Report Sa Cat

8/8/2019 Report Sa Cat

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Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability,

disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution

can take the form ofchemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, the

elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when

naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution

is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. The Blacksmith Institute issues

annually a list of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are

located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine, and Zambia.

Pollution became a popular issue after World War II, due to radioactive fallout from atomicwarfare and testing. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London, killed at least4000 people.[9] This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, TheClean Air Act of 1956.

Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s andearly 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Actand the National Environmental Policy Act.

Bad bouts of local pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River

resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term dioxin contaminationat Love Canal starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and led to the Superfundlegislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the 1990s helped bring to light Chromium-6 releases inCalifornia--the champions of whose victims became famous. The pollution of industrial land gaverise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning. DDT was banned in most ofthe developed world after the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.

The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remainlethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by theWorldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the SovietUnion thoroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the area of ChelyabinskU.S.S.R. (see reference below) as the "Most polluted place on the planet".[citation needed]

Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas,especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populationsand the growth since then in understanding about the critical threat to human health posed byradioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear power. Thoughextreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents suchas those atThree Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. Onelegacy ofnuclear testing before most forms were banned has been significantly raised levels ofbackground radiation.[citation needed]

International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast ofBrittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of suchevents and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless natureof atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary levelwith the issue of global warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) hascome to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though theireffects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they havebeen detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as theArctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period ofwidespread use.
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Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over timehave given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek tolimit human impact on the environment.

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to eachof them:

Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common

gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone andsmog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulatematter, or fine dust is characterized by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.

Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference. Littering Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well

as high-intensity sonar. Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage.

Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,[10]

herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, suchas nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture anddeployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment.)

Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by humaninfluence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorwaybillboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipalsolid waste.

Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoffinto river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewaterdischarges, eutrophication and littering.

A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine theseverity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.

Air pollution comes from both natural and man made sources. Though globally man madepollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasinglysignificant in the air pollution equation.[11]

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.[12][13][14]China, UnitedStates, Russia, Mexico, andJapan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principalstationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,[15]

petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairycows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and otherheavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clearfelling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides[16]

About 400 million metric tons ofhazardous wastes are generated each year.[17] The United Statesalone produces about 250 million metric tons.[18] Americans constitute less than 5% of theworld's population, but produce roughly 25% of the worlds CO2,

[19] and generate approximately30% ofworlds waste.[20][21] In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggestproducer of CO2.[22]

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),representing the work of 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries, said that humans have
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been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gasemissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. Butin order to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occurwithin decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC).[23]

Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals(such as chromium, cadmium--found in rechargeable batteries, and lead--found in lead paint,aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 aseries of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvestunveiled a widespreadpractice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soilwith various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substancesentering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety ofrefuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills thatmay have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusualreleases ofpolychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such asTCDD[24]

Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes ofteninvolve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or

automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs orrefineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers,can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.

In the case ofnoise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing aboutninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.

Human health

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can causerespiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion.Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of

drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated 700 million Indianshave no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrhoeal sickness every day.[28] Nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.[29] 656,000 people dieprematurely each year in China because of air pollution. In India, air pollution is believed tocause 527,700 fatalities a year.[30] Studies have estimated that the number of people killedannually in the US could be over 50,000.[31]

Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high bloodpressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits inchildren and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by airpollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional risk. Children and infants arealso at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological

problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can causecancer and as well asbirth defects.

Environment

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effectsof this:

Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may passthrough trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.

Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of theEarth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
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The emission ofgreenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems inmany ways.

Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plantscan contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemicalcompositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.

Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change thespecies composition of ecosystems.

Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry outphotosynthesis and leads to the production oftropospheric ozone which damages plants.

Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in thefood web.

Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.

Environmental health information

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP) [32] at the United StatesNational Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmentalhealth web site that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other governmentagencies and organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials,and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the

Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[33]

an integrated system of toxicology and environmentalhealth databases that are available free of charge on the web.

TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps ofthe United States to help users visually explore data from the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency's (EPA)Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

Pollution control

Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control ofemissionsand effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products fromconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human

activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchyof controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollutioncontrol.

[edit] Practices

recycling

Pollution control devices

Dust collection systemso

Baghouseso Cycloneso Electrostatic precipitators

Scrubberso Baffle spray scrubbero Cyclonic spray scrubbero Ejector venturi scrubbero Mechanically aided scrubbero Spray towero Wet scrubber

Sewage treatment
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o Activated sludge biotreaterso API oil-water separators[15] [34]o Biofilterso Dissolved air flotation (DAF)o Powdered activated carbon treatmento Sedimentation (water treatment)

Vapor recovery systems Air pollution is the introduction ofchemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials

that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages thenatural environment into the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support

life on planet Earth. Stratosphericozone depletion due to air pollution has long beenrecognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst pollutionproblems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.

An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and theenvironment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In additionthey may be natural or man-made.[2]

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants aresubstances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbonmonoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primarypollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground levelozone one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitteddirectly and formed from other primary pollutants.

About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the

Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2.SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal andpetroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4,and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impactof the use of these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperaturecombustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the severalnitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2is one of the most prominent air pollutants.

Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is aproduct by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicularexhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital toliving organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere.

Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field theyare often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to
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enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gasesvia their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere,although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromaticcompounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead toleukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compoundwhich is often associated with industrial uses.

Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fineparticles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refersto particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made ornatural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forestand grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as theburning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes alsogenerate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenicaerosolsthose made by human activitiescurrently account for about 10 percent of thetotal amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air arelinked to health hazards such as heart disease,[3] altered lung function and lung cancer.

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonarydisease.[4][5]

Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently

banned from use. Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the

formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms byserving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.

Odors such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural

processes such as the radioactive decay ofradon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds inphotochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau ofsmoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area causedby a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coalbut from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere bysunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions toform photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the

troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratospherecommonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving itdrive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night.At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely thecombustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USAunder the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
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A variety ofpersistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmentaldegradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they havebeen observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potentialsignificant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsiblefor the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two majorcategories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds offuel

"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks ofpower plants, manufacturing facilities(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burningheating devices

"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of soundetc.

Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management,farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of bothforest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlledburning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing theforest.

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however, it ishighly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant

and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if theoxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement

Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation. Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle. Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,

naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is

considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate inbuildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second mostfrequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Emission factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
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Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of apollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of thatpollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weightvolume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulateemitted per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions fromvarious sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all availabledata of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-termaverages.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutantemission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[6] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canadaand many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the EuropeanEnvironment Agency.

There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available toreduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning andtransport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an importantpart of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economyand population as well as to protect the environment.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developingcountries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such ascruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawntrimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use ofhybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion toelectric vehicles).

Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportationdevices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before itis emitted into the atmosphere.

Particulate controlo Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air

cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostaticprecipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow ofgases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such asdust and smoke from the air stream.

o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of ablower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removalsystem (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove

the dust).

o Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. Theterm describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas orfrom other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought intocontact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it througha pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

Scrubberso Baffle spray scrubber
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o Cyclonic spray scrubbero Ejector venturi scrubbero Mechanically aided scrubbero Spray towero Wet scrubber

NOx controlo Low NOx burnerso

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)o Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)o NOx scrubberso Exhaust gas recirculationo Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

VOC abatemento Adsorption systems, such as activated carbono Flareso Thermal oxidizerso Catalytic oxidizerso Biofilterso Absorption (scrubbing)o Cryogenic condenserso Vapor recovery systems

Acid Gas/SO2 controlo Wet scrubberso Dry scrubberso Flue gas desulfurization

Mercury controlo Sorbent Injection Technologyo

Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)o K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipmento Source capturing systemso Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Soil contamination (soil pollution) is caused by the presence ofxenobiotic (human-made)chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of contamination typicallyarises from the rupture ofunderground storage tanks, application ofpesticides, percolation ofcontaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes fromlandfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involvedare petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrenceof this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemicalusage.

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact withthe contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination ofwater supplies within and underlying the soil[1]. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the
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resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts ofgeology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills.

It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most wellknown, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal withthis environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developingcountries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases.

The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s hasexacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental ProtectionAdministration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainableagriculture. According to a scientific sampling,150 million mi (100,000 square kilometers) ofChinas cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate afurther 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 squarekilometers) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth ofChinas cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 milliontonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billionyuan (US$2.57 billion).

Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of

soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing transport[6]

and fate of soilchemicals. There are several principal strategies for remediation:

Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human orsensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging ofbay mudscontaining toxins.

Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution) Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently

high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction. Technologiesinclude ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm.

Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniquesused in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentatingsoil biota

with commercially available microflora. Extraction ofgroundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with

subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract. Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place). Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

Water pollution is the contamination ofwater bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans andgroundwater).

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and, in almostall cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also tothe natural biological communities.

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into waterbodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum ofchemicals,pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration.While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring(calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining whatis a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant.
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Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves andgrass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may causeturbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of somefish species.[10]

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in eitherhuman or animal hosts.[11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change inpH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in theconcentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primaryproductivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negativeenvironmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water qualitymay occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

[edit] Pathogens

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not anactual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which havecaused human health problems include:

Burkholderia pseudomallei Cryptosporidium parvum Giardia lamblia Salmonella Novovirus and other viruses Parasitic worms (helminths).[12][13]

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.[14] This can becaused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may haveleaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary seweroverflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewageduring rain storms.[15]

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

[edit] Chemical and other contaminants
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Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy ofUnited States Geological Survey.

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

Organic water pollutants include:

Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfecteddrinking water, such as

chloroform Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease

Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range oforganohalides and other chemical compounds Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and

lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwaterrunoff[16] Tree and bush debris from logging operations Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.

Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to thebottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.

Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products

Inorganic water pollutants include:

Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

Ammonia from food processing waste Chemical waste as industrial by-products Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater

runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[16]

Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16][17] and acid minedrainage

Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or landclearing sites

Macroscopic pollutionlarge visible items polluting the watermay be termed "floatables" inan urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can includesuch items as:

Trash (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and that arewashed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters

Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

Domestic sewage

Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other 0.1% are pollutants. While found in lowconcentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale.[20] In urban areas, domestic sewage istypically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfection_by-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organohalidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinated_solventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAPLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trash_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainfallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_drainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurdlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipwreckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muddy_USGS.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muddy_USGS.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfection_by-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organohalidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stormwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinated_solventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAPLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-Burton_.26_Pitt-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trash_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainfallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_drainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurdlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipwreckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment


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operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatmentworks (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BODand suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better)can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems totreat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutantsfound in industrial wastewater.[21]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or moreengineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacitythroughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22]

repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15]

increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a veryexpensive option).

A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septictank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domesticwastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e.g. in a ruralcommunity).

Industrial wastewater

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipalfacilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventionalpollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds)or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems.Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, andthen send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating largevolumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems.

Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or

eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.

Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:

cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation,convection, and radiation

cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/orheat transfer

cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrialheating purposes.[23]

Agricultural wastewater

Main article: Agricultural wastewater treatment

Nonpoint source controlsSediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural

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