Reporty Psycho.

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Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved

THE NEWBORN

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Summarize the reflexes and perceptual

abilities of newborns. Describe the four basic

temperaments that are visible at birth, the

extent to which those inborn temperaments

remain stable over time, and the reasons for

both stability and change.


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Reflexes

Neonates(newborns) have many reflexes

that help them to survive

Rooting reflex

Sucking reflex

Swallowing reflex

Stepping reflex

Grasping reflex


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Temperament

Temperamentrefers to characteristic patternsof emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation.

Temperament is influenced significantly byheredity and often remains stable intoadulthood.

However, environmental factors such asparents response to childs temperament canalso be an influence.


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Thomas & Chess (1977) identified three types of

babies:

Easy babies are good natured and adaptable,

easy to care for and to please.

Difficult babies are moody and intense, with

strong, negative reactions to new people andsituations.

Slow to warm up babies are relatively inactive

and slow to respond to new things; when they do

react, their reactions are mild.


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Kagan and his associates (1988, 1991, 1993, 1994)

have added a fourth: the shy child.

Shy children are timid and inhibited, fearful of

anything new or strange.


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Perceptual Abilities

Vision

At birth, babies can see faces or objects 8 to

10 inches away.

By 8 months they are able to see as well as the

average young adult, although their visual

system takes another 3 or 4 years to develop

fully.


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Depth PerceptionThe ability to see the world in three

dimensions is well developed by the time a

baby learns to crawl, between 6 and 12

months of age.

Demonstrated in a classic experiment using

the visual cliff (Walk & Gibson, 1961).



Other Senses

Fetuses can hear sounds in utero, and

after birth babies show signs that they

remember sounds they heard in the

womb.

Newborns have clear preferences

regarding taste and smell.



INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how the human brain changes

during infancy and early childhood.Summarize the course of physical and motor

development in childhood. Describe Piagets stages of cognitive

development and Kohlbergs stages of moraldevelopment and summarize the criticisms of

each. Describe the course of languagedevelopment in childhood. Compare andcontrast the views of Skinner, Chomsky, andPinker regarding language development.



Distinguish imprinting from attachment.Describe the nature of parentchildrelationships in the first 12 years of lifewith specific reference to Eriksons stages

of development. Describe how peerrelationships develop during childhood andthe importance of non-sharedenvironments.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont)



LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont)

Distinguish gender identity, genderconstancy, gender-role awareness, and

gender stereotypes. Describe sex-typedbehavior including the extent to whichbiology and experience shape sex-typedbehavior.

Summarize the research on the effects oftelevision and video games on children.


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Neurological Development

The human brain changes dramatically duringinfancy and early childhood:

Dendrites begin to bloom and branch out.

The number of interconnections betweenneurons in the brain increases dramatically.


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There is rapid growth of myelin sheaths, which

provides insulation and increases speed ofconduction.

In infancy, synaptic growth is prominent in the

prefrontal cortex and in visual and auditory areasof the cortex.

A lack of external stimulation can have a negative

impact on brain development.


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Physical Development

On average babies grow 10 inches and gain 15

pounds in the first year.

Birth weight is doubled by 4 months and

tripled by the first birthday.

Rapid increases in height and weight will not

occur again until early adolescence.


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Young children are top heavy: They have large heads and small bodies. As they get older, the body and legs become

longer, and the head is proportionately smaller.


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Motor Development

Motor development refers to the acquisition of skillsinvolving movement, such as grasping, crawling, andwalking.

The average ages at which motor skills are achieved arereferred to as developmental norms.

Motor development proceeds in a proximodistalfashionthat is, from nearest the center of the body(proximal) to farthest from the center (distal).

Maturation - an automatic biological unfolding ofdevelopment in an organism as a function of thepassage of time.


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Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (18961980) observed and

studied children.

As a result of his observations, Piaget believed

that cognitive development is a way of

adapting to the environment.

In Piagets view, children are intrinsically

motivated to explore and understand things.


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Piaget proposed a 4-stage theory of cognitivedevelopment:

Sensory-motor 0-2 yrs

Preoperational 2-7 yrs Concrete-operational 7-11 yrs

Formal-operational 11-adulthood


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In the sensory-motor stage(birth to 2 years ofage), the individual develops object permanenceand acquires the ability to form mental

representations. object permanence - an awareness that things

continue to exist even when they are out of sight.

mental representations - mental images or

symbols (such as words) used to think about orremember an object, a person, or an event.


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Between the ages of 2 and 7, children are inthe preoperationalstage.

During the preoperational stage individuals

are able to use mental representations andlanguage to describe, remember, and reasonabout the world.

These abilities are limited because childrenare egocentric--limited in their ability to seethings from anothers point of view.


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The concrete-operationalstage, in which theindividuals can attend to more than one thing ata time and understand someone elses point of

view, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. They are able to understand the principle of

conservation, the concept that the quantity of asubstance is not altered by reversible changes in

its appearance. This way of thinking is limited to concrete

matters.


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Beginning at 11 years old, individuals become

capable of abstract thought.

Piaget referred to this stage as the formal-

operationalstage of cognitive development.


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Criticisms of Piagets theory

Some see cognitive development as a more

gradual process, resulting from slow

acquisition of experience.

Piaget underestimated what young infantscould understand about the world.

Piaget underplayed the importance of social

interaction in cognitive development.


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Noam Chomsky (1965, 1986) argued that childrenare born with a language acquisition device,aninternal mechanism that is wired into the

human brain, facilitating language learning andmaking it universal.

This language acquisition device enables youngchildren to detect general patterns of grammar in

adult speech, permitting them to quickly learnthe words and rules of any language to whichthey are exposed.


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Moral Development

Kolhberg (1979, 1981) proposed a 3-level

theory of moral development:

Preconventional level

Conventional level

Postconventional level


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Preconventional level:

Preadolescent children tend tointerpret behavior in terms of its

concrete consequences.


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Conventional level:

Arrival of adolescence (formal-operational

thought): right behavior defined as that

which pleases others.

Mid-adolescence: a shift toward considering

abstract social virtues and respecting

authority.


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Postconventional level:

Marked by an emphasis on abstract principles

such as justice, liberty, and equality.

For the first time, people become aware ofdiscrepancies between what they judge as

moral and what society has determined to be

legal.


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Language Development

2 months of age - infant begins to coo.

3-4 months of age - babbling- repeating meaninglesssounds that are the building blocks for later languagedevelopment.

4-6 months - babbling takes on certain features ofadult language (intonation, basic sounds of nativelanguage).

6 months - recognize commonly used words such astheir own names and Mommyand Daddy.


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By 1 year, vocalization becomes increasingly

communicative and socially directed.

Caregivers facilitate this process by using infant-

directed speech.

During the next 6-8 months children build a vocabulary

of one-word sentences called holophrases.

In the 2nd year of life, children begin to distinguish

between themselves and others, and possessive words

become part of their vocabulary.

Feedback from parents enhances vocabulary.


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B.F. Skinner believed that parents and other people

listen to the infants cooing and babbling and

reinforce those sounds that most resemble adult

speech. However, most psychologists and linguists now

believe that learning alone cannot explain the speed,

accuracy, and originality with which children learn to

use language.


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A more recent theory of language acquisition, advanced bySteven Pinker (1994, 2007; Pinker and Jackendoff, 2005),holds that, to a large extent, evolutionary forces may haveshaped language, providing humans with what he calls alanguage instinct.

Young children learn a second language more quickly andspeak it more fluently than adults, supporting the idea of acritical period during which a second language is mostreadily acquired.

Research has shown that learning a second language haslong-term effects on the brain, including increasedneuroplasticity and greater neural density in languagecenters (Song, Skoe, Wong, & Kraus, 2008).


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Human newborns do not imprint. They graduallyform an attachment, an emotional bond that makeshuman infants cling to their caregivers for safety andcomfort.

In humans, this attachment is built on many hours ofinteraction, during which baby and parent come toform a close relationship. Signs of attachment areevident by the age of 6 months or even earlier.

Infants demonstrate attachment through strangeranxiety, a fear of unfamiliar people, which usuallyemerges around 7 months, reaching its peak at 12months and declining during the second year.


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Erik Erikson (19021994) proposed a theory of

eight psychosocial stages of development: Trust vs. mistrust

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs. inferiority

Identity vs. role confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation

Ego identity vs. despair


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Developing a secure attachment early in lifehas implications for later cognitive and socialdevelopment.

As infants develop basic trust, they begin toventure away from the caregiver to investigateobjects and other people around them.

This exploration is a first indication ofchildrens developing autonomy, or a sense ofindependence.


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This autonomy is a first step in socialization,

the process by which children learn thebehaviors and attitudes appropriate to their

family and culture.

Toddlers who fail to acquire a sense ofindependence and separateness from others

tend to have more shame and doubt.


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According to Erikson, independence increasesbetween the ages of 3 and 6.

Children become increasingly involved inindependent efforts to accomplish goalsmaking

plans, undertaking projects, mastering new skills. Parental encouragement of these initiatives lead

to a sense of joy in taking on new tasks.

If children are repeatedly criticized and scoldedfor things they do wrong, they may developstrong feelings of unworthiness, resentment, andguilt.


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Diana Baumrind (1972, 1991, 1996) identified four basicparenting styles:

Authoritarianparents control their childrens behaviorrigidly and insist on unquestioning obedience.

Permissive-indifferent parents exert too little control,failing to set limits on their childrens behavior. They arealso neglectful and inattentive.

Permissive-indulgent parents are very supportive of theirchildren, but fail to set appropriate limits on their behavior.

Authoritative parents provide firm structure and guidancewithout being overly controlling. They listen to theirchildrens opinions and give explanations for theirdecisions, but it is clear that they are the ones who makeand enforce the rules.


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At a very early age, infants begin to show an interest inother children, but the social skills required to playwith them develop only gradually.

Sibling relationships can have a major impact,

especially on how children learn to relate to otherpeers.

Peer groups, networks of same-aged friends andacquaintances who give one another emotional andsocial support, teach children many valuable things,

such as how to engage in cooperative activities andhow to negotiate the social roles of leader andfollower.


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Most developmental psychologists believe that non-shared environmentshave a major impact ondevelopment.

Non-shared environmentsare unique aspects of the

environment that are experienced differently bysiblings, even though they are reared in the samefamily.

Although family experiences are important, the crucialenvironmental influences that shape personality

development are specific to each child, rather thangeneral to an entire family (Plomin & Rende, 1991, p.180).


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Insert Summary Tablep. 308


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Sex-Role Development

By about age 3, both boys and girls have

developed a gender identity, that is, a little

girl knows that she is a girl, and a little boy

knows that he is a boy.

Gender constancy, the realization that gender

does not change with age, does not develop

until age 4 or 5.


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At a young age, children also start to acquire gender-role awareness, knowledge of what behaviors areexpected of males and females in their society

As a result, they develop gender stereotypes, or

oversimplified beliefs about what the typical maleand female are like.

At the same time that children acquire gender-roleawareness and gender stereotypes, they also develop

their own sex-typed behavior, which are sociallyprescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys andgirls.


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Television, Video Games, and Children

On average, American children spend about 4 hours aday watching television (American Academy ofPediatrics, 2006) and 9 hours a week playing videogames (C. A.Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007).

The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999, 2007)recommends that children under the age of 2 shouldnot watch television at all and that parents limit theirchildrens TV and video-game time to no more than 1

or 2 hours a day. A major concern is the impact of witnessing aggressive

behavior on television


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Two comprehensive reviews of the research (C. A. Anderson

et al., 2003; Huesmann, 2007) found that the effects of mediaviolence can extend well into adulthood, even for people who

are not highly aggressive.

Short-term exposure was found to increase the incidence of

physically and verbally aggressive thoughts, emotions, andbehaviors, whereas longitudinal studies linked exposure to

media violence in childhood with aggression later in life,

including physical assaults and spousal abuse.

Despite this, children can learn worthwhile things fromwatching television and playing educational video games.

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