage in the late 19th century.[38] The 20th century sawrepublicanism become an important idea in much of theMiddle East, as monarchies were removed in many statesof the region. Iraq became a secular state. Some na-tions, such as Indonesia and Azerbaijan, began as secular.In Iran, the 1979 revolution overthrew the monarchy andcreated an Islamic republic based on the ideas of Islamicdemocracy.3 Head of state3.1 StructureWith no monarch, most modern republics use the titlepresident for the head of state. Originally used to re-fer to the presiding ocer of a committee or governingbody in Great Britain the usage was also applied to politi-cal leaders, including the leaders of some of the ThirteenColonies (originally Virginia in 1608); in full, the Presi-dent of the Council.[39] The rst republic to adopt the ti-tle was the United States of America. Keeping its usage asthe head of a committee the President of the ContinentalCongress was the leader of the original congress.Whenthe new constitution was written the title of President ofthe United States was conferred on the head of the newexecutive branch.If the head of state of a republic is also the head of gov-ernment, this is called a presidential system. There area number of forms of presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president with substantial au-thority and a central political role.In other states the legislature is dominant and the pres-idential roleisalmost purelyceremonial andapoliti-cal, such as in Germany and India. These states areparliamentary republics and operate similarly to constitu-tional monarchies with parliamentary systems where thepower of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. Inparliamentary systems the head of government, most of-ten titled prime minister, exercises the most real politicalpower. Semi-presidential systems have a president as anactive head of state, but also have a head of governmentwith important powers.The rules for appointing the president and the leader ofthe government, in some republics permit the appoint-ment of a president and a prime minister who have oppos-ing political convictions: in France, when the members ofthe ruling cabinet and the president come from opposingpolitical factions, this situation is called cohabitation.In some countries, like Switzerland and San Marino, thehead of state is not a single person but a committee (coun-cil) of several persons holding that oce. The RomanRepublic had two consuls, elected for a one year-termby the comitia centuriata, consisting of all adult, freebornmales who could prove citizenship.3.2 ElectionsIn liberal democracies presidents are elected, either di-rectly by the people or indirectly by a parliament or coun-cil. Typically in presidential and semi-presidential sys-tems the president is directly elected by the people, or isindirectly elected as done in the United States. In thatcountry the president is ocially elected by an electoralcollege, chosen by the States, all of which do so by directelection of the electors. The indirect election of the pres-ident through the electoral college conforms to the con-cept of republic as one with a system of indirect election.In the opinion of some, direct election confers legitimacyupon the president and gives the oce much of its polit-ical power.[40] However, this concept of legitimacy dif-fers from that expressed in the United States Constitu-tion which established the legitimacy of the United Statespresident as resulting from the signing of the Constitu-tion by nine states.[41]The idea that direct election isrequired for legitimacy also contradicts the spirit of theGreat Compromise, whose actual result was manifest inthe clause[42] that provides voters in smaller states withslightly more representation in presidential selection thanthose in large states.In states with a parliamentary system the president is usu-ally elected by the parliament. This indirect election sub-ordinates the president to the parliament, and also givesthe president limited legitimacy and turns most presiden-tial powers into reserve powers that can only be exercisedunder rare circumstance. There are exceptions whereelected presidents have only ceremonial powers, such asin Ireland.3.3 AmbiguitiesThe distinction between a republic and a monarchy is notalways clear. The constitutional monarchies of the formerBritish Empire and Western Europe today have almost allreal political power vested in the elected representatives,with the monarchs only holding either theoretical powers,no powers or rarely used reserve powers. Real legitimacyfor political decisions comes from the elected represen-tatives and is derived from the will of the people. Whilehereditary monarchies remain in place, political power isderived from the people as in a republic. These states are8 4 OTHER MEANINGSthus sometimes referred to as crowned republics.[43]Terms such as liberal republic are also used to describeall of the modern liberal democracies.[44]There are also self-proclaimed republics that act similarlyto monarchies with absolute power vested in the leaderand passed down from father to son. North Korea andSyria are two notable examples where a son has inher-ited political control. Neither of these states are ociallymonarchies. There is no constitutional requirement thatpower be passed down within one family, but it has oc-curred in practice.There are also elective monarchies where ultimate poweris vested in a monarch, but the monarch is chosen bysome manner of election. A current example of sucha state is Malaysia where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong iselected every ve years by the Conference of Rulers com-posed of the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states,and the Vatican City-State, where the pope is selectedby cardinal-electors, currently all cardinals under a spe-cic age. While rare today, elective monarchs were com-mon in the past. The Holy Roman Empire is an impor-tant example, where each new emperor was chosen bya group of electors. Islamic states also rarely employedprimogeniture instead relying on various forms of elec-tion to choose a monarchs successor.The PolishLithuanian Commonwealth had an electivemonarchy, with a wide surage of some 500,000 nobles.The system, known as the Golden Liberty, had devel-oped as a method for powerful landowners to control thecrown. The proponents of this system looked to classi-cal examples, and the writings of the Italian Renaissance,and called their elective monarchy a rzeczpospolita, basedon res publica.3.4 Sub-national republicsIn general being a republic also implies sovereignty asfor the state to be ruled by the people it cannot be con-trolled by a foreign power. There are important excep-tions to this, for example, republics in the Soviet Unionwere member states which had to meet three criteria tobe named republics:1. be on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to beable to take advantage of their theoretical right tosecede;2. be economically strong enough to be self-sucientupon secession; and3. be named after at least one million people of the eth-nic group which should make up the majority pop-ulation of said republic.It is sometimes argued that the former Soviet Union wasalso a supra-national republic, based on the claim that themember states were dierent nations.Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia (and earliernames) was a federal entity composed of six republics(Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). Each re-public had its parliament, government, institute of citi-zenship, constitution, etc... but certain functions weredelegated to the federation (army, monetary matters).Each republic also had a right of self-determination ac-cording to the conclusions of the second session of theAVNOJ and according to the federal constitution.States of the United States are required, like the federalgovernment, to be republican in form, with nal author-ity resting with the people. This was required because thestates were intended to create and enforce most domesticlaws, with the exception of areas delegated to the federalgovernment and prohibited to the states. The foundingfathers of the country intended most domestic laws to behandled by the states. Requiring the states to be a re-public in form was seen as protecting the citizens rightsand preventing a state from becoming a dictatorship ormonarchy, and reected unwillingness on the part of theoriginal 13 states (all independent republics) to unite withother states that were not republics. Additionally, this re-quirement ensured that only other republics could join theunion.In the example of the United States, the original 13 Britishcolonies became independent states after the AmericanRevolution,each having a republican form of govern-ment. These independent states initially formed a looseconfederationcalledtheUnitedStatesandthenlaterformed the current United States by ratifying the currentU.S. Constitution,creating a union of sovereign stateswith the union or federal government also being a repub-lic. Any state joining the union later was also required tobe a republic.4 Other meanings4.1 Political philosophyMain article: RepublicanismThe term republic originated from the writers of the Re-naissance as a descriptive term for states that were notmonarchies. These writers, such as Machiavelli, alsowrote important prescriptive works describing how suchgovernments should function. These ideas of how a gov-ernment and society should be structured is the basis foran ideology known as classical republicanism or civic hu-manism. This ideology is based on the Roman Repub-lic and the city states of Ancient Greece and focuseson ideals such as civic virtue,rule of law,and mixedgovernment.[45]This understanding of a republic as a distinct form ofgovernment from a liberal democracy is one of the main9theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis.[46]This grew out of the work of J. G. A. Pocock who in1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a con-sistent set of republican ideals. These writers includedMachiavelli, Milton, Montesquieu, and the founders ofthe United States of America.Pocock argued that this was an ideology with a historyand principles distinct from liberalism.[47] These ideaswere embraced by a number of dierent writers, includ-ing Quentin Skinner, Philip Pettit[48] and Cass Sunstein.These subsequent writers have further explored the his-tory of the idea, and also outlined how a modern republicshould function.4.2 United StatesMain article: Republicanism in the United StatesA distinct set of denitions for the word republic evolvedin the United States. In common parlance, a republic is astate that does not practice direct democracy but ratherhas a government indirectly controlled by the people.This understanding of the term was originally developedby James Madison, and notably employed in FederalistPaper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted earlyin the history of the United States, including in NoahWebster's dictionary of 1828. It was a novel meaning tothe term; representative democracy was not an idea men-tioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classicalrepublics.[49] Also, there is evidence that contemporariesof Madison considered the meaning of the word to re-ect the denition found elsewhere, as is the case witha quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notesof James McHenry. Where the question is put forth, aRepublic or a Monarchy?"[50]The term republic does not appear in the Declaration ofIndependence, but does appear in Article IV of the Con-stitution which guarantee[s] to every State in this Uniona Republican form of Government. What exactly thewriters of the constitution felt this should mean is uncer-tain. The Supreme Court, in Luther v. Borden (1849),declared that the denition ofrepublic was a politicalquestion in which it would not intervene. In two latercases, it did establish a basic denition. In United States v.Cruikshank (1875), the court ruled that the equal rightsof citizens were inherent to the idea of a republic.However, the term republic is not synonymous with therepublican form. The republican form is dened as onein which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the peo-ple and are exercised by the people, either directly, orthrough representatives chosen by the people, to whomthose powers are specially delegated. In re Duncan, 139U.S. 449, 11 S.Ct. 573, 35 L.Ed. 219; Minor v. Happer-sett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162, 22 L.Ed. 627.[51]Beyond these basic denitions the wordrepublic has anumber of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observesthat republic is most often used in the United States as asynonym for state or government, but with more positiveconnotations than either of those terms.[52] Republican-ism is often referred to as the founding ideology of theUnited States. Traditionally scholars believed this Amer-ican republicanismwas a derivation of the classical liberalideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe.A political philosophy of republicanism that formed dur-ing the Renaissance period, and initiated by Machiavelli,was thought to have had little impact on the founders ofthe United States. In the 1960s and 1970s a revisionistschool led by the likes of Bernard Bailyn began to arguethat republicanism was just as or even more importantthan liberalism in the creation of the United States.[53]This issue is still much disputed and scholars like IsaacKramnick completely reject this view.[54]5 See alsoCommonwealthDemocratic republicFree stateList of republicsIndex: RepublicsRepublicanismRepublics of Russia6 References[1] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/republic[2] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498751/republic[3] Republic. Merriam-Webster. RetrievedAugust 14,2010.[4] republic, WordNet 3.0 (Dictionary.com), retrieved 20March 2009[5] Everitt, Anthony (2012). The Rise of Rome. New York:Random House. p. 125. ISBN 9781400066636.[6] Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, Bk. II, ch. 23.[7] Constitution of the United States.[8] Bloom, Allan. The Republic. Basic Books, 1991. pp.439440[9] Rubinstein, Nicolai. Machiavelli and Florentine Repub-lican Experience in Machiavelli and RepublicanismCam-bridge University Press, 1993.10 6 REFERENCES[10] Republic"j, New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed.Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5. Detroit: CharlesScribners Sons, 2005. p. 2099[11] Lewis, Charlton T.; Charles Short (1879). res, II.K. ALatin Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Re-trieved August 14, 2010.[12] Haakonssen, Knud. Republicanism.ACompaniontoContemporary Political Philosophy. Robert E. Goodin andPhilip Pettit. eds. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995.[13] Everdell (2000) p. xxiii.[14] Nippel, Wilfried. Ancient and Modern Republicanism.The Invention of the Modern Republic ed. BiancamariaFontana. Cambridge University Press, 1994 pg. 6[15] Reno, Jerey. republic. International Encyclopedia ofthe Social Sciences pg. 184[16] Pocock,J.G.A. TheMachiavellianMoment: FlorentinePolitical Thought andtheAtlanticRepublicanTradition(1975; new ed. 2003)[17] Paul A. Rahe, Republics, Ancient and Modern, three vol-umes, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,1994.[18] Martin Bernal, Black Athena Writes Back (Durham: DukeUniversity Press, 2001), 359.[19] Everdell (2000)[20] Aksum UNESCO[21] Concepts of Democracy and Democratization in AfricaRevisited. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual KentState University Symposium on Democracy. by ApollosO. Nwauwa[22] Ancient and Medieval Nepal. in Kathmandu, Nepal. byRishikesh Shaha[23] http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/VaisaliVaisali, Encyclopdia Britannica[24] Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A historyof India. Routledge. p. 57. ISBN 0-415-32919-1.[25] Sharma, RS. Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions inAncient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999 pg. xxix[26] Chu, Henry (April 2, 2011). Iceland seeks to becomesanctuary for free speech. Los Angeles Times.[27] Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Ear-liest Times Oxford University Press, 1999. pp. 950955.[28] Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge. LawinMedievalRussia, IDC Publishers, 2009[29] Finer, pp. 955956.[30] Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Ear-liest Times. Oxford University Press, 1999. pg. 1020.[31] Republicanism. Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment pg.435[32] Introduction. Republicanism: a Shared European Her-itage. By Martin van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner.Cambridge University Press, 2002 pg. 1[33] Republicanism. Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment pg.431[34] Latin American Republicanism New Dictionary of theHistory of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5.Detroit: Charles Scribners Sons, 2005.[35] The Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire are countedamongst Europe.[36] The Republic of Turkey is counted amongst Europe, theUnion of Socialist Soviet Republics as a single republic,the Irish Free State as an independent monarchy (see alsoIrish head of state from 1936 to 1949), Vatican City as anelective monarchy, the Kingdom of Hungary as a nominalmonarchy.[37] Anderson, Lisa. AbsolutismandtheResilienceofMonarchy in the Middle East. Political Science Quarterly,Vol. 106, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 115[38] Bernard Lewis. The Concept of an Islamic RepublicDie Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol.4, Issue 1 (1955),pp. 19[39] OED, s. v.[40] Presidential Systems Governments of the World: AGlobal Guide to Citizens Rights and Responsibilities. Ed.C. Neal Tate. Vol. 4. Detroit: Macmillan ReferenceUSA, 2006. p7-11.[41] Article VII, Constitution of the United States[42] Article II, Para 2, Constitution of the United States[43] The novelist and essayist H. G. Wells regularly used theterm crowned republic to describe the United Kingdom,for instance in his workAShort HistoryoftheWorld.Alfred, Lord Tennyson in his poem Idylls of the King.[44] Dunn, John. The Identity of the Bourgeois Liberal Re-public. The Invention of the Modern Republic. Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.[45] "Republicanism" StanfordEncyclopediaof Philosophy.Jun 19, 2006[46] McCormick, John P. Machiavelli against Republicanism:On the Cambridge Schools 'Guicciardinian Moments"Political Theory, Vol. 31, No. 5 (Oct., 2003), pp. 615643[47] Pocock, J. G. A The Machiavellian Moment: FlorentinePolitical Thought andtheAtlanticRepublicanTraditionPrinceton: 1975;2003[48] Philip Pettit, Republicanism: ATheory of FreedomandGovernment, NY: Oxford U.P., 1997, ISBN 0-19-829083-7; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.[49] Everdell (2000) pg. 6[50] http://www.bartleby.com/73/1593.html11[51] GOVERNMENT(RepublicanFormof Government)-One in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in thepeople and are exercised by the people ... directly ...Blacks Law Dictionary, Sixth Edition, P. 695[52] W. Paul Adams Republicanism in Political Rhetoric Be-fore 1776. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 85, No. 3(Sep., 1970), pp. 397421[53] Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the AmericanRevolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard Uni-versity Press, 1967.[54] Kramnick, Isaac. Republicanism and Bourgeois Radical-ism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century Englandand America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990.7 Further readingMartin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Re-publicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v1, Re-publicanism and Constitutionalism in Early ModernEurope, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.,2002Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Re-publicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v2, TheValues of Republicanism in Early Modern Europe,Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2002Willi Paul Adams, Republicanismin PoliticalRhetoric before 1776,Political ScienceQuarterly85(1970), p397-421.Joyce Appleby, Republicanism in Old and NewContexts, in William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd series,43(January, 1986), p3-34.Joyce Appleby, ed., Republicanism issue of Amer-ican Quarterly 37(Fall, 1985).Sarah Barber, Regicide and Republicanism: Politicsand Ethics in the English Republic, 1646-1649, Ed-inburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner & Maurizio Viroli,eds., Machiavelli andRepublicanism, Cambridge:Cambridge U.P., 1990.Everdell, William R.(2000), TheEndofKings:A History of Republics and Republicans (2nd ed.),Chicago: University of Chicago PressEric Gojosso, Le concept de rpublique en France(XVIe -XVIIIe sicle), Aix/Marseille, 1998, pp205245.James Hankins, Exclusivist Republicanism and theNon-Monarchical Republic, Political Theory 38.4(August 2010), 452-482.Frdric Monera, L'ide de Rpublique et la jurispru-dence du Conseil constitutionnel Paris: L.G.D.J.,2004 Fnac, LGDJ.frPhilip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedomand Government, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997,pp. x and 304.J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Flo-rentine Political Thought and the Atlantic RepublicanTradition, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1975J. G. A. Pocock, Between Gog and Magog: TheRepublican Thesis and the Ideologia Americana,Journal of the History of Ideas 48(1987), pJ. G. A. Pocock, "The Machiavellian Moment Re-visited: A Study in History and Ideology Journalof Modern History 53(1981)Paul A. Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: Clas-sical RepublicanismandtheAmericanRevolution,3v., Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press 1992,1994.Jagdish P. Sharma, Republicsinancient India, c.1500 B.C.500 B.C., 1968David Wootton, ed., Republicanism, Liberty, andCommercial Society, 1649-1776(TheMakingofModern Freedom series),Stanford,CA: StanfordUniversity Press, 1994.8 External links12 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses9.1 Text RepublicSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic?oldid=676176651Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Cunctator, Brion VIBBER,Vicki Rosenzweig, MarXidad, AstroNomer~enwiki, Jeronimo, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Youssefsan, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, Deb,William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, Jetgraphics, Soulpatch, Olivier, Edward, Lir, Michael Hardy, Rabin, Vera Cruz, Liftarn, Gabbe,Mic, Cyde, TakuyaMurata, Shoaler, Skysmith, Alo, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, , Mk270, Rossami, Vzbs34, Jiang, Kaihsu,Hectorthebat, JamesReyes, Stephenw32768, Hauser, Trainspotter~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Timwi, Janko, Molinari, Reddi, JitseNiesen, Adoarns, K1Bond007, 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