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AUTHOR McCollum, Jeanette A.; Yates, Tweety J.

TITLE Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Approaches to Parent-InfantInteraction Intervention. Technical Report.

INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana. Early Childhood Research Inst. onCulturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services.

SPONS AGENCY Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington, DC.REPORT NO CLAS-R-13PUB DATE 2001-08-00NOTE 67p.

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Development; *Cultural Awareness; *Cultural Influences;Disabilities; Diversity; Early Childhood Education; EarlyIntervention; *Family Attitudes; *Family Programs; Infants;Language Role; Minority Groups; *Parent Child Relationship;*Parenting Styles; Toddlers

ABSTRACT

This report provides a theoretical framework forunderstanding different approaches to interaction intervention and uses thisframework as background for considering how various cultural factors mightinfluence families' (and providers') views of these approaches. Most researchin interaction intervention has been conducted without explicit attention tocultural diversity in the samples. Current knowledge is based largely onCaucasian samples of western European derivation, particularly from theUnited States. Developmental studies often have confounded diversity inculture with other sources of diversity, such as ethnicity, socioeconomicstatus, and educational level. Differences between groups that may representdifferent cultural origins have often been interpreted as deficits in thenon-Caucasian samples. Another interpretation of these differences is thatculture may influence families' perceptions of many aspects of interactionintervention including the need for intervention, characteristics of goodinteractions, appropriateness of interaction as a focus for intervention, andacceptable approaches to providing intervention. Different approaches used inparent-infant interaction intervention between parents and their birth to 3-year -old children with disabilities are described, along with implicationsfor working with individuals from culturally and linguistically diversebackgrounds. The report includes extensive references, an annotatedbibliography, and a list of available resources from the CLAS Web site.(Author/SG)

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TechnicalReport #13

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Jeanette A. McCollumTweety J. Yates

University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignCLASIMMINsurrrier

Culturally & Linguistically Appropriate Services

° Early C'hiklhood Research Institutern

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TECHNICAL REPORT #13

Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Approaches toParent-Infant Interaction InterventionJeanette A. McCollumTweety J. Yates

August 2001

CLASM-7 _1111Culturally & Linguistically Appropriate Services

Early Childhood Research Institute

Early Childhood Research Institute onCulturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign61 Children's Research Center

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TechnicalReport #13

Cross-Cultural Perspectiveson Approaches toParent-Infant Interaction

tery lion

Jeanette A. McCollumTweet), J. Yates

University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignCLASMMEMPrrotr magnum=Culturally & Linguistically Appropriate Services

Farly Childhood Research Institute61 Children's Research Center 51 Gerry Drive Champaign, IL 61820

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BLE

ITable of uontents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

Introduction

Approaches to Interaction InterventionTheoretical Framework

Illustrative Practices

Interaction CoachingInteraction GuidanceCombination Models

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68

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Table 1: Approaches to Interaction Intervention 7Summary 14

Table 2: Models for Representing Diversity in Parent-InfantInteraction Intervention Studies 16

Applying a Critical Cultural Lens to Interaction Intervention 18Content 18

Intervention Process 20Summary 22

Conclusions and Implications 23Table 3: Criteria for Evaluating Models and MaterialsRelated to Interaction Intervention 25

References 27

Annotated Bibliographies 35

Resources 41

Videos 42Publications 50

About the CLAS Institute 61

About the Authors 65

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The large majority of research in interaction intervention has been conductedwithout explicit attention to cultural diversity in the samples. Current knowledge isbased largely on Caucasian samples of western European derivation, particularlyfrom the United States. Developmental studies often have confounded diversity inculture with other sources of diversity such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, andeducational level. Differences between groups that may represent different cul-tural origins have often been interpreted as deficits in the non-Caucasiansamples. Another interpretation of these differences is that culture may influencefamilies' perceptions of many aspects of interaction intervention including: needfor intervention, characteristics of good interactions, appropriateness of interac-tion as a focus for intervention, and acceptable approaches to providing inter-vention. This report provides a theoretical framework for understanding differentapproaches to interaction intervention, and uses this framework as backgroundfor considering how various cultural factors might influence families' (and provid-ers') views of these approaches. Different approaches used in parent-infantinteraction intervention will be described, along with implications for workingwith individuals from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

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'Lfi-Ciont,e1

Introduction

Interventions to change the characteris-tics of interaction between parents andtheir birth-to-three year-old childrenwith disabilities are based on threeprimary bodies of knowledge. First,extensive research has documentedrelationships between particular charac-teristics of parent-child interaction and abroad array of developmental outcomesin the child; the foundations for devel-opment appear to be laid as caregiversand their infants engage in reciprocal,mutually satisfying interactions and asthey adapt to one another's individualityover time (Goldberg, 1977; Sameroff &Fiese, 1990). Second, these samecharacteristics of interaction often differin relation to certain characteristics ofthe child (e.g., disability, prematurity),parent (e.g., adolescent, clinicallydepressed), and environment (e.g.,poverty conditions) (Barnard, Morisset& Spieker, 1993; McCollum, 1991).Such differences are thought to place thedyad at risk for less than optimalinteraction, thereby also placing thechild at risk for less than optimaldevelopment. Finally, research indicatesthat at least some of these same differ-ences can be influenced by intervention(Barnard, 1997; Barnard, Morisset, &Spieker, 1993; McCollum, 1991;McCollum & Hemmeter, 1997). Basedon this logic, professionals from manydisciplines have become interested ininteraction intervention as a means ofinfluencing the developmental outcomesof young children with disabilities.Interaction intervention as a field ofpractice and research represents many

theoretical assumptions and manyhoped-for outcomes. It also encom-passes prevention, promotion, andintervention perspectives.

The large majority of re-search in eachof the threebodies ofknowledge out-lined above hasbeen conductedwithout explicitattention to cul-tural diversityin the samples. Current developmentalknowledge is based largely on researchpopulations from western Europeanancestry (Greenfield & Cocking, 1994),particularly from the United States.Developmental studies includingindividuals from other cultural groupsoften have confounded diversity inculture with

The foundations fordevelopment appear to be laidas caregivers and their infantsengage in reciprocal, mutuallysatisfying interactions and asthey adapt to one another'sindividuality over time.

other sources ofdiversity suchas ethnicity, so-cioeconomicstatus, and edu-cational level.Even moreproblematic isthat differencesfound between

Professionals frommany disciplines have becomeinterested in interactionintervention as a means ofinfluencing the developmentaloutcomes of young children withdisabilities.

groups that mayrepresent different cultural origins,particularly where one of the groups isCaucasian, have often been interpretedas deficits in the non-Caucasian samples

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Parent-Infant Interaction I TRI3

INTRODUCTION

(Mc Loyd, 1990). Finally, interactionintervention studies with parent-childdyads in which the child has a develop-mental disability have tended not to treatcultural, ethnic, or linguistic diversity asan important independent variable.

Perhaps understandably, the focus ofthese studies to date has been on sup-porting optimal development andlearning in the young children withdisabilities who participate in theresearch, irrespective of their culturalbackgrounds.

The intent of the currentpaper is to provide a theoreticalframework for understandingdifferent approaches tointeraction intervention, and touse this framework asbackground for considering howvarious cultural factors mightinfluence families' (andproviders') views of thesedifferent approaches.

Nevertheless,culture mayinfluencefamilies'perceptions ofmany aspectsof interactioninterventionincluding:need forintervention,characteristicsof good inter-actions,appropriate-ness of interac-

tion as a focus of intervention, andacceptable approaches to providingintervention. The topic therefore meritscareful attention despite the lack ofinformation. The current paper's intentis to provide a theoretical framework forunderstanding different approaches tointeraction intervention and to use thisframework as background for consider-ing how various cultural factors mightinfluence families' and providers' viewsof these different approaches.

Interaction intervention is based onrecognition of the dynamic, continuallyevolving relationship between thechild's developing competencies and thecaregiving environment (Barrera, 1991).Many aspects of early intervention areviewed most appropriately as complexsystems, and parent-infant interactionintervention is no exception. As atransactional system, caregiver-childinteractions represent balanced systemsin which each partner presents andresponds to interactive signals(Goldberg, 1977). During infancy,appropriate caregiver responses aredependent on the infant's ability to sendclear signals as well as on thecaregiver's ability to read the signalsand respond accordingly (Lester, 1992).Conditions such as disability, illness, orprematurity pose special challenges tothe infant and the interactive partner.These infants may be less readable associal partners or less able to respondpredictably and positively to initiationsfrom others (McCollum, 1991). Thesedifferences may violate the parents'expectations for the roles that infantstypically play in interaction. Even whenthe child possesses standard abilities forsocial interaction, a diagnosis of disabil-ity or illness may alter the parent'sperceptions of the child's abilities andqualities (Bugental, 1987). Parents'perception of their interactions withtheir infants will also be influenced bytheir own historical and ecologicalcontexts (Harwood, Miller & Irizarry,1995). Thus, differences in patterns ofinteraction may stem from severalsources: real differences in a child'sinteractive abilities, the caregiver'sperceptions of the child's abilities, the

TR13 I Parent-Infant Interaction

caregiver's emotional response to thechild with a disability, or the caregiver'semotional sense of self as a parent. Anyone of these may challenge the interac-tive partnership between infant andparent.

In this paper, interaction intervention isdistinguished from other approaches tochanging the parent-child relationshipby its central focus on the parent-childdyad as a unit, in contrast to approachesdirected primarily toward the child orparent (Seitz & Provence, 1990).Greenspan and Wieder (1997) proposeda hierarchy of five levels of goals andassociated practices for early interven-tion, ranging from meeting basic, broad-based needs for safety and security tospecialized therapies directed towardparticular aspects of function; any or allof these levels may have importancewith any particular child and family, andintervention at any level may influenceoutcomes across multiple levels. At thethird and fourth levels, interventions aredesigned to match and enhance theindividual regulatory and developmentalcharacteristics of the child through themedium of interaction, with an eyetoward strengthening parent-childinteractions and the parent-child rela-tionship. Interaction intervention asdefined in this paper encompasses bothlevels. The desired outcome of interac-tion intervention is interactions that arereciprocal and mutually pleasurable,facilitating and representing a develop-mentally supportive parent-child rela-tionship.

Evaluating the cultural appropriatenessof various approaches to interaction

INTRODUCTION

intervention isfurther compli-cated by thedearth of effi-cacy informa-tion available,as well as byextreme varia-tion among

Interaction interventionis distinguished from otherapproaches to changing theparent-child relationship by itscentral focus on the parent-childdyad as a unit.

studies withregard to variables such as age at entry,length of intervention, and intensity ofservices. Research on interactionintervention with dyads in which theinfants have developmental disabilitiesor delays is even more sparse and morediverse. However, it is clear that, givenintervention, parents can change thecharacteristics and affective quality oftheir interactions with their infants.Further, these changes were oftenaccompanied by concurrent changes intheir children's participation and en-gagement in the interactive situation(McCollum & Hemmeter, 1997).Longer-terminfluences onchildren's de-velopment asmeasured bystandardizedinstruments areless clear, al-though influ-ences on somedomains were

The desired outcomeof interaction intervention is

interactions that are reciprocaland mutually pleasurable,facilitating and representing adevelopmentally supportiveparent-child relationship.

reported forsome interventions with some dyads.Similar but somewhat more consistentlypositive results have been reported fordyads in which infants have biologicalrisk factors such as prematurity or lowbirth weight and dyads thought to be at

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Parent-Infant Interaction I TR13

INTRODUCTION

risk due to factors in the parent orenvironment (Barnard, 1997; Barnard,Morisset, & Spieker, 1993).

These results, coupled with develop-mental knowledge about parent-childrelationships as primary contexts forearly development, indicate that there isevery reason to pay close attention toparent-child interactions as a criticallyimportant part of early intervention.Nevertheless, the question remains:"What works for which caregivers, inwhich contexts, with which children, inrelation to which outcomes?"(McCollum & Hemmeter, 1997).Intervention approaches derived fromdifferent theoretical frameworks haverarely been compared within or acrosssamples with different characteristics;rather, different frameworks have beenemphasized with dyads with particulartypes of presenting issues (e.g., childdisability, environmental risk factors).Comparisons of intervention modelsmay be especially important wheninfants exhibit developmental differ-ences, presenting unique challenges tothe interactive process (McCollum &Bair, 1994). As we hope to demonstratein this paper, a comparison of interven-tion models may also be particularlyimportant when families come fromvarying cultural backgrounds.

The following sections will first de-scribe different approaches used inparent-infant interaction interventionwith birth-to-three year olds. All of theapproaches selected for discussion arebased on a transactional view of theparent-infant relationship, directedtoward influencing parent-infant interac-

tion through modifying the parent'sbehavior in relation to the infant. Thisinformation will then be consideredfrom the perspective of its implicationsfor working with individuals fromculturally diverse backgrounds. Finally,guidelines for recommended practice ininteraction intervention will be exam-ined from the perspective of this review.

1 0


Approaches to Interaction Intervention

Theoretical Framework

Different approaches to influencing theparent-child system may differ substan-tially from one another, based on theparticular theory upon which eachapproach is based, and relatedly uponthe historical perspective and training ofthe individuals who typically implementthe intervention. Sameroff and Fiese(1990) outlined a 3-part framework ofapproaches to early intervention basedon a transactional perspective. First, in aremedial approach, the purpose is tobring about change in the child. Withinthe context of interaction, the focuswould be on changing the child's abilityto participate in the interaction. Forexample, remediation might be directedtoward the child's ability to self-regulateor to respond contingently. Second, inreeducation, intervention is directedtoward the parent's ability to care for thechild; with respect to interaction inter-vention, the goal would be to providethe parent with knowledge and skills toengage the child in optimal interaction.For instance, the parent might beprovidedwith infor-mation Figure 1about themation

importanceof interac-tion, ortaught newbehaviors <and strate- Behavioralgies such as Perspective

imitating

the child or prompting new responses.Finally, in redefinition, the purpose is tochange the way the parent feels aboutthe child and/or about their relationship.In interaction intervention, caregiversmight be helped to reflect on theirinterpretations of their infants' socialand communi-cative cues,perhaps bydrawing link-ages to the par-ents' ownrelation-ships withothers. Thus,depending onperspective,

In interaction interven-tion, caregivers might be helpedto reflect on their interpretationsof their infants' social andcommunicative cues, perhaps bydrawing linkages to the parents'own relationships with others.

interventionthat results in changes in parent-childinteraction could reasonably be directedtoward changing the ability of the childto interact with the parent, changing theability of the parent to interact with thechild, or changing the dyadic system.

Viewed from a transactional perspective,each approach is a legitimate one for

A Theoretical Continuum of Approaches to Changing Parent-Infant Interaction

erachoncaching

Coo Comin ancePlus Coaching & Plus

Guidance GiddiRce Cal&InteractiGuidon

PsychoanalyticPerspective

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Parent-Infant Interaction TR13

APPROACHES TOINTERACTION INTERVENTION

bringing about change in the system(Sameroff & Fiese, 1990).

Figure 1 represents a theoretical con-tinuum that falls within the definition ofinteraction intervention used in thispaper, in which intervention is con-ducted with the parent-child dyad as aunit. Several approaches to interactionintervention are portrayed: interactioncoaching, reflecting a primarily behav-ioral orientation, and directed towardchanging the interaction strategies usedby parents within the interactive situa-tion; interaction guidance, reflecting aprimarily psychotherapeutic orientationtoward identifying and clarifying theemotional and mental representationsthat parents have of their infants and ofthemselves as parents; and combinedapproaches, which draw upon theoreticalassumptions and practices from bothends of the continuum. Thus, bothreeducation and redefinition, as de-scribed by Sameroff and Fiese (1990), fitwithin the context of interaction inter-vention as defined in this paper, incorpo-rating both ends of the interactionintervention continuum shown in Figure1 into an overarching transactionalperspective on early development.

Illustrative Practices

Table 1 provides an anchor for furtherexploration of similarities and differ-ences among various approaches tointeraction intervention. The primaryfocus of the intervention and the primarypopulations with whom each approachhas been used are noted for each pointon the continuum shown in Figure 1.

Several different ways of combiningaspects of models from the two ends ofthe continuum are shown under com-bined approaches. The followingsections will provide examples ofmodels from each end of the interactionintervention continuum before describ-ing several combined models.

As might be expected, different ap-proaches have been emphasized todifferent extents with particular earlyintervention populations, depending onassumptions made about causal factorsunderlying the need for interactionintervention. In practice, few interven-tion models fit neatly within the con-fines of a single point on this con-tinuum; rather, most models fall withinthe "combined" section of the interac-tion intervention continuum shown inFigure 1. Moreover, strategies will bluras the interventionist strives to matchthe perceived abilities and needs of theindividual dyad (Stern-Bruschweiler &Stern, 1989). However, while adjacentsets of models have many practices andgoals in common, they neverthelessrepresent different positions on thecontinuum with regard to the degree towhich they are derived from theirrespective underlying theory andassumptions. It is important to clarifythe assumptions, goals, and proceduresof different approaches since differentmodels may be more or less congruentwith the values and beliefs of individu-als from different cultural backgroundsand contexts (Ogbu, 1994).

Interaction CoachingIn interaction coaching, on the behav-ioral end of the continuum, parents are

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taught one or more strategies that willhelp to achieve more responsive,sensitive, mutually pleasurable interac-tions with their infants, with a focus onachieving characteristics of interactionidentified in the literature as related tooptimal development (McCollum, 1991;McCollum & Hemmeter, 1997). For

TABLE 1: APPROACHES TOINTERACTION INTERVENTION

instance, in an early experimental studyby Field (1982), mothers who wereoverly active or intrusive with theirpreterm infants were taught to decreasetheir own level of activity by remainingquiet except to imitate their infants'behaviors. A small subset of inactivemothers in the same study were helped

TABLE 1Approaches to Interaction Intervention

Based on Theoretical Orientation

Approach TheoreticalOrientation

PrimaryFocus

PrimaryPurpose

InterventionApproach

I. Interaction BehavioralCoaching

II. Interaction PsychoanalyticGuidance

III. CombinedApproaches

Interaction skillsand characteristics

Emotional and mentalrepresentations ofattachment relationship

A. Coaching Behavioral Interaction skills andplus Guidance characteristics, inter-

pretations of interactivecues, behavioralmatch and support

B. Guidance Psychoanalytic Representations ofplus Coaching attachment relationship,

interpretations of child'sabilities and cues

C. Eclectic Behavioral andperceptional

Any or all of above,matched to parent-childdyad at that point in time

Structure/qualityof interaction,language, cognition

Parent-child attach-ment relationship

Structure/qualityof interaction,generaldevelopment

Parent-childrelationship,general childdevelopment

Any or all of theabove

Provide information,demonstrate,reinforce

Discuss, interpret,comment

Direct teaching pluscommenting andinterpreting

Interpreting anddiscussion plussuggestingstrategies

Any or all of above,matched to parentand/or adjusted inthe moment

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to become more active by teaching themto play games that would hold theirinfants' attention. In this study, twostrategies, imitation and game playing,were used as a means toward achievinga more responsive, mutually enjoyableinteraction.

laThe primary theoreticalassumption underlyinginteraction coaching is thatparents can learn specificstrategies to use within thecontext of interaction with theirchildren.

A study bySeifer, Clarkand Sameroff(1991) illus-trates the useof interactioncoaching withdyads in whichthe infant hasdisabilities. Inthis study,

parent-child pairs were videotaped, andthe tapes subsequently used to providefeedback to mothers about anyoverstimulation observed. Suggestionswere also given for decreasingoverstimulation. Coaching resulted inincreases in maternal responsivity anddecreases in overstimulation in theintervention group. Infants in theintervention group were less fussyduring interaction, and also had betterdevelopmental assessment scores.

Many studies with a language develop-ment focus have used coaching to teachparents particular strategies for estab-lishing turn-taking patterns with theirchildren, as well as to provide condi-tions that encourage children to commu-nicate (e.g., Girolametto, Verbey, &Tannock, 1994; Tannock, Girolametto,& Siegel, 1992). Other coaching studiesand curricula have been directed towarddyads in which the infant has a develop-

mental disability (e.g., Mahoney &Powell, 1988; McCollum & Stayton,1985; Rosenberg & Robinson, 1985;Seifer, Clark & Sameroff, 1991).

The primary theoretical assumptionunderlying interaction coaching is thatparents can learn specific strategies touse within the context of interactionwith their children; changes in theparent's behavior with the infant willthen elicit and reinforce compensatorychanges in the child, bringing aboutchanges in the interaction patterns of thedyad. These changes result in interac-tions with the structural and affectiveproperties thought to be related tooptimal development and learning.There is often an underlying assumptionthat these changes will also bring abouta more pleasurable, mutually satisfyingparent-child attachment relationship(e.g., McCollum & Stayton, 1985).

Interaction coaching fits withinSameroff and Fiese's category of"reeducation," providing parents withnew information and skills for involvingtheir children in interaction. The out-comes of interaction coaching areusually judged based on measures offrequency or appropriateness of theparent's use of these strategies andsometimes of changes in the child'sparticipation in conjunction with theparent's use of the strategies. Longerterm goals tend to be measured usingstandardized measures of language orgeneral development.

Interaction GuidanceWhereas the emphasis of interactioncoaching is on parents' acquisition of

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particular interaction strategies, theemphasis in interaction guidance, on theother end of the continuum shown inFigure 1, is the parent's mental andemotional representation of the infant(Zeanah & Barton, 1989), observedthrough the parent's interactions withthe infant, or derived from the parent'sinterpretation of the infant's emotionsand competencies. Hence, interactionguidance fits within Sameroff andFiese's "redefinition" category, and isgeared toward assisting the parent torepresent the infant in a new and differ-ent way, thereby enabling the parent tobe more attuned to the infant's cues,needs, and abilities. The attachmentrelationship, rather than characteristicsof interaction per se, are the primaryconcern, with the expectation thatchanges in the relationship will bemirrored by changes in parent-infantinteraction (Stern-Bruschweiler & Stern,1989) as well as providing a healthierbase for future interactions.

Based on its theoretical roots in psycho-analysis, and more specifically in infantmental health and attachment theory(see Zeanah, 1993), the primary assump-tion in interaction guidance has beenthat disturbances in the interaction resultfrom the presence of parental or familialfactors that interfere with the parent'sability to accurately represent the infantand their relationship. Hence, interactionguidance has been used most often withdyads thought to be at risk for less thanoptimal attachment due to factors in themother (e.g., adolescence, depression)or with dyads demonstrating disturbedrelationships (e.g., child abuse orneglect).


McDonough (1993) describes interac-tion guidance as a "brief psycho-therapymodel that is family-problem-focused"(p. 414). In McDonough's interventionmodel, an interactive play sequencebetween the parent and child is used as ameans to assist the parent in developinggreater understanding of the child.Within the context of a typical visit, aplay sequence is first videotaped, andthen subsequently watched by the parentand the therapist together. Duringviewing, the therapist elicits parentcomments about the interaction, com-ments on positive aspects of the play,and assists parents to explore theirthoughts about their own and theirchild's feelings during play. The parentis led toward recognition of his or herown feelingsand how theseinfluence theinteractions ob-served with thechild. While thetherapist prima-rily follows theparent's lead,he or she mayalso raise im-portant issuesstemming fromwhat is

Interaction guidance fitswithin the "redefinition"category, and is geared towardassisting the parent to representthe infant in a new and differentway, thereby enabling theparent to be more attuned tothe infant's cues, needs, andabilities.

observed during play and during otherinteractions with the family (e.g., duringfamily assessment or discussions ofbroader family issues). Based on thecommon roots that it shares with infantmental health, the primary purpose ofinteraction guidance is to changeparents' mental and emotional represen-tation of the infant such that the parentscan more accurately interpret their own

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Parent-Infant Interaction I 7R13


and their infant's perspectives. To date,case studies have been the primarymeans of documenting the positive

outcomes of

alnteraction guidance isfocused on changing theparent's mental and emotionalrepresentation of the infant asa way to strengthen theattachment relationship.

this approach(seeMcDonough,1993).

A secondexample ofinteractionguidance maybe found in

studies that have used parents' observa-tions of newborn or early infant assess-ments as an avenue for influencingparents' mental and emotional represen-tations of their infants very early in theirinfants' lives, particularly in cases wherethe dyad may be at risk due to factorsthought to influence these representa-tions (e.g., maternal depression, historyof child abuse). For instance, manystudies have been reported in which theBraze lton Neonatal Assessment Scale(BNAS) or some derivation of it hasbeen used to demonstrate the infant'scompetence and interactive abilities tothe parents (e.g., Belsky, 1986; Cardone& Gilkerson, 1989; Nugent & Braze lton,1989; Widmayer & Field, 1981). Areview of studies using this approach(Britt & Myers, 1994) indicates someeffects on parent-infant interaction aswell as on other kinds of outcomes (e.g.,infant development, parent satisfaction).However, short-term effects have beenmore common than long-term, andeffects have varied according to theparticular aspect of interaction beingmeasured (e.g., responsiveness, overallinteraction scores), as well as in relation

to different demographic (e.g., riskstatus), intervention (e.g., intensity), andmeasurement (e.g., time from interven-tion) variables. As noted by Britt andMyers, it may be too much to expectthat a very early, short-term interventionwill have long-lasting, multiple effectson parent-child interaction or otheroutcomes.

The primary intervention procedureused in interaction guidance is discus-sion of the infant's interactive andresponsive capacities as a means forexamining the parent's interpretation ofthe infant. Further, the discussion islikely to happen within the context ofthe parent-child interaction itself (e.g.,through joint viewing of a videotape).The goal is to influence the parent'sideas about (i.e., "working model" of)the infant and the parent-infant relation-ship, thereby achieving conditions thatsupport parent-child attachment and thechild's emotional development. Unlikecoaching, which assists the parent tolearn particular strategies, interactionguidance is focused on changing theparent's mental and emotional represen-tation of the infant as a way tostrengthen the attachment relationship.The primary assumption is that parents'representations of the interaction stemfrom broader representations of theparent-child relationship, and must berecognized and changed in order tobring about meaningful change in thecharacteristics of interaction. As aconcrete representation of the relation-ship, interaction provides the interven-tionist opportunities to have the parentinterpret the infant, to interpret theinfant to the parent, and to point out

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7R13 I Parent-Infant Interaction

positive aspects of what is happeningbetween parent and child.

Combination ModelsMost approaches to interaction interven-tion combine aspects of interactioncoaching and interaction guidance, andin fact form a mini-continuum withinFigure 1. For the purposes of thisdiscussion, we will divide these modelsinto three sets. The first two to bediscussed, while combining aspects ofboth ends of the theoretical continuum,clearly lean toward one or the other end.The last approach to be discussed ismore eclectic. Models that fall at thispoint on the continuum tend to take amore pragmatic view, drawing assump-tions and practices relatively equallyfrom both ends, depending on theindividual parent-child dyad.

Interaction Coaching Plus GuidanceFalling toward the behavioral end of thecombined approaches, this point on thecontinuum, like coaching, emphasizeshelping parents learn strategies tosupport their infants' participation in apositive, reciprocal interaction. How-ever, it also incorporates aspects ofinteraction guidance in its emphasis onassisting the parent to observe, interpret,and respond to the infant's cues. Thus,intervention content and approachesmay be more individually matched tothe characteristics of the specific dyad,with the focus on the dyadic matchrather than on specific strategies (e.g.,McCollum & Stayton, 1985). Neverthe-less, the meaning of "interpretation" inthis set of approaches differs signifi-cantly from its meaning in interactionguidance, where the emphasis is on


interpretation of the parent's mental andemotional representation of the infant.The assumption in this more behavioralorientation is that it is primarily differ-ences in readability of the child and/or alack of a repertoire of behavioralstrategies in the parent that interferewith the interaction, rather than factorsthat are internal to the parent. Hence, asin interaction coaching, the focus is onbehavior. However, in common withinteraction guidance, there is more focuson assisting the parent to become betterattuned to the child's abilities and cues,thereby achieving more accurate inter-pretations of the infant's cognitive andemotional experience.

Many of the intervention models thatfall at this point on the continuum havebeen developed with particular charac-teristics of children with developmentaldisabilities (e.g., Barrera, 1991;McCollum, 1984; McCollum & Stayton,1985) or biological risk factors such asprematurity (e.g., Barnard, Hammond,Sumner et al,1987; Barrera,Rosenbaum &Cunningham,1 9 8 6 ;

Bromwich &Parmelee,1979) in mind.As in interac-tion coaching,

Many of the interventionmodels that fall in the center ofthe continuum have beendeveloped with particularcharacteristics of children withdevelopmental disabilities.

the interventionis undertaken largely as a means towarddeveloping structural and affectiveinteraction qualities that will foster thedevelopment of age-appropriate compe-tencies in the infant. Procedures used atthis point of the continuum also tend to

17



be similar to those used in interactioncoaching (e.g., modeling, demonstra-tion), with somewhat more emphasis onprocedures such as joint observation andinterpretation of the infant's behavioralcues. Thus, combined approaches at thisend of the central part of the continuumrepresent primarily a reeducationorientation, but also incorporate strate-gies that focus toward assisting theparent to redefine the infant. In the caseof infants with disabilities, the need forredefinition is based on the assumptionthat the infant's disability may result insome lack of clarity that makes aninteractive partnership more difficult toestablish.

Interaction Guidance Plus CoachingA second set of combined approaches,falling toward the psychoanalytic end ofthe continuum, has theoretical underpin-nings and many practices in commonwith interaction guidance, but alsoincorporate elements of interactioncoaching. In accord with a theoreticalorientation that places the source of

interference

larkThe underlying assump-tion of interaction guidance pluscoaching is that the parent'srepresentation of the infant willbe influenced by achieving amore accurate interpretation ofthe infant's abilities andresponses within the interactivecontext, thereby influencing thedevelopment of a healthierattachment relationship.

with optimalinteraction inthe parentrather than theinfant, this setof approachesemphasizesparents' mentaland emotionalrepresentationof their infants.However, inaccord withmore behav-ioral models,

this is often addressed by assisting theparent to focus on the behavioralcapabilities of their infants as interactivepartners, or on their infants' responses tointeraction overtures. The underlyingassumption is that the parent's represen-tation of the infant will be influenced byachieving a more accurate interpretationof the infant's abilities and responseswithin the interactive context, therebyinfluencing the development of ahealthier attachment relationship.

Approaches falling within this part ofthe continuum have been used mostextensively with parents considered tobe at risk for environmental reasons,where lack of knowledge of infantdevelopment, as well as personal andfamilial context and history, mayinterfere with the parent's ability tointerpret the infant's cues (e.g., Muir,1992). Fraiberg's work with blindinfants and their parents provides a veryclear illustration of how this theoreticalorientation also addresses the needs ofdyads in which the infant has a disability(Fraiberg, 1974). The theoretical as-sumptions underlying this work place ittoward the psychoanalytic end of thecontinuum; emphasis is placed on theparent's representation of self as parent,with the infant serving as a vehicle forexploring this representation. However,parents are also assisted in interpretingand responding to the communicativedifferences that their blind infants bringto the interactive situation. Fraiberg'scase studies of blind infants with theirparents provide clear evidence thatassisting parents to interpret and adaptto their infants' abilities and differences,in addition to assisting parents to

18


explore their mental and emotionalrepresentations of the infants and ofthemselves as parents of these infants,can lead to the parents being able toestablish more optimal interactivecontexts for their infants' development.

A carefully controlled intervention studyconducted in the Netherlands (van denBoom, 1994) further illustrates thepotential of conducting interactioncoaching within a theoretical orientationderived from an attachment framework.In this study, dyads were selected basedboth on low socioeconomic status andon identification of the infants asirritable. Intervention was directedtoward teaching the mother behavioralskills for monitoring, interpreting, andresponding to their infants. Resultsindicated differences in intervention andcontrol groups not only on directmeasures of interaction behaviors, butalso in attachment and in infant perse-verance, attention span, and explorationduring play.

Thus, in contrast to more purely psycho-analytic approaches, the assumptionhere is that the parent needs specificknowledge and skills in order to engagethe infant in pleasurable, reciprocalinteraction; in this set of approaches,this process is viewed as a means tomore accurate parental interpretationand representation of the infant. Toachieve this, the intervention processoften incorporates asking the parent totry certain strategies with the infant (asin coaching), so that the infant's respon-siveness to the parent will be high-lighted. Hence, while the primary goal isto redefine the infant in the parent's


eyes, and to thereby facilitate attach-ment, these approaches also includeelements of reeducation in directlyteaching parents not only about theirinfants' abilities, but in assisting them touse strategies that highlight theseabilities. Because emotional develop-ment is expected to be manifested inmore general development, moregeneral developmental competence hasbeen used as the most common infantmeasure.

Eclectic ApproachesSeveral models of interaction interven-tion, while not explicitly recommendinga combined theoretical orientation, havetaken a more pragmatic orientationtoward combining assumptions and/orintervention procedures from both endsof the continuum, depending on theinterventionist's judgment of what willbest match the needs of the individualparent-child dyad. For instance, in anintervention model developed byBromwich (1981; 1990), interventiontargets are arranged in a hierarchy inwhich the parent-child relationship isviewed as a foundation for achievingdevelopmentally supportive interactions.In this model, the latter become anexplicit target of intervention only whena solid foundational relationship isachieved. A somewhat different ap-proach is represented in the work ofMcCollum and Yates (1994), in whichintervention strategies from both ends ofthe continuum may be used frommoment to moment in response to whatis happening in the interaction on amoment-to-moment basis, as well as onthe interventionist's knowledge of thechild and of the parent. The assumption

9?



in this model is that, while differentparents may benefit from different typesof strategies, all parents will gain from

strategies that

While different parentsmay benefit from different typesof strategies, all parents willgain from strategies that supporttheir knowledge of their infant'sdeveloping abilities as well asstrategies that support their owninteraction skills.

support theirknowledge oftheir infant'sdevelopingabilities aswell as strate-gies thatsupport theirown interac-tion skills.Both of thesemodels

combine strategies that may be benefi-cial in adapting to the many individualdifferences among parent-infant dyads,and both combine elements of redefini-tion and reeducation. However, in theformer, reeducation goals and strategiesfollow from redefinition goals andstrategies, whereas in the latter theseshift from moment to moment as well asfrom dyad to dyad.

Combined models, like the models ateither end of the continuum, have beensubjected to little systematic research.Nevertheless, given the extreme indi-vidual variation that children withdisabilities bring to the interactioncontext, as well as individual variationin how parents respond emotionally andinstrumentally to children's disabilities,combination models, if thoughtfullyapplied, may offer the best chance ofmatching each dyad's strengths, needs,and preferences.

Summary

The continuum shown in Figure 1provides a framework for examiningapproaches to interaction interventionwith respect to their primary theoreticalorientation. Each of the approaches,including each different combinationwithin the central portion of the con-tinuum, represents different emphaseswith respect to the source of differencesin interaction as well as the types ofchanges to be essential in achievingmore optimal interaction. Based onthese differences, content varies acrossthe continuum from the acquisition ofstrategies and skills at the behavioralend to changes in the parent's mentaland emotional representation of theinfant at the psychoanalytic end. Simi-larly, intervention processes vary fromdirect teaching of skills and strategies, toexamination and clarification of internalrepresentations. Based on case descrip-tion and a limited amount of empiricaldata, each approach appears to havevalue for some dyads with respect tosome outcomes.

Even this brief overview of approachesrepresenting two different theoreticalorientations clearly demonstrates thatdifferences in intervention strategyalong this continuum are primarilydifferences in emphasis. It is alsoapparent that the ability to combinetheoretical orientations may be impor-tant in conducting work with dyads inwhich infants have developmentaldisabilities. It appears that a moreexplicit recognition and combination oftheoretical orientations might also bebeneficial in responding to the many

20


potential individual differences amongdyads in which the infant has a develop-mental disability. Neither end of thecontinuum adequately addresses theneeds that are emphasized at the other;consequently, approaches at each endmake assumptions about parents' needsthat may not accurately represent thedyad. Clearly, infants with disabilitiesbring real differences to the interactiveprocess. In addition, however, interac-tions may be influenced by parents'perceptions of their role as parents, bothin general and in relation to an infantwith a disability. Further, each of thesemay be influenced by the parent's ownhistorical and current life situation.Thus, different cultural perspectivesmay have significant implications atevery point along this continuum.

As shown in Table 2, cultural (and otherforms of) diversity can be represented inseveral ways in studies of interactionintervention. One way to pay attentionto diversity (Model 1) is to consciouslyexclude individuals with certain charac-teristics from the sample to whom theintervention is applied, with the expresspurpose of eliminating a source ofvariance that is difficult to control. Thisapproach acknowledges that differentcharacteristics of the population mayinfluence the outcomes of the interactionin unknown ways; nevertheless,generalizability to anyone not having thesame characteristics as the individuals inthe study is not warranted. A secondpossibility (Model 2) is that individualswith diverse characteristics are part ofthe larger sample used in the particularstudy; information may be providedabout the characteristics of the sample,


but without separate analyses on sub-group differences. Here, individualsfrom different cultural/ethnic groups arepresumed to fit within the same theoreti-cal framework. In Model 3, individualswho vary with regard to some particularcharacteristic such as ethnicity, culture,or language may be specifically selectedfor intervention because potentialdifferences in interaction have alreadybeen identified; thus, all individualsfrom a particular socioeconomic groupmight be provided with interventionbecause developmental research hasindicated that they are at risk for lessthan optimal interactions. If the inter-vention works, then generalization toothers with similar characteristics maybe warranted.In Model 4, re-sults for sub-groups of indi-viduals within alarger study,varying fromone another onsome character-istic such asethnicity orrace, may be

A more explicit recogni-tion and combination oftheoretical orientations mightalso be beneficial in respondingto the many potential individualdifferences among dyads inwhich the infant has adevelopmental disability.

compared posthoc in order to determine whether theyresponded in the same way to theintervention. For instance, Spiker,Ferguson and Brooks-Gunn (1993),analyzing the parent-child interactionresults from a comprehensive earlyintervention program for low birthweight, premature infants (the InfantHealth and Development Program),reported that maternal race and maternaleducation influenced maternal anddyadic ratings independently of the

21

Parent-Infant Interaction I TR1 3

TABLE 2: MODELS ... PARENT-INFANTINTERACTION INTERVENTION STUDIES

TABLE 2

Models for Representing Diversify in Parent-InfantInteraction Intervention Studies

Model

Excluded from Sample

Included as Part of Larger Sample

Selected for Intervention Basedon Diversity

Post-hoc Comparison

Comparative Samples

1

1 Characteristics

Individuals included in sample are limited to thosehaving particular characteristics in order to controlfor possible effects of diversity on parent-infantinteraction

Individuals with diverse characteristics are includedwithin the total sample as representative of the totalpopulation, but are not separated out for analysis

Individuals with particular characteristics are selectedfor intervention because those characteristics arebelieved to place them at risk for less than optimalparent-infant interaction

Individuals included within the total sample areseparated on a post-hoc basis in order to determinewhether the interaction intervention had differentialeffects on individuals with different characteristics

Individuals are selected to represent differentcultural/linguistic backgrounds, with the intent ofcomparing the efficacy of the interaction interventionacross groups from different backgrounds

intervention. Finally, as shown in Model5, comparative samples of individualswith specific backgrounds could beselected for intervention in order tocompare intervention outcomes acrossgroups.

As noted in the introduction to thispaper, most of the knowledge on whichdifferent approaches to interaction

intervention are based stem from workwith samples of western-Europeanorigin. Given the small body of litera-ture and the range of variation in bothapproaches and outcomes, it is notsurprising that questions of cultural andlinguistic diversity and their relation tovariations in interaction interventionhave received almost no attention.Nevertheless, a major complicating

22


factor in evaluating the extent to whichthe approaches to interaction interven-tion apply across individuals fromdifferent cultural backgrounds is that noresearch of these approaches has directlyaddressed this question.

Although all five models are appropriatefor addressing particular questions andmaking particular kinds of generaliza-tions, only Model 5 allows conclusionsabout the relative effectiveness of anyparticular approach across groups. Moreimportantly with respect to the issuesraised in this paper, even this modeldoes not address the question of appro-priateness: it is quite possible thatdesired outcomes, as defined by theinterventionist, could be obtained evenwhen neither the outcome nor theapproach has validity for a particulargroup (or for some individuals withinthe group).

To obtain an answer to this question,participants in the intervention must bedirectly asked to respond to it. If theyare not, then regardless of the researchmodel, assumptions are being madeabout the appropriateness and relevanceof the intervention model for individualsfor whom these assumptions may nothold true. As noted previously, thequestion in interaction intervention (asin other areas of early intervention, seeGuralnick, 1997) has been, "Does itwork?," with little consideration of"with whom?." A further question fromthe perspective of cultural appropriate-ness is, "What meaning does this havefor the individual in relation to his or herown world view?" Reasonable outcomesof interaction intervention include child


and parent be-havior, theparent's percep-tion of self andof the child, andthe parent's per-ception of the in-tervention.There are manyreasons to ex-

Reasonable outcomesof interaction interventioninclude child and parentbehavior, the parent'sperception of self and of thechild, and the parent'sperception of the intervention.

pect that any oneor more of these three outcomes ofinteraction intervention might varyacross cultures.

23


Applying a Critical Cultural Lensto Interaction Intervention

Culture is defined here as a sharedapproach to life, based on common

social norms, beliefs, and values thatgovern the roles, communicationpatterns, and affective styles of thosewho identify with the culture(Betancourt & Lopez, 1993). Culturemay lie within or across ethnic (i.e.,country of origin) or racial (i.e., com-mon biological lineage) lines or mayrefer to affiliation with a subgroupwithin a larger cultural group. Thevalidity of applying any approach acrosscultures will require much research or atleast careful examination of all aspectsof each model from different culturalperspectives. These tasks are clearlybeyond the scope of this paper. How-ever, some insight as to cross-cultural

applicabilitymay be gainedlaThe validity of lyinappg

any approach across cultureswill require much research orat least careful examination ofall aspects of each model fromdifferent cultural perspectives.

by examiningselectedculturallysituated factorsthat are closelyrelated. Onesuch factor isthe perspec-tives that

individuals from different cultures bringto the role of parenting, and by implica-tion to their interactions with infants.

The next section will illustrate how evena small amount of knowledge of culturalviews on parenting can bring newunderstanding to evaluating the cross-

cultural appropriateness of interactionintervention.

At least two aspects of parent-childinteraction intervention deserve specialattention from within the context of acultural perspective on parenting: thecontent of the intervention, or theaspects of interaction that the interven-tion is concerned toward, and theintervention process, including theprocedures used to bring about thedesired change in the interaction as wellas the physical and social contexts inwhich intervention occurs.

Content

The content of interaction interventionundertaken primarily to foster theinfant's development is drawn largelyfrom developmental research linkingparticular qualities of early interactionsand early relationships to later develop-mental outcomes across multipledomains. For infants with developmen-tal disabilities, this content is furthersupported by research demonstratingthat these same characteristics ofinteraction often differ in these dyads.The assumption is that interactionintervention directed toward thesecharacteristics, whether they be behav-iors or representations, will provide amore appropriate developmental envi-ronment for the infant. However,McCollum and McBride's (1998)

24

3 I Parent-Infant Interaction

review of issues related to the content ofparent-infant interaction rating scalesyielded two important questions withrespect to cultural appropriateness thatare also germane here: whether similardevelopmental goals (e.g., psychologicaltraits, developmental abilities) arevalued equally across cultures; andwhether, given a similar developmentalgoal, the same parenting practices arenecessarily needed to achieve it. Cross-cultural research indicates that theanswers to neither of these questions isan unqualified "yes."

The concept of directiveness serves as acase in point. In Western culture,parental directiveness has been linked toauthoritarianism, a trait that has beenassociated with less than optimalemotional and social development.Within the context of parent-infantinteraction, directiveness is interpretedas being contradictory to the ability toestablish qualities such as turn-takingand to the child's ability to take theinitiative in the interaction (Marto,1991), potentially hindering emotional,communicative and cognitive compe-tence. Even a cursory examination ofparent-child interaction research fromanother culture places these linkages ina different light. As described by Chao(1990), in Chinese society directiveness,or "training," has positive connotations,and is an important part of the mother-ing role in preparing the child to becomea part of a culture that values interde-pendence over independence. Becauseof this cultural context, and becausegood parenting is defined in this way,training also has positive connotations tothe child. Hence, differences in interac-

APPLYING A CRITICAL CULTURAL LENSTO INTERACTION INTERVENTION

tion among caregivers from differentcultures may point to different conclu-sions. In Chao's example, differentbehaviors appear to be related to optimaldevelopment, defined by the culture inthis case as different goals. In addition,it is possible that, across cultures,different approaches to parenting maybe equally related to the same develop-mental goals. For instance, whiledirectiveness may be negatively relatedto academic achievement in a culturalcontext that values independence, it maybe positively related to the same out-come in a cultural context that valuesinterdependence (Chao, 1990).

The implications of cross-culturalresearch for selecting appropriatecontent for parent-infant interactionintervention are enormous. First, thecultural goals for parent-infant interac-tion may differ across cultures (Chen &McCollum, 2000; Greenfield, 1994;Harkness & Super, 1995; McCollum,Ree, & Chen, 2000); consequently,"good" parenting and parent-childinteraction may be defined quite differ-ently. Adding a developmental disabilityfurther complicates this picture. Percep-tions of infancy, of parenting goals, andof appropriate parenting behavior whenthe infant has a disability may differfrom more normative ones, and un-doubtedly differ across cultures. Inter-vention directed toward parents' interac-tions with their infants, even whenviewed as appropriate by parents, mayhave different content implicationsacross cultures. Since most of what weknow about interaction intervention isbased on developmental or interventionresearch from Western societies, or is

25



based on assumptions derived fromWestern values, the danger is thatinteraction intervention may eitheremphasize what is not valued by orrelevant to the family, or may not

emphasize

aFor interaction inter-vention to influence develop-mental outcome, contexts ofintervention should mirror theconditions under which infantsare engaged in interaction.

what is valued(McCollum &McBride,1998).

The answers tothis kind ofquestion canonly bederived from

comparative research which directlyaddresses the cultural validity of theintervention content. As researcherscontinue to broaden their scope ofattention and their openness to non-Western views of the world, interven-tionists must seek to understand themeaning of particular outcomes andgoals to families with different worldviews. In practicing intervention, thiswill be necessary at the individualfamily level as well.

Intervention Process

The process of interaction interventionrelates to the particular practices andstrategies used by the interventionist inaddressing the goals of the intervention.As illustrated above, interaction coach-ing relies primarily on direct teaching,using strategies such as providinginformation, demonstration, and guidedpractice, whereas interaction guidancerelies more heavily on techniques suchas reflection, interpretation of internal

representations, and reframing. Interven-tion processes used at each end of thecontinuum are directed toward specifickinds of outcomes. As illustrated above,these outcomes may be differentiallyrelevant and acceptable across culturalgroups. It therefore might be expectedthat the processes would be perceiveddifferently across groups as well.

Interaction intervention research, likeother early intervention research, lacksthis level of specificity (McCollum &Hemmeter, 1997). In accord with thefive research models outlined above,answers to this question would have tobe addressed directly, using directcomparisons of effectiveness of differentmodels across samples representingvarious cultural perspectives, as well asdirect comparisons of different groups'evaluations of the appropriateness ofthese processes. While this has not beendone, other areas of the literature can bedrawn upon to inform our understandingof how cultural background mightinfluence perceptions of the process ofinteraction intervention. Two areaswhich may have particular relevance tointeraction intervention include thecultural contexts of infants' interactionswith their primary caregivers, andcultural views of helping relationships.

For interaction intervention to influencedevelopmental outcome, contexts ofintervention should mirror the condi-tions under which infants are engaged ininteraction, including where, withwhom, and around what content theyoccur. Interaction intervention ap-proaches rely heavily on fairly narrowlydefined contexts, most often represent-

26


ing social or toy play, teaching, orfeeding interactions with the mother. Yetthe everyday contexts of parent-childinteraction, including the role of theparent, may differ greatly across cultures(McCollum & McBride, 1998).

In some cultural groups, interaction withthe infant in any one or more of thesethree types of situations may not beviewed as the responsibility of thebiological parent; rather, this role mayfall to other close adults or to siblings.Parent-infant play, the most often-studied type of early interaction, and themost often used as the context ofinteraction intervention, may varyconsiderably across cultures, or mayvary in relation to gender or to the ageof the child. Even one-to-one playbetween infant and adult may be lessmeaningful in some cultures than inothers.

All of the intervention approachesdescribed above are similar in theiremphasis on the mother-child dyad, andon the use of parent-child play as thesetting for intervention. Viewed from theperspective of the samples on whom thedevelopmental research underlying theseprocedures was conducted, there appearsto be a meaningful relationship betweenthese contexts and children's develop-ment. However, when interaction issituated in different contexts, or isviewed differently for some children,then its relationship to developmentundoubtedly differs as well (McCollum& McBride, 1998); the relevance ofuniformly using these contexts forintervention is therefore also question-able.


Perhaps the most important part of howinterventions are delivered is the rela-tionship between interventionist andparent, and the roles taken by each ofthese individuals within the intervention(Kalmanson & Seligman, 1992). Each ofthe interaction intervention approachesdescribed above is based on this rela-tionship. However, interventionists andparents both approach the interventioncontext from the perspective of theirown personal and cultural histories.Views of appropriate helping relation-ships, including the respective roles ofinterventionist and family, may differ inaccord with differing views of the self(Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Forinstance, the degree to which a parentconsiders a decision-making or a directservice role appropriate may vary inrelation to cultural views of professionalexpertise and responsibilities.

Similarly, the extent to which it isconsidered appropriate for familymembers other than parents to beinvolved in the early interventionprocess may vary in relation to percep-tions of parenting held in differentcultures. Important concepts underlyinga family-centered approach, currentlyemphasized in early intervention, maybe unfamiliar and uncomfortable tosome families based on their views ofappropriate roles and responsibilities forthemselves and service providers, aswell as on their own historical experi-ence with service providers frombackgrounds dissimilar to their own(Chen, 1997). The effectiveness offamily-centered models of servicedelivery (Trivette, Dunst & Hamby,1996) have yet to be validated with

27



families from diverse cultural andsocioeconomic backgrounds (Chen,1997).

Guralnick's (1989) view that the degreeto which parents are supported in theirown development as competent andconfident caregivers may be a primaryfactor determining the effectiveness ofearly intervention. This would guide us

to look for

Culture determinesperceptions of self as parentby defining parentalresponsibilities to the child andfamily (and vice versa), and bydefining appropriate roles forvarious types of individualsoutside of the family.

Parent-infant interaction isa very private matter, groundedin each culture's views of theparenting.

processes thatnot onlyachieve changein the interac-tion, but thatfoster a senseof self-efficacyin thecaregiver.However,culture deter-mines percep-tions of self asparent bydefiningparentalresponsibilitiesto the childand family(and viceversa), and by

defining appropriate roles for varioustypes of individuals outside of thefamily. Hence, self-efficacy may bedetermined by different factors acrosscultures, and basic to achieving it wouldbe matching the intervention to thecaregiver's view of what is wanted,needed, and appropriate to the culturalcontext.

Summary1.11 Il

Appropriate contents, processes, andcontexts of interaction intervention areculturally defined. Parents participatingin intervention organize their behaviorin accord with their perceptions of whatis appropriate, given their own cultureand personal history, as well as theircurrent ecologies. Parent-infant interac-tion is a very private matter, grounded ineach culture's views of the parenting.Views of disability and illness may alsodiffer considerably in relation to culture(Reynolds & Ingstad, 1995), and little isknown about how this interacts withviews of appropriate parenting. Thecharacteristics of effective interventionmay themselves differ across cultures,related to different views of appropriateparent-professional relationships (Chen,1997) and how intervention should beconducted. It is quite possible that thereare important inter-group differences inwhat brings about change, in whatchange is appropriate, and in whatsupports and enhances parental efficacy.Hence, another part of the specificityquestion stated above might be, "andwhy?" since mechanisms explainingintervention success (or lack of success)may well differ across cultural groups.

28


Conclusions and Implications

Despite many complicating issues,the logic underlying interaction

intervention with dyads in which theinfants have disabilities is compelling.Not only is it clear that for some popula-tions, under some conditions, interven-tion does bring about the desiredchanges in the characteristics of theinteraction, but it is also clear that forsome populations, under some condi-tions, longer-term outcomes are ob-tained as well. Interaction interventionmakes theoretical sense from bothdevelopmental and family systemsperspectives. Based on analyses of theresults of more comprehensive earlyintervention studies, some researchershave speculated that changes in theparent-infant interaction system, and inparents' views of themselves as effectivecaregivers, may be the primary mecha-nisms that account for positive develop-mental outcomes from early intervention(McCollum, 1991; McCollum &Hemmeter, 1997; Spiker, Ferguson, &Brooks-Gunn, 1993). Longer-termsuccess is likely to accrue when parentsbecome more proficient in observingand interpreting their infants' develop-mental agendas, and when they gainconfidence in their own ability toengage and support their infants (Seitz& Provence, 1990). Based on this logicas well as on the compelling logic of atransactional systems perspective onearly interaction (Sameroff & Chandler,1975), professionals from many disci-plines have rightly become interested ininteraction intervention. Nevertheless,this field of study represents many

theoretical assumptions and manyhoped-for outcomes.

An optimal set of criteria for planningand evaluating interaction interventionwould be grounded in demonstratedresults across a wide variety of condi-tions and populations; would be theo-retically linked to developmentalprocesses within the context of family;and would be family-centered, reflectingthe family'sviews of what isappropriate withregard to con-tent, process,and context.This groundingwould requirestudies acrossmany cultural/linguisticgroups, and inrelation to im-portant sourcesof variation

The reality is that inter-action intervention, whenapplied to individuals fromdifferent cultural backgrounds,has been applied withoutconsideration to the potentialinfluences that thesebackgrounds may have oninterpreting the results of theintervention.

la

within groups.These studies have not been done. Thereality is that interaction intervention,when applied to individuals fromdifferent cultural backgrounds, has beenapplied without consideration to thepotential influences that these back-grounds may have on interpreting theresults of the intervention. Developmen-tal studies have begun to attend tosimilarities and differences in childrearing practices across cultures, includ-ing similarities and differences ininteraction and attachment patterns (e.g.,

29


CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Grossman & Grossman, 1990; Fracasso,Busch-Rossnagel, & Fisher, 1993); thesestudies must be extended to includechildren with disabilities. In addition,intervention studies must begin torecognize and systematically seek tounderstand how intervention practicesinteract with these and other culturalvalues and practices.

41The current bestapproach to interactionintervention is to seek to learnfrom the family and from othersin the community the influencesthat different views of the worldmay bring to bear on any oneapproach to practice, includingany one approach to interactionintervention.

Despite thesegaps in knowl-edge, it ispossible todraw fromwhat is avail-able somegeneral criteriafor evaluatingmodels ofinteractionintervention.Table 3provides a listof suggested

minimum criteria for evaluating interac-tion intervention approaches from acultural perspective. The guidelinesshown ask four primary types of ques-tions: first, is the practice consistentwith theory with respect to infantdevelopment, the infant as part of afamily system, and a systems perspec-tive on early intervention; second, isefficacy information available, and has itaddressed questions of specificity withregard to who receives which approach,in what kind of context, how, and withrespect to which outcomes; third, is thecontent (focus) of the interventionculturally appropriate, relevant, andinclusive; and fourth, do the process andcontext of intervention appear to be

culturally and individually appropriatefor this family. Policy makers at thenational and state levels and profes-sional organizations such as the Divisionfor Early Childhood and the NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren should keep such criteria inmind as they set or evaluate recommen-dations for practice.

Across cultures, early interactions withcaregivers (parents and others) serve asthe child's window to development andto the world. We know that factors inchild, caregiver or environment mayplace these interactions at risk. Normal-izing interactions in order to achieveparticular characteristics of interactionmay lay the groundwork for influencingmany aspects of development. However,to achieve this goal, early intervention-ists must learn what is viewed as"normal" in the culture with which thefamily affiliates (Ogbu, 1994), so thatstandards of comparison are relevant tothe individual. It is imperative to guardagainst using cultural labels as criteriafor making decisions about intervention.

Many factors impact a family's beliefsand values in addition to beliefs andvalues stemming from culture. Drawingthe line between making this kind ofjudgment and imposing one's owncultural perspectives is a fine lineindeed. Given the many unknown waysin which culture may interact with anyone approach to interaction intervention,interventionists must become sensitiveto how differing views of the world,including their own, influence views ofparenting, parent-child interaction, andhelping relationships. The current best

30


TABLE 3: CRITERIA FOR EVALUATINGMODELS AND MATERIALS

TABLE 3

Criteria for Evaluating Models and Materials Related to Interaction Intervention

Focus Criterion

Theoretical Grounding 1. The approach reflects current theories of child development (e.g., integrateddevelopment)

2. The approach reflects current theories of families (e.g., family systems theory)

3. The approach reflects current theories of service delivery (e.g., systems theory)

Model Effectiveness 1. The approach has been shown to be effective for accomplishing important short-and/or long-term outcomes.

2. The approach has been examined for effectiveness with different populations, indifferent contexts, for different outcomes.

DevelopmentalRelevance

1. The approach reflects research on characteristics of early interactions that arerelated to children's development.

2. The approach is grounded in everyday, contextually relevant caregiver-child routines.

3. The approach emphasizes mutual adaptation between infant and caregiver as a wayof highlighting what each individual member of the dyad brings to the interaction.

4. The approach draws upon dyad-specific content and uses dyad-specific procedures,drawing upon the preferences and abilities of the particular dyad.

5. The approach respects the parenting role, emphasizing the development of self-efficacy in the caregiver.

Cultural andIndividual Contexts

1. The goals and focus of this approach: (a) have been validated across cultural groupswith regard to relevance, appropriateness, and inclusiveness; and/or (b) are consis-tent with what is known about the cultural group with which the family(ies) identify.

2. The procedures/contexts used in this approach: (a) have been validated acrosscultural groups with respect to appropriateness and desirability; and/or (b) are consis-tent with what is known about the cultural group with which the family(ies) identify.

3. The content, processes and contexts of intervention are selected by, and aremeaningful to, each family with whom it is used.

approach to interaction intervention, andperhaps the continuing best approach, isto seek to learn from the family andfrom others in the community the

influences that different views of theworld may bring to bear on any oneapproach to practice, including any oneapproach to interaction intervention.

31

.

erences Ittour

References1111 1E3 E

REST COPY AVALAKE 32


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Barnard, K. E., Morisset, C. E. , & Spieker, S. J. (1993). Preventive interventions:Enhancing parent-infant relationships. In C. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook on infantmental health (pp. 386-401). New York: Guilford Press.

Barrera, M. E. (1991). The transactional model of early home intervention: Applica-tion with developmentally delayed children and their families. In K. Marfo (Ed.),Early intervention in transition: Current perspectives on programs for handicappedchildren (pp. 109-146). New York: Praeger.

Barrera, M., Rosenbaum, P., & Cunningham, C. (1986). Early home interventionwith low birth weight infants and their parents. Child Development. 57, 20-33.

Belsky (1986). A tale of two variances: Between and within. Child Development. 57,1301-1305.

Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race inAmerican psychology. American Psychologist. 48, 629-637.

Britt, G. C., & Myers, B. J. (1994). The effects of Braze lton intervention: A review.Infant Mental Health Journal. 15(3), 278-292.

Bromwich, R. M. (1990). The interaction approach to early intervention. InfantMental Health Journal. 11(1), 66-79.

Bromwich, R. M. (1981). Working with parents and infants: An interactional ap-proach. Baltimore: University Park Press.

Bromwich, R. M., & Parmelee, A. H. (1979). An intervention program for pre-terminfants. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infantsborn at risk: Behavior and development (pp. 389-411). New York: Spectrum Medical& Science Books.

33


REFERENCES

Bugental, D. (1987). Attributions as moderator variables within social interactionalsystems. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 5, 469-484.

Cardone, I. A., & Gilkerson, L. (1989). Family administered neonatal activities: Aninnovative component of family-centered care. Zero to Three, 10(1), 23-28.

Chao, R. K. (1990). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style:Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. ChildDevelopment. 65, 1111-1119.

Chen, D. (1997). Family/professional relationships: Helping relationships. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, Early Childhood Research Institute on Cultur-ally and Linguistically Appropriate Services.

Chen, Y., & McCollum, J. A. (2000). Taiwanese mothers' perceptions of the rela-tionship between interactions with their infants and the development of social compe-tence. Early Childhood Development and Care, 162, 25-40.

Field, T. (1982). Interaction coaching for high-risk infants and their parents. Preven-tion in Human Services, 1(4), 4-23.

Fraiberg, S. (1974). Blind infants and their mothers: An examination of the signsystem. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on itscaregiver (pp. 215-232). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Fracasso, M. P., Busch-Rossnagel, N. A., & Fisher, C. B. (1993). The relationshipof maternal behavior and acculturation to the quality of attachment in Hispanicinfants living in New York City. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 16, 143-154.

Girolametto, L., Verbey, M. , & Tannock, R. (1994). Improving joint engagementin parent-child interaction: An intervention study. Journal of Early Intervention,18(2), 155-167.

Goldberg, S. (1977). Social competence in infancy: A model of parent-infant interac-tion. Merrill-Palmer Ouarterly, 23, 163-177.

Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Independence and interdependence as developmentalscripts: Implications for theory, research and practice. In P. M. Greenfield & R. R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp. 1-37).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

34


REFERENCES

Greenfield, P. M., & Cocking, R. R. (1994). Preface. In P. M. Greenfield, & R. R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp. 1-39).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Greenspan, S. I. & Wieder, S. (1997). An integrated developmental approach tointerventions for young children with severe difficulties in relating and communicat-ing. Zero to Three. 17(5), 5-17.

Grossmann, K. E., & Grossmann, K. (1990). The wider concept of attachment incross-cultural research. Human Development. 33, 31-47.

Guralnick, M. J. (1989). Recent developments in early intervention efficacy re-search: Implications for family involvement in Public Law 99-457. Topics in EarlyChildhood Special Education. 9(2), 1-17.

Guralnick, M. J. (1997). Second-generation research in the field of early interven-tion. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 3-20).Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Harkness, S., & Super, C. (1995). Culture and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.),Handbook of parenting. Volume 2: Biology and ecology of parenting (pp. 211-234).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Harwood, R. L., Miller, J. G., & Irizarry, N. L. (1995). Culture and attachment:Perceptions of the child in context. New York: Guilford.

Kalmanson, B., & Seligman, S. (1992). Family-provider relationships: Thebasis of all interventions. Infants & Young Children. 4(4), 46-52.

Lester, B. M. (1992). Infants and their families at risk: Assessment andintervention. Infant Mental Health Journal. 13(1), 54-66.

Mahoney, G. J., & Powell, A. (1988). Modifying parent-child interaction: Enhanc-ing the development of handicapped children. Journal of Special Education. 22, 82-96.

Marfo, K. (1991). The maternal directiveness theme in mother-child interactionresearch: Implications for early intervention. In K. Marfo (Ed.), Early intervention intransition: Current perspectives on programs for handicapped children (pp. 177-203).

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications forcognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review. 98, 224-253.

35


REFERENCES

McCollum, J. A. (1991). At the crossroad: Reviewing and rethinking interactioncoaching. In K. Marfo (Ed.), Early intervention in transition: Current perspectives onprograms for handicapped children (pp. 137-176). New York: Praeger.

McCollum, J. A. (1984). Social interaction between parents and babies: Validation ofan intervention procedure. Child: Care. Health, and Development. 10, 301-315.

McCollum, J. A., & Bair, H. (1994). Research in parent-child interaction: Guidanceto developmentally appropriate practice for young children with disabilities. In B. L.Mallory & R. S. New (Eds.), Diversity and developmentally appropriate practices:Challenges for early childhood education (pp. 84-106). New York: Teachers College,Columbia University.

McCollum, J. A., & Hemmeter, M. L. (1997). Parent-child interaction interventionwhen children have disabilities. In M. J. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of earlyintervention (pp. 549-476). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

McCollum, J. A., & McBride, S. B. (1997). Ratings of parent-infant interaction:Raising questions of cultural validity. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education17(4), 494-519.

McCollum, J. A., Ree, Y. , & Chen, Y. (2000). Interpreting parent-infant interaction:Perceptions of Caucasian and Korean parents. Infants and Young Children. 12(4), 22-33.

McCollum, J. A., & Stayton, V. (1985). Infant/parent interaction: Studies andintervention guidelines based on the SIAI model. Journal of the Division for EarlyChildhood. 10, 125-135.

McCollum, J. A., & Yates, T. J. (1994). Dyad as focus, triad as means: A family-centered approach to supporting parent-child interaction. Infants and Young Children,6(4), 54-63.

McDonough, S. C. (1993). Interaction guidance: Understanding and treating earlyinfant-caregiver relationship disturbances. In C. H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infantmental health (pp. 414-426). New York: Guilford Press.

Mc Loyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on black families andchildren: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. ChildDevelopment. 61, 311-346.

Muir, E. (1992). Watching, waiting, and wondering: Applying psychoanalytic prin-cipals to mother-infant intervention. Infant Mental Health Journal. 13(4), 319-328.

36


REFERENCES

Nugent, J. K., Brazelton, T. B. (1989). Preventive intervention with infants andfamilies: The NBAS model. Infant Mental Health Journal. 10(2), 84-99.

Ogbu, J. U. (1994). From cultural differences to differences in cultural frame ofreference. In P. J. Greenfield & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minoritychild development (pp. 365-391). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Reynolds, S., & Ingstad, B. (1995). Disability and culture: An overview. In B.Ingstad & S. R. Whyte (Eds.), Disability and culture (pp. 3-32). Berkeley, CA:University of California.

Rosenberg, S. A., & Robinson, C. C. (1985). Enhancement of mothers' interactionalskills in an infant education program. Education and Training of the Mentally Re-tarded. 20, 163-169.

Sameroff, A. & Chandler, M. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum ofcaretaking casualty. In F. Horowitz (Ed. ), Review of child development research(Vol. 4, pp. 119-149). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Sameroff, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (1990). Transactional regulation and early interven-tion. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds. ), Handbook of early childhood interven-tion (pp. 119-149). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Seifer, R., Clark, G., & Sameroff, A. J. (1991). Positive effects of interactioncoaching on infants with developmental disabilities and their mothers. AmericanJournal of Mental Retardation. 96(1), 1-11.

Seitz, V., & Provence, S. (1990). Caregiver-focused models of early intervention. InS. J. Meisels & M. P. Shonkoff (Eds. ), Handbook of early childhood intervention(pp. 400-427). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Spiker, D., Ferguson, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1993). Enhancing maternal interac-tive behavior and child social competence in low birth weight, premature infants.Child Development, 64, 754-768.

Stern-Bruschweiler, N. & Stern, D. N. (1989). A model for conceptualizing the roleof the mother's representational world in various mother-infant therapies. InfantMental Health Journal, 10(3), 142-156.

Tannock, R., Girolametto, L., & Siegel, L. S. (1992). Language intervention withchildren who have developmental delays: Effects of an interactive approach. Ameri-can Journal of Mental Retardation. 97(2), 145-160.

37


REFERENCES

Trivette, C. M., Dunst, C. J., & Hamby, D. W. (1996). Factors associated withperceived control appraisals in a family-centred early intervention program. Journalof Early Intervention. 20(2), 165-178.

van den Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering onattachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsive-ness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants. Child Development. 65, 1457-1477.

Widmayer, S. M., & Field, T. M. (1981). Effects of Braze lton demonstrations ofmothers on the development of preterm infants. Pediatrics. 67, 711-714.

Zeanah, C. H. (1993). (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health. New York:Guilford Press.

Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Introduction: Internal representations andparent-infant relationships. Infant Mental Health Journal. 10(3), 135-141.

38

lairerebIces

1'3aWr.T.

AnnotatedBibliographies

-1EPTCOPYAVAILABLE

39


ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Chen, Y. J., & McCollum, J. A. (2000). Taiwanesemothers' perceptions of the relationship betweeninteractions with their infants and the developmentof social competence. Early Child Development andCare, 162, 25-40.

Summary

Chen and McCollum (2000) examine benefits of parent-infant interactions for childsocial competence development and the maternal roles to achieve these benefitsduring parent-infant interactions. They interviewed 13 Taiwanese mothers of 12-month -olds in Taiwan regarding two situations: (a) interactions with objects and (b)interactions without objects.

From the analysis of the interview with the mothers, Chen and McCollum found thattwo components of social competence, the emotional and social components, weresalient from the Taiwanese parent-child interactions. For the emotional benefit, Chenand McCollum state that the mothers emphasized having good relationships withothers, and mothers considered that parent-child interactions may enhance theirrelationship with their child and serve as a basis for their children's relations withothers. For the social component, they mention that taking appropriate social rolesand having good social manners and qualities were important to the mothers. Inaddition, they found that the mothers perceived being teachers and caregivers asimportant maternal roles to help their children's social competence.

From the results of their study, Chen and McCollum (2000) suggest Taiwanesemothers' perceptions of the social and emotional components of social competenceare consistent with Taiwanese cultural values, which emphasize harmonious relation-ships. In the discussion of their study, Chen and McCollum state that there has beenlimited research on interactions of mothers and their infants from backgrounds otherthan European-American families. Given that parent-child interaction providesprimary opportunities for children's socialization into their cultures, parents' percep-tions regarding social competence development and maternal roles in differentcultural contexts are important to consider. Moreover, as early intervention usesparent-child interaction to facilitate children's development, parents' perceptions andbeliefs across cultures are important.

40



McCollum, J. A., & McBride, S. L. (1997). Rating ofparent-infant interaction: Raising questions of culturalvalidity. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education,17, 494-519.

Summary

McCollum and McBride (1997) state that developmental research has emphasized thesignificant impact of parent-child interaction on child optimal developmental out-comes. Thus parent-child interactions have been the focus in early interventionpractice. In order to lead to the optimal development of children, researchers andearly interventionists have described mutual enjoyment, sensitivity and responsive-ness to the infant's signal, joint attention, and repetitive structures as characteristicsof interactions that promote child development. In addition, a number of rating scalesassessing parent-child interaction have been developed to help research and interven-tion practices. However, McCollum and McBride state that most rating scales havebeen developed based on values of European-American families. McCollum andMcBride raise issues of different cultural perspectives on parent-infant interactionand cultural validity of interaction rating scales.

In terms of cultural differences in parent-child interaction, McCollum and McBride(1997) discuss two factors that influence parent-child interaction: (a) differentcultural goals for development from parent-child interactions, and (b) beliefs aboutthe nature of development in infancy. For each factor, the authors provide a detaileddiscussion how the two factors lead to different behaviors during parent-child interac-tion by providing examples such as independence vs. interdependence, and survival,subsistence, and achievement. Furthermore, the authors discuss the cultural validityof interaction rating scales in terms of instrument validity including construct valid-ity, content validity, predictive validity and the validity of the measurement context.To help researchers and early interventionists understand how parent-child interac-tions across different cultures facilitate children's optimal development, McCollumand McBride (1997) provide suggestions for implications and practices.

41



Harkness, S., & Super, C. (1995). Culture andparenting. In Marc H. Bornstein (Ed.) Handbook ofparenting: Vol 2. Biology and ecology of parenting,211-234.

MINI 11 I

Summary

This chapter reviews issues and trends related to parenting in different cultures. Intheir review, Harkness and Super (1995) provide a detailed overview of research onparenting and culture, with a historical review of developments from anthropologicaland developmental psychology perspectives. First, they describe classical ethno-graphic studies that documented informal and formal cultural practices that influenceparenting behavior in different cultures. The second section provides a developmentalpsychology perspective that focuses on the relationship among early experience,personality, parenting, and culture. In the following section, Harkness and Superdescribe cross-cultural studies of culture and parenting to search for general prin-ciples in each culture in terms of children's development, promoting culture-specificpatterns of personality such as anxieties, conflicts, and defensive systems, which areexpressed in art, rituals, religions and other belief systems.

Harkness and Super (1995), in the fourth section, review The Six Culture study,which is the first systematic observational study investigating parents and children indifferent cultures. From the review of The Six Culture study, they state that the studydocuments the influence of children's cultural environments and cultural complexityon children's social behavior. The final part of the historical review of parenting andculture describes different theoretical perspectives influenced by interaction withdevelopmental psychology, systems theory, and cognitive or interpretive schemes.According to their discussion, the different theoretical approaches consider settingsfor parents and children, activities, the meanings of settings and activities, parentingas the result of cultural experiences of parents, and characteristics of individualchildren as important factors in different parenting practices in different cultures.From the extended historical review of research on parenting and culture, Harknessand Super conclude that studies have applied two major approaches: (a) a comparisonview that tries to understand the uniqueness of individual culture on the other, and (b)an approach that examines different patterns of each culture and parenting as acultural meaning system. For future studies to bring progress in the field of cultureand parenting, they suggest integrating these two approaches.

42



t

*0

Mc Loyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hard-ship on Black families and children: Psychologicaldistress, parenting, and socio-emotional develop-ment. Child Development, 61, 311-346.

Summary

Mc Loyd (1990) presents and discusses issues related to the influences of poverty andparent-child interaction, focusing on African-American families. In this article, sheprovides an extended review of studies of economic difficulties that African-American families have experienced and their influence on socioemotionaldevelopment of African-American children. The first issue, she argues, is thedynamics of poverty and economic decline among African American children. Thisdecline features: (a) African-American families' unemployment status because of thecontinuing change of the structure of society, (b) low wages of African-Americanemployees, and (c) an increasing number of female-headed households.

The psychological and emotional states of parents who experience economichardship is the next issue. According to McLoyd, economic hardship adverselyimpacts marital bonds and mental health, as well as leading to an increasedvulnerability to other stressors. Especially, studies of the relationship between raceand mental health have documented that African-American families tend to havemore susceptibility than other groups to stress following negative life events.

The next issue that McLoyd (1990) discusses is the impact of economic hardship onparent-child interaction. For this issue, she reviews studies of different parentingbehaviors in the context of poverty versus affluence, and in the context of economicdecline versus that of economic stability. She focuses on mother-child and father-child interaction and child abuse. In addition, studies have indicated differentparenting styles between European-American and African-American families due tothe results of the combination of cultural values and beliefs and poverty and eco-nomic loss.

The final issue McLoyd discusses is the influence of parents' emotional state,parenting behavior, and socioemotional development in the child. McLoyd states thatbecause parental emotional state is one of the significant determinants of parentingbehaviors, economic hardship leading to parental anxiety and depression may in-crease the tendency of parents to be punitive, inconsistent, unilateral, and generallyunsupportive of their children. In order to improve parenting behavior, she suggestsparents' social networks include emotional support, information support and rolemodeling, parenting support, and education about exercise of child-rearing sanctionsand controls.

43

tthi Lea' jrak 4

4t. .4 S. x. kk

Resources

.4"

Resources

eT rywy AVAILABLE44


RESOURCES I VIDE S

Discoveries of Infancy: Cognitive Development andLearning - Spanish Version

[Video]Mai MI MEM

Supporting Material:Discoveries of Infancy: Cognitive Development and Learning English Version [Video];A Guide to Cognitive Development and Learning; Module III Spanish Language Handoutsand Transparencies; Trainer's Manual, Module Ill Learning and Development

*The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers

*Developed collaboratively by WestED, Center for Child and Family Studies,

and the California Department of Education, Child Development Division

SUMMARIES

Summary for A Guide to Cognitive Development and LearningThis guide is intended to be used in conjunction with the third module of the Programfor Infant/Toddler Caregivers (PITC), a four-module video training course forproviders of family and center child care. Discoveries of Infancy, Cognitive Develop-ment and Learning [Spanish] is one of those videos. The videos illustrate key con-cepts and caregiving techniques for a specific area of care, and the guides provideextensive in-depth coverage of each topic. This guide focuses on intellectual develop-ment during infancy, with an emphasis both on the types of activities that are natu-rally interesting to infants and toddlers and on the influences of responsivecaregiving, the environment, and play materials on early development. Section One,"Cognitive Development," explores the intellectual activity of infancy (such as theuse of reflexes and active experimentation), six discoveries of infancy (such aslearning that events are caused and how objects fill space), and facilitating cognitivedevelopment through caregiver responsiveness. Section Two, "Learning Environ-ments," discusses the role of the physical environment in influencing the develop-ment of infants and toddlers and providing appropriate physical environments.Section Three, "Developmental Milestones," explores the stages of developmentfrom birth to age three. Section Four, "Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices,"illustrates contrasting caregiver practices in fostering cognitive development ininfants and toddlers. Section Five, "Suggested Resources," lists books, articles, andaudiovisual material. Contains 48 references.

45


RESOURCES I 8DEOS

Summary for Trainer's Manual, Module III - Learning and DevelopmentThis trainer's manual covers module III of the Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers(PITC), a four-module video training course for providers of family and center daycare. The manual is intended to be used by module instructors and includes anoverview of the PITC and instructions for using the manual and its accompanyingvideos. The module contains 13 lessons, designed to be covered in one- to two-hoursessions. The first section, "Cognitive Development and Learning," contains lessonson (1) Learning Schemes and Cause and Effect, (2) Tools and Object Permanence,(3) Space and Imitation, (4) Facilitating Learning: The Role of the Caregiver,(5) Caregiver Responsiveness, (6) Setting the Stage for Learning: The Environment,(7) The Ages of Infancy: Young Infants, (8) The Ages of Infancy: Mobile Infants, and(9) The Ages of Infancy: Older Infants. The second section, "Language Developmentand Communication," contains lessons: (10) Language in the Multicultural ChildCare Setting, (11) Language Development in Young Infants, (12) Language Develop-ment in Mobile Infants, and (13) Language Development in Older Infants. An outlineof the two accompanying videos for this module, and pricing and ordering informa-tion for all four PITC modules, are also included.

Bibliographic InformationThe Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers, developed collaboratively by WestED,Center for Child and Family Studies, and the California Department of Education,Child Development Division. Discoveries of Infancy: Cognitive Development andLearning [Video Spanish Version]. SUPPORTING MATERIAL: Discoveries ofInfancy...[Video English Version]; A Guide to Cognitive Development and Learn-ing; Module III Spanish Language Handouts and Transparencies; Trainer's ManualModule III Learning and Development (1992). California Department of Education:Sacramento, CA. Language: Spanish, English, Chinese

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:California Department of Education CDE Press Sales Office P.O. Box 271Sacramento, CA 95812 (800) 995-4099 phone (916) 323-0823 faxhttp://www.pitc.org/ web

46


RESOURCES 1 VI MS

---1/4

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers was developedprimarily for professional providers working in family child care homes and centersserving children zero-to-three years old. Beginners and individuals with advancedlevel of experience will find these materials useful. These materials were developedfor a universal population. These materials may be used in a variety of settingsincluding inservice training and college settings. These materials were initiallydeveloped for use in the state of California. However, they are being used throughoutthe United States and its territories.

Product Development: These materials were developed through funding receivedfrom the California Department of Education and various private foundations. Formore information regarding funding sources, please contact WestEd. The staff of theCalifornia Department of Education and WestEd collaboratively developed thesematerials with the help of practitioners, administrators, and nationally-recognizedexperts from the field of early education with a focus on children ages zero-to-threeyears. In addition, film experts assisted in the development of the videos. A Califor-nia-based professional translator did the Spanish translation of the trainer's manualhandouts and transparencies. An early childhood professional and translator did theChinese (Cantonese) translation of the materials.

Product Evaluation: The developers of these materials are in the process of evaluatingthe project and the module training institutes. Based on anecdotal reports from users(e.g., practitioners, trainers, and experts), these materials have been highly rated andare well received. The program has also been awarded a Golden Apple award fromthe National Educational Film Festival.

Product Dissemination: As of 1998, over 150,000 copies of these materials have beendistributed and sold in the United States (including its territories), Australia, Israel,Italy, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand.

47


RESOURCES I VODEOS

Getting in Tune: Creating Nurturing Relationshipswith Infants and Toddlers

[Video]

Supporting Material:Infant/Toddler Caregiving: A Guide to Social-Emotional Growth and Socialization; Trainer'sManual, Module I: Social-Emotional Growth and Socialization [English, Spanish, Chinese]

*The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers

*Developed collaboratively by WestED, Center for Child and Family Studies,

and the California Department of Education, Child Development Division

SUMMARIES

Summary for Getting in Tune: Creating Nurturing Relationships with Infantsand Toddlers [Video]This 24-minute videotape is part of Module 1 of the Program for Infant/ToddlerCaregivers (PITC), a four-module video training course for providers of family andcenter child care. This video emphasizes the importance of responsive caregiving andexplores a process for getting in tune with infants and toddlers in a child care setting.The caregiver who can follow the lead of children, pick up their rhythms, and letthem know that their messages are understood is in tune with those children. Childrenlearn that someone else understands their emotions and feelings, and this closeness tothe caregiver is the foundation of healthy emotional growth in which the childdevelops a sense of security and self-esteem. Examples of situations where a care-giver and child are out of tune are presented, followed by examples of caregivers whoare in tune. Finally steps are outlined that caregivers can take to prepare themselvesto get in tune with infants and toddlers. These steps include: (1) study child develop-ment; (2) get to know the children's families and their cultures; (3) develop self-awareness; and (4) learn the responsive process of watching, asking, and adapting.

Summary for Infant/Toddler Caregiving: A Guide to Social-EmotionalGrowth and SocializationRich in practical guidelines and suggestions and intended for use with videos illus-trating key concepts and caregiving techniques, this guide was written to helpcaregivers with their day-to-day efforts to nurture social and emotional growth ininfants and toddlers. The guide is divided into five sections. In the first three sections,nationally recognized experts approach the question of how caregivers can nurtureearly social and emotional growth. Concerning the developing self, papers in Section

48


RESOURCES I VODEOS

Summary for Infant/Toddler Caregiving ... (cont.)1 discuss temperaments of and emotional development in infants and toddlers.Continuing the focus on the development of social skills, section 2 presents papers oncreating nurturing relationships with infants and toddlers, and on self-esteem, secu-rity, and social competence. Section 3, on guidance, includes a paper on socialization,guidance, and discipline with infants and toddlers. The papers in each section arefollowed by related information from research and practice; concrete examples aregiven of caregiver actions that support growth. Section 4 contains examples ofappropriate and inappropriate caregiving behavior in the areas of social-emotionalgrowth and socialization. The concluding section 5 directs the reader to additionalreadings and appropriate audiovisual materials.

Summary for Trainer's Manual, Module I: Social-Emotional Growth andSocializationThis trainer's manual covers module I of the Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers(PITC), a four-module video training course for providers of family and center daycare. The manual is intended to be used by module instructors and includes anoverview of the PITC and instructions for using the manual and its accompanyingvideos. The module contains 14 lessons, each designed to be covered in a 2-hoursession. Titles are as follows: (1) "The Vision;" (2) "Flexible, Fearful, or Feisty;" (3)"Working with Temperament;" (4) "Getting in Tune;" (5) "The Responsive Process;"(6) "Ten Gifts;" (7) "Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers;" (8) "TheDeveloping Emotional Strengths of Children;" (9) "Fostering Emotional Develop-ment: The Caregiver's Role I;" (10) "Fostering Emotional Development: TheCaregiver's Role II;" (11) "Socialization and Guidance;" (12) "Socialization andGuidance: Caregiver Practices;" (13) "First Moves;" and (14) "Helping Children andParents Adjust to a New Program." An outline of the three accompanying videos forthis module, and pricing and ordering information for all four PITC modules, are alsoincluded.

Bibliographic InformationThe Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers, developed collaboratively by West Ed,Center for Child and Family Studies, and the California Department of Education,Child Development Division. Getting in Tune: Creating Nurturing Relationships withInfants and Toddlers [Video]. SUPPORTING MATERIAL: Infant/ToddlerCaregiving: A Guide to Social-Emotional Growth and Socialization; Trainer'sManual Module I: Social-Emotional Growth and Socialization (1990). CaliforniaDepartment of Education: Sacramento, CA. Language: English, Spanish, Chinese

49


RESOURCES I VODEOS

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:California Department of Education Bureau of Publications Sales Unit 560 J St.,Suite 220 Sacramento, CA 95814 (800) 995-4099 phone http://www.pitc.org/ web

Contact the California Department of Education for current price information. PITCvideos are available in Spanish, English and Cantonese; accompanying videomagazine in English and Spanish; Trainer's Manual Handouts and Transparencies inEnglish and Spanish. Guides are in English only at the present time.

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: The Program for Infant/Toddler Caregivers was developedprimarily for professional providers working in family child care homes and centersserving children zero-to-three years old. Beginners and individuals with advancedlevel of experience will find these materials useful. These materials were developedfor a universal population. These materials may be used in a variety of settingsincluding inservice training and college settings. These materials were initiallydeveloped for use in the state of California. However, they are being used throughoutthe United States and its territories.

Product Development: These materials were developed through funding receivedfrom the California Department of Education and various private foundations. Formore information regarding funding sources, please contact WestEd. The staff of theCalifornia Department of Education and WestEd collaboratively developed thesematerials with the help of practitioners, administrators, and nationally-recognizedexperts from the field of early education with a focus on children ages zero-to-threeyears. In addition, film experts assisted in the development of the videos. A Califor-nia-based professional translator did the Spanish translation of the trainer's manualhandouts and transparencies. An early childhood professional and translator did theChinese (Cantonese) translation of the materials.

Product Evaluation: The developers of these materials are in the process of evaluatingthe project and the module training institutes. Based on anecdotal reports from users(e.g., practitioners, trainers, and experts), these materials have been highly rated andare well received. The program has also been awarded a Golden Apple award fromthe National Educational Film Festival.

Product Dissemination: As of 1998, over 150,000 copies of these materials have beendistributed and sold in the United States (including its territories), Australia, Israel,Italy, Korea, Mexico, and New Zealand.

50


RESOURCES I VI MS

Infancy: Early Relationships

[Video]I1I INN. 1I

Alice GiordanoJanet Gonzalez-Mena

Arleen PrairieBarbara Lancelot

Rhoda Olenick

SummaryThis 19-minute videotape recording is part of a series that provides the setting for theunderstanding of the unfolding process of human development from the beginning oflife through adolescence. This videotape focuses on the importance of early relation-ships for the development of infants. It emphasizes the effects of the parent-childrelationship on self-esteem, and the development of trust or mistrust. The characteris-tics of prenatally drug-exposed infants are discussed, as well as infants suffering fromGrowth Failure Syndrome. Attachment behavior and separation anxiety are ex-plained, and the importance of bonding is highlighted.

Bibliographic InformationAlice Giordano, Janet Gonzalez-Mena, Arleen Prairie, Rhoda Olenick, BarbaraLancelot. Infancy: Early Relationships [Video] (1994). Magna Systems, Inc.: CrystalLake, IL. Language: English

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:Magna Systems, Inc. 101 North Virginia St., Suite 105 Crystal Lake, IL 60014(800) 203-7060 phone (815) 459-4280 fax [email protected] e-mailhttp://www.magnasystemsvideos.com/ web

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: The intended audience for this material is teachers,caregivers, and service providers in early childhood education.

Product Development: The above authors, who are professionals in early childhoodeducation, along with the people who appear in each videotape developed the video-tapes. Those in the videotapes are from a variety of cultural and linguistic back-grounds, including European Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and AfricanAmericans.

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RESOURCES I VO E S.

Producer Information (cont.)Product Evaluation: The series has not been formally evaluated.

Product Dissemination: Thousands of the videotapes have been distributed through-out North America and worldwide.

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RESOURCES I PUBLICATIONS

Dancing Cheek to Cheek: Nurturing Beginning So-cial, Play and Language Interactions

IIM IMO! MO

Laura MeyersPamela Lansky

SummaryThis booklet summarizes the findings of a research project that investigated theeffectiveness of different strategies for developing social, play, and language skillsin babies with severe visual impairments. The four-year research project involved 10infants and toddlers (ages 5-39 months) and their parents. The booklet discusseseffective strategies gleaned from the research project in three parts. The first partdiscusses beginning a relationship with a baby with visual impairments. It describeshow parents and babies should start getting to know each other and how to uselanguage to socially interact with each other. The second part provides suggestionson introducing new toys to the baby, choosing the best toys, and making toys a partof a relationship with the baby. The final section addresses encouraging languagedevelopment, including letting the baby know that things have names, setting up theplay so that it's easy to talk about, linking the baby's words to his play, and signsthat the baby is having fun during play time. Each section closes with a "GettingDown to Basics" page summarizing strategies that work and those that do not work.Case examples throughout the text illustrate effective parent-child interaction.

Bibliographic InformationLaura Meyers, Pamela Lansky. Dancing Cheek to Cheek: Nurturing BeginningSocial, Play and Language Interactions (1993). Blind Children's Center: Los Ange-les, CA (33 pages). Language: English

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:Blind Children's Center 4120 Marathon Street Los Angeles, CA 90029(800) 222-3566 phone (323) 665-3828 fax http://www.blindchilrenscenter.org/ web

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: The intended user audience is parents and family membersas well as faculty/trainers, and service delivery personnel in early intervention/earlychildhood special education.

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TRI3 I Parent-Infant Interaction

RESOURCES PU LICATO

Producer Information (cont.)Product Development: Administrators, faculty/trainers, and service delivery person-nel were involved in developing this material. This group represented the disciplinesof early intervention/early childhood special education and speech pathology. Allindividuals are European American.

Product Evaluation: At the present time, no formal evaluation has been completed onthis material. Currently, there are no plans for evaluation.

Product Dissemination: At the present time, 13,171 copies of this material have beendisseminated across the United States as well as internationally.

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RESOURCES U MATIONS

Diversity & Developmentally Appropriate Practices:Challenges for Early Childhood Education[Chapters 1, 2, 11, 12]

Bruce L. MalloryRebecca S. New

SummaryThis book discusses the current conceptualization of what is appropriate in earlychildhood education, which is overly narrow in its interpretation of the role of theteacher, and with respect to variations in cultural and developmental diversity. Basedon this observation, this book addresses various issues surrounding diversity, inclu-sion, and appropriate early educational practices. Following an introduction on theethics of inclusion, the chapters are: (1) "The Politics of Developmentally Appropri-ate Practice: Exploring Issues of Culture, Class, and Curriculum" (Sally Lubeck); (2)"Inclusive Policy, Practice, and Theory for Young Children with DevelopmentalDifferences" (Bruce L. Mallory); (3) "Culture, Child Development, and Developmen-tally Appropriate Practices: Teachers as Collaborative Researchers" (Rebecca S.New);(4) "Research in Parent-Child Interaction: Guidance to Developmentally AppropriatePractice for Young Children with Disabilities" (Jeanette A. McCollum and HelenBair); (5) "Expanding the Perceptions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice:Changing Theoretical Perspectives" (Barbara L. Ludlow and Terry R. Berkeley);(6) "Understanding Development in a Cultural Context: The Challenge for Teachers"(Barbara T. Bowman and Frances M. Stott); (7) "The Movement of African-Ameri-can Children through Sociocultural Contexts: A Case of Conflict Resolution" (CarolBrunson Phillips); (8) Developmentally Appropriate Practice and Cultural Values: ACase in Point" (Leslie R. Williams); (9) "Parents, Pluralism, and the NAEYC State-ment on Developmentally Appropriate Practice" (Douglas R. Powell); (10) "BlendingDevelopmentally Appropriate Practices and Early Childhood Special Education:Redefining Best Practice to Meet the Needs of All Children" (Jane B. Atwater andothers); (11) "Designing Meaningful Measurements for Early Childhood" (Samuel J.Meisels); (12) "Teacher Perspectives on the Strengths and Achievements of YoungChildren: Relationship to Ethnicity, Language, Gender, and Class" (Marianne N.Bloch and others); and (13) "Language and Diversity in Early Childhood: WhoseVoices Are Appropriate?"

Bibliographic InformationBruce L. Mallory, Rebecca S. New. Diversity & Developmentally AppropriatePractices: Challenges for Early Childhood Education [Chaptersl, 2, 11, 12] (1994).Teachers College Press: New York, NY (295 pages). Language: English

5 5

TR1 3 I Parent-Infant Interaction

RESOURCES PU S LICAT@O

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:Teachers College Press 1234 Amsterdam Avenue New York, NY 10027(212) 678-3929 phone (212) 678-4149 fax [email protected] e-mail

http://tc-press.tc.columbia.edu/ web

This book can be purchased through local bookstores.

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: This book is intended for faculty/trainers, students, servicedelivery personnel, and paraprofessionals. It is intended for professionals in the fieldsof early childhood education, early intervention/early childhood special education,and social work. This material is intended for multicultural groups.

Product Development: This book was developed by faculty in early childhoodeducation/ early childhood special education. The developers are English-speakingEuropean Americans.

Product Evaluation: There has been no official evaluation.

Product Dissemination: This book has been disseminated primarily to graduatestudents in the U.S.

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RESOURCES i KATI NS

Growing Great Babies: A Guide to Caring for andSupporting Your Baby's Development: A MemoryBook Too!

11101. NM IN=

1

Linda K. Elliot

SummaryDesigned for new parents, this booklet is a guide to support parents in caring for theirbaby during the first six months in a way that will prepare him to reach his potentialsocially, physically, and intellectually. It focuses not only on the baby's developmentand needs, but also on the parent-child relationship. Information is provided on earlybrain development, and parent strategies for providing a trusting environment,feeding, sleeping, holding and touching, developing eye contact, talking, consoling,and playing with their infant. Basic care of an infant is described, along with feelingsparents might have, and the physical development of an infant. The last part of thebooklet includes blank forms for parents to use to record baby's firsts, favorite things,and characteristics. A list is also included of newborn safety tips addressing sleeping,feeding, promoting health, and ensuring safety.

Bibliographic InformationLinda K. Elliot. Growing Great Babies: A Guide to Caring for and Supporting YourBaby's Development: A Memory Book Too! (1999). Great Kids, Inc.: San Angelo,TX (36 pages). Language: English, Spanish, Tagalog

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:Great Kids, Inc. 3222 Shadyhill Drive San Angelo, TX 76904(800) 906-5581 phone (915) 224-4417 fax [email protected] e-mailhttp://www.greatkidsinc.org/home.html/ web

Contact producer regarding price.

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: This material is a revision of the 1992 material entitled "ADance with Your Baby." The developer's information below is for that material.Thisbooklet was written primarily for parents of newborns with a focus on supporting thegrowth of positive parent-child relationships. The English version was written for amultiethnic and multilingual population with English proficiency. It has been usedextensively in home visitation programs in the United States and abroad. It has alsobeen used in university settings for instructional purposes.

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RESOURCES I PLJ LKATIONS

Producer Information (cont.)Product Development: Information provided in this booklet is based on the needs offamilies with newborns. As a supervisor in an early intervention program, the authorobserved personnel struggling with how to share information with parents regardingnewborn care that would not only support healthy newborn development, but also thegrowth of nurturing, responsive parent-infant relationships. This booklet was writtento be shared and discussed with parents from a variety of cultural backgrounds, somewith limited reading skills.

Product Evaluation: The original English version was evaluated by Prevent ChildAbuse America (formerly The National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse), and usedas part of its Healthy Families America Program. It was field tested with the familiesserved through the early intervention home visitation program of the Hawaii FamilySupport Center. The original material (A Dance with Baby) was revised based in parton reviews from the CLAS Early Childhood Research Institute.

Product Dissemination: As of 2000, approximately 300,000 copies in Spanish,Vietnamese, English, and Tagalog had been distributed and sold in Canada, thePhilippines, and the U.S. Approximately 1000 families in the Philippines have usedthe Tagalog version; Approximately 300-400 families have used the Vietnameseversion.

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RESOURCES 1 PUBLUCAT 0 S

Supporting Parent-Child Interaction: A Guide forEarly Intervention Program Personnel

[Handbook]MIN MIN =MI

Marci J. HansonMary S. Krentz

SummaryThis guide for early intervention program personnel outlines and describes methodsfor assisting parents and infants to better communicate with one another. The focus ison helping parents to read their children's cues, to engage in reciprocal interactions,to time interactions according to their babies' cues, and to enjoy interacting with theirbabies. The methods discussed are designed for early intervention programs servingparents and caregivers of children with disabilities or children who are at risk fordevelopmental delay. The first section of the manual, "Rationale for InterventionApproach," presents both the theoretical rationale and the clinical evidence for takingthis particular approach in working with families. It also provides a description ofmajor paradigms currently utilized in the field to observe and evaluate parent-childinteractions. The second and major section, "Intervention Framework and Strategies,"describes the intervention approach and provides a variety of specific strategies thatcan be utilized by infant development specialists, working in an early interventionprogram with infants at risk and their families. The final section of the manualpresents several detailed case studies that demonstrate how the intervention approachwas implemented with different families. (Contains 35 references.)

Bibliographic InformationMarci J. Hanson, Mary S. Krentz. Supporting Parent-Child Interaction: A Guide forEarly Intervention Program Personnel [Handbook] (1986). San Francisco StateUniversity, Project ISIS: San Francisco, CA (36 pages). Language: English

AvailabilityNo longer available from producer, available on the CLAS Web site.San Francisco State University, Project ISIS Project ISIS 4 Tapia DriveSan Francisco, CA 94132 (415) 338-1630 phone

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RESOURCES PUBLICATOONIS

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: This module was written primarily for faculty trainers, pre-and inservice students, administrators, and service delivery personnel. The authorsindicated that this manual may be useful to all disciplines working in the earlyintervention profession. The information provided falls between an introductory andadvanced level. The module was written for a universal population for whom Englishis the first language or who are proficient in English. This module was initiallydeveloped for individuals residing throughout the United States.

Product Development: This material was developed by Hanson and Krentz, under thefunding of a US Department of Education grant. Family members, early interventionservice delivery personnel (e.g., special education teachers, occupational therapists,speech pathologists, and psychologists) participated in the development of thismaterial. Participants represented Latino, African American, Chinese, and Euro-American groups.

Product Evaluation: Nonebut are interested in field-testing this material at a futuredate.

Product Dissemination: As of 1998, over 1,000 copies had been distributed and sold.Major orders came from California. In addition, this material was also distributed instate, national, and international (e.g., Australia, New Zealand, Spain) conferences.

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RESOURCES Pii LKCATO NS

Usted y Su Bebe: Comprehenda a su Bebe Por suComportamiento [Your Baby and You: UnderstandingYour Baby's Behavior - Spanish Version]

Elsa J. SellM. Susann Hill-Mangan

Penny Ratzan

SummaryThis booklet for Spanish-speaking parents of premature babies in newborn intensivecare units provides information on the role parents can play in helping their babydevelop while still in the hospital, and in the early months after discharge. Topicsaddressed include the following: (a) gestational age; (b) development of younginfants; (c) infant communication through behavior; (d) the effects of maturation;(e) behavioral cues (physiology, motor, and state); (f) stress cues; (g) self-regulationskills; (h) how to help the baby by adjusting lighting, reducing noise, positioning, andholding; (i) comforting the baby; (j) playing with the baby; (k) bringing the babyhome from the hospital; and (I) consoling the baby. The material is presented inSpanish.

Bibliographic InformationElsa J. Sell, M. Susann Hill-Mangan, Penny Ratzan. Usted y Su Bebe: Comprehendaa su Bebe Por su Comportamiento [Your Baby and You: Understanding Your Baby'sBehavior Spanish Version] (1992). Communication Skill Builders: San Antonio, TX(50 pages). Language: Spanish, English

AvailabilityMay be ordered from:Communication Skill Builders 555 Academic Court San Antonio, TX 78204(800) 228-0752 phone

Producer InformationIntended User Audience: The intended user audience is parents of premature infantsfrom any cultural group.

Product Development: This material was developed by faculty and trainers from thedisciplines of medicine, nursing, and social work. The developers were English- andSpanish-speaking European Americans. Information is not available regarding theprofessional background of the individuals assisting with the Spanish translation.

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RESOURCES I MATIONS

Producer Information (cont.)Product Evaluation: This material has not been formally evaluated, and there are noplans for such an evaluation at the present time.

Product Dissemination: The material has been disseminated all over Texas and otherparts of the U.S. The number of copies of the material that have been disseminated isnot available.

62

TR1 3 I Parent-Infant Interaction

Uf,

AboutCLAS

63


About the CLAS Early ChildhoodResearch Institute

Early Childhood Research Institute onCulturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services

University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignThe Council for Exceptional ChildrenUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood EducationERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education

OverviewThe Early Childhood Research Institute on Culturallyand Linguistically Appropriate Services (CLAS) is afederally-funded collaborative effort of the Universityof Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, The Council forExceptional Children, the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, the ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary andEarly Childhood Education, and the ERIC Clearinghouseon Disabilities and Gifted Education. The CLAS InstituteSpecial Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Edu

L A SINNIMITrAuCulturally & Linguistically Appropriate Services

Far ly Childhood Research Institute

is funded by the Office ofcation.

The CLAS Institute identifies, evaluates, and promotes effective and appropriateearly intervention practices and preschool practices that are sensitive and respectfulto children and families from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.CLAS has several basic assumptions which define and guide its work. CLAS' goalsare outlined below, as well as some of the issues and concerns important to our work.Finally, a brief overview is included about the outcomes we anticipate accomplishingby the end of this project.

AssumptionsWe adhere to the following fundamental beliefs in our research, training and dissemi-nation activities:

Assumptions About Culture and Language:1. Individuals and families are members of multiple cultures.2. Cultures are multi-faceted and dynamic.3. Multilingualism is an asset.4. A solid foundation in one's primary language contributes to acquisition of a

second language.5. Cultural competence is a process entailing lifelong learning.

COPY AVAILAB 6 4


ABOUT THE CLAS INSTITUTE

64

6. Many people have not had an equal voice, equal representation or equalaccess to health and education services. We recognize that institutional racismcontinues and will address issues of access and equity in the search, review,and dissemination of materials.

7. Beliefs and attitudes about culture and language shape outcomes; positivebeliefs contribute to inclusiveness; negative beliefs undermine it.

Assumptions About the Work of the Institute:1. Culturally and linguistically diverse practitioners and families will be in-

volved in the work of the Institute as advisors, reviewers, and evaluators.2. Materials will reflect the intersection of culture and language, disabilities and

child development.3. A range of strategies or approaches will be identified from which practitioners,

families, and researchers can make an informed selection of practices or mat-erials. In our dissemination of reviewed materials, we will not advise or pre-scribe solutions but will facilitate better questions regarding material selection.

4. Products will be "user amorous" and our evaluation will in part focus on theusability and impact of these products.

The work of the Institute is complex, challenging, and developmental in nature.

GoalsThe CLAS Institute identifies, collects, reviews, catalogs, abstracts, and describesmaterials and practices developed for children and families from culturally and linguisti-cally diverse backgrounds, and professionals who work with them. In the latter yearsof this five-year Institute, CLAS will identify gaps in existing materials and practices,prepare translations of a limited number of materials, and pilot-test a limited numberof promising materials to ensure that effective early intervention practices are avail-able to families and service providers who work with them. CLAS will:1. Create a resource bank and catalog of validated culturally and linguistically

appropriate materials, and of documented effective strategies, for early interven-tion and preschool services.

2. Conduct a review of materials by experts in the fields of early childhood educa-tion, early intervention/early childhood special education, and in multiculturaleducation, considering issues not only of effectiveness but also of social, cultural,and linguistic acceptability to children and families from culturally and linguisti-cally diverse backgrounds.

3. Evaluate and validate selected materials through field testing of the materialswith culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

4. Disseminate reviewed materials and practices that meet the dual criteria of (1)effectiveness and (2) cultural and linguistic appropriateness for all relevantstakeholders.

65


About the Authors

Jeanette A. McCollum, Ph.D.University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Department of Special Education1310 S. Sixth St. Champaign, IL 61820

Jeanette is a Professor Emeritus of Early Childhood Special Education, and a facultycollaborator on the CLAS Project at the University of Illinois. She has writtenextensively on parent-child interaction and its role in children's development. Mostrecently, her research has addressed cultural variation in parent-child interaction andthe implications of parental belief systems for interaction and intervention. A primaryfocus of Jeanette's career has been the quality of early intervention personnel, andshe hopes to contribute further to this area by contributing to cross-cultural under-standing.

Tweety J. Yates, Ph.D.University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 51 Gerty Drive Champaign, IL 61820

Tweety is a visiting research assistant professor in early childhood special educationat the University of Illinois, and a faculty collaborator for CLAS Early ChildhoodResearch Institute. She is presently coordinating two federal grants. One project is aresearch grant that focuses on the replication and evaluation of a parent-child interac-tion model and the other is an outreach grant that focuses on training and replicationof a model that promotes developmental and readiness skills through a creative artscurriculum. Most recently, her research has addressed cultural variation in parent-child interaction and the implications of parental belief systems for interaction andintervention. Her primary research interests include parent-child interaction andpersonnel preparation.

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For more information on the CLAS EarlyChildhood Research Institute

Contact Amy Santos or Rob Corso (ProjectCoordinators) or Ron Banks (Information Specialist):

Early Childhood Research Institute onCulturally and Linguistically Appropriate ServicesUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign61 Children's Research Center51 Gerty DriveChampaign, Illinois 61820-7498

1.800/583.4135 voiceittyhttp://clas.uiuc.edu/ web

[email protected] e-mail

CLAS Technical Report Topics:

Child Assessment

Child Find

Cross-Cultural ConsiderationsCLAS MissionCross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Conceptions of Child-RearingCultural Definitions and IssuesView of Disability

Deaf Parents and Their Hearing Children

Family Information Gathering

Family Support Services

Helping Relationships and Service Utilization

Motor Skills Interventions

Parent-Infant Interaction

Personnel Preparation

Second-Language Acquisition

Transition

Visual Impairment

Working with Interpreters

67

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National Library of Education (NLE)

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

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3EiqcEducatonal Rennes rtnallao Cooler

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release (Blanket)"form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all or classes ofdocuments from its source organization and, therefore, does not require a"Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission toreproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may bereproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Release form (either"Specific Document" or "Blanket").

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