L E M E L S O N A R C H I V E S Incline Village, Nevada • August 16–18, 2007

R E P O R T O N Places of Invention: The First Lemelson Institute

Organized by the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation

C O NT E NTS1 FromtheDirector

2 ExecutiveSummary

3 MissionandGoals

4 SettingtheStage

7 Framingthetask

7 Overviewofresearchonplacesofinvention

10 Examiningplacesofinvention

16 Findings

19 Participants

24 Acknowledgments

24 AbouttheLemelsonCenterfortheStudyofInventionandInnovation

24 AbouttheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory,SmithsonianInstitution

ItisadistinctpleasuretopresentthesefindingsofourfirstLemelsonInstitute,heldatInclineVillage,Nevada,

August16–18,2007.OverlookingthenorthernshoresofLakeTahoe,thenewlyerectedLemelsonArchivesprovided

amagnificentsettingforthisinauguralevent.JeromeLemelson’spapers,whicharebeinggatheredatthearchives,

suppliedtheinspirationforourexplorationofthetheme,“PlacesofInvention.”Forthisperiod,theArchivesitselfbecame

aplaceofinventioninitsownrightandtheinstituteparticipants,theinventors.Itismyhopethatthisjointcreation—the

LemelsonInstitute—willcontinueinfutureyearsonaperiodicbasis,forginganewtradition—notjustasanotherthinktank

butasanagenttotransformourunderstandingofinventorsandtheprocessofinventionintheUnitedStatesandaround

theworld.Ialsohopethatthereportthatfollowsconveyssomeoftheintellectualchallenges,excitement,andsheerfun

involvedinlaunchingsuchanewandpromisinginstitutionalendeavor.

A R T H U R M O L E L L A

Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Director

F R O M T H E D I R E C TO R

The Lemelson Institute

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InAugust2007,aninterdisciplinarygroupofscholarsandpractitionersmetattheLemelsonArchivesontheshoreofLakeTahoetoexaminethe

relationshipbetweenphysicalspacesandcreativity.Whatisitaboutaparticularplacethatexcitesacreativemindandmakesita“placeofinvention?”

Howdocreativepeopleshapethespacesinwhichtheywork?Whatcombinationsofelementsmakeoneplaceahotbedofinnovationwhileasimilar

placemayfounder?ThesequestionsandmanymorewerediscussedatthefirstLemelsonInstitutethroughcasestudiesofcreativepeople,newandexisting

spaces,andinnovativeregions.

The goals of the Institute:Engagescholarsandpractitionersinaninterdisciplinaryexaminationofthe•relationshipamonginventivespaces,inventors,andcreativeactivity

Offerparticipantsnewperspectivesonthesubject,basedontheirinteraction•withthosefromotherdisciplines

ProduceawrittenreportoftheInstitute’sfindingsandseektopublishthe•findingsinaninfluentialjournalormagazine

InformtheLemelsonCenter’sexhibitionanddocumentationeffortsonthe•topicof“PlacesofInvention”

ThefindingsoftheInstituteofferinsightintothequalitiesofphysicalspacethatareconducivetoinnovation;thewaysthatcreativepeopleshapethespacesinwhichtheywork;andcommoncreativefeaturesamongplacesrangingfromthegaragesandbasementsofindependentinventorstoacademicorgovernmentlaboratoriestoregionsandcyberspace.

Summary of findings:Placesofinventionthat“work”sharesomecommonfeatures,including•flexibility,understatedleadership,goodcommunication,andabalancebetweenindividualandcollaborativework.

Similarly,individualsworkingincreativespacesexhibitsomecommon•desiresandtensions.Freedominworkstyleandthepersonalcontrolofspace,includinghowitisarrangedandhowitisplannedandunplanned,areimportanttocreativepeople.Anelementofchaosisagoodthing.

Communities,whetherlargeorsmall,playanimportantroleinshapingplaces•ofinvention.Eventhequintessential“loneinventor”ispartofoneormoregroupsandcommunities.Conversely,mostcreativegroupshavealeader,thatcharismaticpersonaroundwhomteamsform.Inventorsandthemanycommunitiesofwhichtheyareapartareaffectedbytheirsocialandintellectualnetworks,bychangingformsofcommunication,andbythepatentsystem.Buttryingtocreateanewcommunityofinventionbyreplicatingasuccessfulmodelseldomsucceeds.

Theideaof“flow”orcontinuityisanactorthroughoutthehistoryofinvention.•Oneofthemoststrikingexamplesofthisisthefactthatplacesofinvention,whethertheyareinstitutionsorregions,haveadocumentedlifespan.Theprevalentuseofanalogybyinventorstolinkideasacrossdisciplinesalsohighlightstheimportanceofflowtoaninventor’swork.

Executive summary

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Innovationhasbecomeauniversalwatchword.Yet,despiteitspopularity,theprocessofinnovationanditsglobaleffectsrequiredeeperunderstanding.

Questionsaboutthesocialandculturalimplicationsofinventionandinnovationremainunderexploredbyacademic,industrial,governmental,and

nongovernmentalorganizations.TheLemelsonInstituteisdesignedtofillthiscriticalgapinscholarlyandpublicthinking.Throughsmall,interdisciplinary

seminarscenteredonissuesofinvention,innovation,andsociety,weaimtoraisetheprofileofinventionandinnovationandtoopennewchannelsof

communicationbetweenthevariousdisciplinesandsectorsofsocietyconcernedwithtechnologicalinnovation.

SponsoredbyDorothyLemelson,theLemelsonInstituteisorganizedbytheJeromeandDorothyLemelsonCenterfortheStudyofInventionandInnovation,partoftheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory,SmithsonianInstitution.ThemissionoftheLemelsonCenter,foundedin1995throughagenerousgiftfromtheLemelsonFoundation,istodocument,interpret,anddisseminateinformationaboutinventionandinnovation;toencourageinventivecreativityinyoungpeople;andtofosteranappreciationforthecentralrolethatinventionandinnovationplayinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.

HonoringthememoryandideasofJeromeLemelson(1923–1997),theeminentAmericaninventorandphilanthropist,theLemelsonInstitutebringstogetherscholarsandpractitioners,includinghistorians,archivists,inventors,scientists,artists,policymakers,leadersofnonprofitandphilanthropicorganizations,andotherswithaninterestininnovation,todiscussissuesofinvention,innovation,andsociety.ThisfirstLemelsonInstituteexaminedthethemeof“PlacesofInvention”tobegintounderstandanddefinetherelationshipbetweenphysicalspacesandcreativity.

The Institute conveners identified the following goals for the meeting:Engagescholarsandpractitionersinaninterdisciplinaryexaminationofthe•relationshipamonginventivespaces,inventors,andcreativeactivity

Offerparticipantsnewperspectivesonthesubject,basedontheirinteraction•withthosefromotherdisciplines

ProduceawrittenreportoftheInstitute’sfindingsandseektopublishthe•findingsinaninfluentialjournalormagazine

InformtheLemelsonCenter’sexhibitionanddocumentationeffortsonthe•topicof“PlacesofInvention”

ThefindingsoftheInstituteofferinsightintothequalitiesofphysicalspacethatareconducivetoinnovation;thewaysthatcreativepeopleshapethespacesinwhichtheywork;andcommoncreativefeaturesamongplacesrangingfromthegaragesandbasementsofindependentinventorstoacademicorgovernmentlaboratoriestoregionsandcyberspace.

Mission and goals of the Institute

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Setting the Stage

JeromeLemelson,knowntohisfamilyandfriendsas“Jerry,”livedthequintessentialAmericandream.Theholderofmorethan600patents,Lemelsonandhisremarkablycreativeintellecttouchedalmosteveryfacetofoureverydaylives.Oneofthe20thcentury’smostprolificinventors,Lemelsonreceivedanaverageofone

patentamonthformorethan40years—allonhisown,withoutsupportfromestablishedresearchinstitutionsorcorporateresearchanddevelopmentdepartments.

Automatedmanufacturingsystemsandbarcodereaders,automatictellermachinesandcordlessphones,cassetteplayersandcamcorders,faxmachinesandpersonalcomputers—evencryingbabydollsderivedfromLemelson’sinnovations.Auniversalrobotthatcouldmeasure,weld,rivet,transport,andeveninspectforqualitycontrolutilizedanewtechnology:machinevision.Thiswashisbreakthroughinventionandtheoneofwhichhewasmostproud,despitethehundredsofothersheproducedduringhis45-yearcareer.

Inhisphilanthropy,asinhisprofessionalwork,Lemelsonwasdevotedtoinvention.Inthe1990sheandhiswifeDorothyestablishedtheLemelsonFoundation,whichbeganfundingnewprogramsthatpromoteinventionandentrepreneurship.OneoftheseistheLemelsonCenterfortheStudyofInventionandInnovation,whichwascreatedthrougha$10milliongifttotheSmithsonianInstitution’sNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.

Agiftedandversatileinventor,JeromeLemelsonalwaysstoodbyhisbeliefthatpeoplewhoworkedhardandbelievedinthemselveswouldtriumph.Hedevotedmuchofhislifetochampioningtherightsoftheindependentinventor,becauseaboveallhewantedtoensurethattheUnitedStatesthrivedinahigh-tech,globalmarketplace.

LemelsonpassedawayonOctober1,1997,attheageof74.1WededicatethisfirstLemelsonInstitutetohismemory.•

1 Abridged from the Lemelson Foundation Web site at http://www.lemelson.org/about/bio_jerry.php

T H E L E G AC Y O F J E R O M E L E M E L S O N

. . . his remarkably creative intellect touched almost every facet of our lives . . .

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NotallinventorsareasdrivenandproductiveasJerryLemelsonwas,butsomegeneralcharacteristicscanbetracedthroughmostinventors’careers.Oneoftheseisasignature“style”ofinvention,aboutwhichThomasParkeHughes,anotedhistorianoftechnology,haswrittenextensively.2Bythishereferstothecommonmethodologythataninventorusesthroughouthisor

hercareertofosterinventionandcreativethought.Forexample,henotesthatThomasEdison’sstyleofinventionincluded“arationalandartfulcombinationofscientificlaw,economicprinciplesandfacts,endlesscalculation,andtirelessexperimentation.”3Forthismethodtosucceed,however,Edisonalsohadtocreatetheproperplacetonurturetheseactivities,surroundinghimselfwithrichresourcesintermsofpeople,up-to-dateinformation,physicalplant,andfinancinginwhathedubbedhis“inventionfactory.”

ParticipantsintheLemelsonInstituteofferedmanyexamplesofhowinventors’stylesbothinformandareshapedbytheir“placesofinvention.”DorothyLemelson’sdescriptionofhowJerryworkedwasparticularlyhelpfulasaremindertothegroupthatthemindisperhapstheultimateplaceofinvention.Regardlessofwheretheylived,Dorothytoldthegroup,Jerrysetuphisworkspaceinaconsistentpattern,fashioningforhimselfwhatshedescribedasan“inventor’sstudio”:

He always had a lot of papers. He always put papers in boxes; no matter what situation he was in, he always had boxes of papers underneath his desk. . . . He did not file them, but he knew where each subject matter was in a drawer, so he could access it. And he always had to have someplace where he could be almost prone—his back would be up against something, his feet would be up, and he’d sit and write. And he had a desk and a drawing board. . . . That is the way Jerry worked. . . . The children never bothered him. He would listen, perhaps, to some music. He just lived within his mind, without any outside interference.4

ArtMolellaalsosharedhisexperiencewithJerry’sinventiveprocess.Jerrytoldhimthathewouldlookatthingsandseesomethingmissinginthem,andhewouldthinkabouthowtoimprovethem.Thatwaswhereinventionbegan,withsolvingaproblem.

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2 See, for example, Elmer Sperry: Inventor and Engineer (Johns Hopkins Press, 1971); American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870–1970 (Viking, 1989); and Rescuing Prometheus (Pantheon Books, 1998).

3 Thomas Parke Hughes, Thomas Edison: Professional Inventor (London: Science Museum, 1976), p. 24.

4 In Einstein: His Life and Universe (Simon & Schuster, 2007), Walter Isaacson noted similar characteristics in Albert Einstein: “One of his strengths as a thinker, if not as a parent, was that he had the ability, and the inclination, to tune out all distractions, a category that to him sometimes included his children and family. ‘Even the loudest baby-crying didn’t seem to disturb Father,’ Hans Albert said. ‘He could go on with his work completely impervious to noise.’” (p. 161)

T H E R O L E O F A N I N V E NTO R ’ S ST Y L E O N P L AC E S O F I N V E NT I O N

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Similarly,independentinventorSaulGriffith,aparticipantintheInstitute,talkedaboutcreatingSquidLabs—hisplaceofinvention—andhowthephysicalspacecorrespondstohisinvention“style.”GriffithandhiscolleaguesworkinthecontroltowerattheformerAlameda,California,navalbaseairfield.Thelabischaracterizedbyacombinationofsophisticatedcomputersystems,handtools,andmusicandart.Griffithstressedtheimportanceofahealthydoseofchaosinaplaceofinventionandofhavingresourcesonhandsince,ashesaid,“Youdon’tknowwhatyouwillinventtomorrow.”

Fromtheimpromptutotheplanned,spacesareanimportantelementinhumancreativity.Bodiesofscholarshipexistabouttherelationshipofartiststotheirstudios,orofscientiststotheirlaboratories.However,inventors’intimaterelationshipswiththeirspaceshaveattractedlittleattention,perhapsbecauseoftheobscurityofthevastmajorityofinventors.•

Getting the inventive juices flowingIn order to awaken the inventor in all of the participants from the Institute’s outset, the group split into teams at their opening dinner for an exercise in “grab bag inventing.” For this lighthearted yet purposeful activity, each team received a brown paper bag containing miscellaneous items—for example, pipe cleaners, balloons, tape, string, etc.—a time limit for the exercise, and a problem-based scenario to guide its work:

Scenario 1: You are an independent inventor working in your garage. You have a job outside your home, but enjoy tinkering and inventing during your free time. You are currently working on something that will address a household need.

Scenario 2: You are an inventor working in the developing world. You work with local residents to identify and help solve their most pressing problems. You are currently working with a group of farmers to invent something that will help them increase their crop yield.

Scenario 3: You are an inventor in a research lab in a large corporation. You are currently working to create an antigravity device using only the materials that you already have in your lab.

Later in the weekend, the teams reported on their process, their inventions, and on how place (in this case, a table in the hotel dining room) affected their work. One team took a humorous approach to Scenario 1 by defining the “household need” as encouraging unwanted houseguests to leave and created an escalating set of annoyances to accomplish the task. Another team addressed Scenario 2 by conceiving of a omnidirectional windmill that would power a well pump, providing a constant source of water for crop irrigation. A third team, comprised of academics and museum professionals, tackled Scenario 3 by incorporating scholarly knowledge into an invention that was easy to explain and understand visually; they stated that their balloon was filled with negative mass, making it defy gravity. On the overall experience, members of the teams commented on the pressure created by the limitations on time, materials, and work space, and on the joy and freedom that they felt in using their imaginations to think about both plausible and fanciful solutions to the scenarios.

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ArtMolellaopenedtheproceedingsofthe

Institutewithsomeframingquestionsfor

thediscussion.Heaskedtheparticipantsto

considerwhat,ifanything,makesaplacedesigned

foranddevotedtoinventiondifferentfromother

creativespaces?Aretherespecificfeaturesthat

arecommontoinventiveplaces,whethertheyare

individualworkshopsorgeographicregions?How

docreativepeopleshapeandinteractwiththeir

spaces?Inwhatwaysdocommunities,cities,and

regionssupportand/orconstraininvention?

Howhavethesefactorsaffectinginventiveplaces

changedovertime?

Similarly,whyaresomeplacesseeminglymorefertileforinventionthanothers?Whatisitaboutcommon,everydayplaceslikekitchens,garages,andfarmsthatinspiretheinventivespirit?Whendoesaworkplacebecomeawellspringofinvention?CanregionseagertofosterinventionanditseconomicbenefitssuccessfullyemulateplaceslikeSiliconValley?

TheinterdisciplinarygroupparticipatingintheLemelsonInstitutewasbroughttogethertoponderthesequestionsandtoinformtheLemelsonCenter’sfutureactivitiesonthesubjectofplacesofinvention,includingpublications,exhibitions,anddocumentationofcontemporaryinventors.•

Framing the taskD

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Overview of research on places of invention

JenniferLight,NorthwesternUniversity,orientedthegrouptocurrentthinking,

acrossdisciplines,abouttheconnectionsbetweenplaceandinvention.She

presentedareviewofrecentresearchintheformofasyllabusforanewcourse

shewouldteach,aptlynamed“PlacesofInvention.”5

Shebeganbyaskingthreefundamentalquestions,eachtargetedtoexamineassumptionsaboutinventionandplaceandtostudytheirintersections:

Whatisinvention?•

Howdoesplacematter?•

Whytakeahistoricalapproach?•

What is invention? Invention,sheparaphrased,islikepornography—scholarsseemtoknowwhatitis,buttheytypicallydonotdefineit.Shenotedthatwhilethereisagrowingliteratureacrossdisciplinesoninventivenessandinnovation,frequentlyauthorsfailtoexplaintheirterms.Asthegroupdiscussedthis,theydifferentiatedbetweenscientificdiscoveryandtechnologicalinvention.Thefirstconsistsofphenomenathatexistedbutwerepreviouslyunknowntohumankind,whilethesecondinvolvesthecreationofsomethingthatneverexistedbefore,particularlysomethinghavingutility.Thequestionofartisticinventionwasalsoraised,butwasseenasalessusefulconceptthanartisticcreativity.Animportantpointofagreementwasthatinventionoftenresultsfromcross-fertilizationofideasfromdifferentfieldsbroughttogethertoanswernewquestions.Membersofthegroupofferedillustrationsofbiomimicry(forexample,studyingtheshapeofakingfisher’sbeakinordertostreamlinethedesignofJapanesehighspeedtrains);thetransferofknowledge(suchasusingtheexperiencegainedfromsteamenginestoinformthefieldofthermodynamics);orfusingdisciplines(forexample,HowardBecker’smergingofarthistoryandsociologyinhisbook,Art Worlds).

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5 The syllabus is available for download at http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/LemInst_Light_syllabus.pdf

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What is it about a particular place that excites a creative mind?

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How does place matter? Lightpresentedanoverviewofscholarshipinseveralfields,notingthreepointsthatscholarshavemadeintheirassessmentsoftherelationshipbetweenplaceandinnovation.First,scholarshaveobservedthatindividualleadersplayacrucialroleinfosteringcreativespaces.Architectsforexample,designworkspacesthattheybelievewillenhancecommunicationandcross-disciplinarycollaboration.Managerscancontributeby“participatinginideagenerationratherthanremainingonthesidelines,focusingmoreonthestructure,timing,andobjectivesofprojectsthanonthespecificconductofthework,allowingworkersfreedomandflexibilityinhowtheygoaboutaccomplishingtheirmission,anddevelopingthesocialskillstofacilitatecoordinationamongcollaboratorswithdifferentbackgroundsandformsofexpertise.”

Inaddition,socialscientistsinsociology,economics,andotherfieldshaveshowntheimportanceofsocialandcollaborativenetworks.Inventionisoftenaprocessthatspansdisciplines,butevenself-styledindependentinventorshavesocialnetworksthatsupportandenhancetheirwork.Thegroupdiscussedwhattheyperceivedasanincreaseinaccesstomultiplenetworks,facilitatedbynewandfastermeansofcommunication.Thisinturnincreasedexposuretoideasandtechniquesfrommultipledisciplines.

Thethirdfactorintherelationshipbetweeninnovationandplace,illustratedbyscholarshipinlegalandpolicystudies,emphasizestheimportanceofcommunitycodes.Governmentregulatorypolicies,forexample,designedtofosterinventionandinnovation,mayinfactconstrainthemaswell.TheU.S.patentsystemillustratesthistension.Applyingforanddefendingpatentstaketimeawayfrominventivework,yetapatenthasbothtangibleandintangiblevalue,protectinganinventor’sworkandconferringacachetofgenius.Evidenceexiststhatthelackofarobustpatentsystemhindersinventionindevelopingnations.

Why take a historical approach?Lightreportedthatscholarshaveidentifiedchangesintheinventiveprocessfromthelate19ththroughthe20thcenturies,suggestingthevalueoftakingahistoricalapproachtoassessevencontemporaryinnovationpractices.Theseincludedmovingfromproducer-definedprocessestoonesincorporatingtheresponseofconsumers;fromdiscreettocontinuousactivities;andfromfield-specifictomultidisciplinarywork.Onespecificdepartureinthelate20thcenturyfromtraditionalplacesofinventionistheuseofcyberspaceforcollaborativeanddistributedwork.Butsurprisingly,scholarshavenotfoundthatinventiveactivitiesconductedincyberspacediffersignificantly

fromthoseinmoretraditionallocations.“Whilecyberspacehasdiversifiedthevenuesinwhichparticipantsintheinnovativeprocesscanmeet,”Lightnoted,researchinterpretationsmakethecasethat“thereisasmuchcontinuityaschangeintheeraoftheInternet.”

Light’soverviewofresearchinthefieldledhertoproposetwoareasrequiringfurtherstudy.First,creatingandsustainingplacesofinventionarerelatedbutseparateendeavors;placesthatfirstsucceedasplacesofinventioncanfailinthelongterm.However,mostscholarshipconsidersonlythecreationofaplaceofinvention.Second,existingstudiesofinventivespacestypicallyfocusonthegeneration,notthereception,ofideas,butthelatterisacriticalphaseoftheinventiveprocess.Shenotedthereisanentirefieldofresearchonthediffusionofinnovationthatmightbetappedforideas.•

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C R E AT I V E P E O P L E : T H E P E O P L E / P L AC E N E x U S

LillianHoddeson,UniversityofIllinois,outlinedherworkonanumberofresearchorganizationsthathaveproducedsignificantinventions,including

BellLaboratories,Fermilab,andEnergyConversionDevices.Shenotedseveralcharacteristicscommontohighlycreativeplaces:aclearmissionthat

issupportedbybothleadershipandresearchers;minimalbureaucracy;researchfreedom;interdisciplinary(andinsomecasescross-disciplinary)

collaboration;adequatefundingandotherresourcessupportiveofinvention;afavorablebalancebetweenisolationfromandinteractionwiththeoutside;

andgoodmorale.

Thislistofelementsraisedanimmediatequestionforthegroup:arethesepointsuniquetoinvention,oraretheyuniversalforcreativeteamworkmoregenerally?Itdidindeedappearthatmanytypesofcreativeplacessharethesetraits.Whetherplacesofinventionexhibituniquecharacteristicsbeyondtheonesdiscussedherecouldnotbeansweredinthediscussion,althoughthegroupagreedthathavingadramaticgoal—winningawar,landingamanonthemoon,ordefeatingpolio—enhancestheabilityofamissiontodriveinventiveindividualsandorganizations.Effectivemanagers,whogobeyondleadingwithasofttouchtodemonstratingatoleranceforfailureand“creativeanarchy,”appeartobeessentialtotheinventiveprocess.Oftensuchmanagersbecomepartnerswithresearchersandinventorsinsuccessfulplacesofinvention.

Usingthepowerofindividualpersonalitiestoputahumanfaceoninvention,evenwhenthoseindividualsworkwithinlargeorganizations,isanotherfeatureofmanyinventiveplaces.The“loneinventor”remainsaculturalicon,thanks,inpart,totheaffirmingvalueofprizesandpatentsawardedtoindividualsandtheconveniencethismythoffersforhelpingtheexternalworldunderstandwhatinventorsdo.

Oneofthemorecuriouscharacteristicsofplacesofinventionidentifiedbythegroup,however,istheirtemporarynature.Placesthatexperienceperiodsofgreatinventivenessoftenlaterundergocreativedecline,sometimesfollowedbyaperiodofinventiverebirth.Ingeneral,thephasesofinventivenesslastabout20years.Somecausesofthis“halflifeforcreativity”werepostulated.Afterroughlytwodecades,bureaucracyandhierarchytendtosolidify,whichdoesnottypicallyenhanceinventiveness.Similarly,

thereputationofasuccessfulplaceofinventioncancometoovershadowtheindividualswhopopulateit.Inshort,someoftheveryfeaturesthatmakeanorganizationsuccessfulatinnovationcaneventuallyimpedeitscontinuedsuccess.

Theparticipantsalsostatedagoalforcurrentandfuturesitesofinvention.Concernedthatthemajorityofactorsintheplacesofinventiondiscussedwerewhitemales,thegroupstressedtheimportanceofworkingtowardenhancingdiversityinspacesofinvention.Variousincentivestorecruitingandkeepingwomenandminoritiesintheinventionworkforcewerediscussed.Onepromisingtrendforyoungpeopleinstart-upculturesisthattheirtendencytoholdasuccessionofjobsinashorttimeperiodisnolongerseenasadisadvantage.Rather,theimplicationisthattheworkerhasseenfailuresinothercompaniesandcanbringthatknowledgetobearinthecurrentculture.•

Examining places of inventionD

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. . . flexible spaces, minimal bureaucracy, and an element of chaos are important . . .

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C R E AT I V E P L AC E S : T H E P E O P L E / P L AC E N E x U S

FredH.Gage,SalkInstitute,describedhisresearchintotheplasticityofthebrainandthefairlyrecentdiscoverythatcertainlocationsinthebrain

continuetogrowfunctioningnewcellsthroughoutaperson’slife.Thestrikingpartofthisisthatthebirthandmaturationofnewcellsintonew

neuronsisregulatedbyexperience.Experimentswithanimalsshowthatenrichedenvironmentsresultintheproductionofmorecellsandthose

cellsdividemorereadilyandsurvivebetterwhentheanimalsexperiencecomplexenvironments.Furthermore,thereisarelationshipbetweenlearningand

physicalexerciseinthecreationofnewcells:exerciseenhancestheproliferationofcells,whilecomplexlearningexperiencesaidthecells’survival.

Theseresultsindicatethatthebraincontinuouslyadaptstoenvironmentsthroughoutaperson’slifetime,raisingthequestionforthegroup:canarchitectureaffectthestructureofthebrain?Sinceexperiencecanchangethestructureofourbrains,andarchitecturechangesourexperience,Gageofferedtheprovocativehypothesisthatbuildingscanchangeourbrainsbyvirtueofchangesinspatialexperience.GageandhiscolleaguesarecurrentlyinvolvedinastudyofworkersinWashington,D.C.,whoaremovingtheirworkspacestonewbuildings,butmoreresearchisneededontheeffectofarchitectureonthestructureofbraintoshowifanyparticulardesignisbetterthananothertoenhancecreativity.

However,Gageofferedtwoexamplesofhighlycreativespacesascasestudies.ThefirstwasarchitectFrankGehry’spersonalcreativespace—aspacious,hangar-likebuilding—thatGagedescribedasseeminglychaoticonthesurface,withmultipleprojectsinvariousstatesofcompletion,butclearlyproductiveandcreative.Hethendiscussedthewell-plannedarchitectureofhishomeinstitution,theSalkInstitute.Originallydesignedtoincludethreetowers,theplanwasmodifiedbeforeconstructiontotwotowersandacentralcourtyardtofacilitatecommunicationandinteractionamongthestaff.Insidethebuildings,concealedtrussesallowunobstructedlabspace,and,thoughthetowersareeachsixstorieshigh,thereareonlythreelabfloors.Betweeneachofthesefloorsisan

interstitialspacecontainingallthewater,electricity,ducting,etc.Anyoftheseutilitiesmaybedroppedfromtheceiling,permittingmultipleconfigurationsofthespacetomatchtheworkathand.“So,”Gagereported,“periodically,andmoreoftenthanyouwouldthink,wetearoutwholesectionsofthesoftwallspacesandjustredesignit.”Thecommonandessentialcharacteristicofthetwospaces,Gehry’sstudioandtheSalkInstitute,isflexibility.

Thegroupbroadenedtheconceptofflexiblespaceandpostulatedthathavingthefreedomtoactuallytransformaspaceandmakeitone’sownmightbeakeytoopeningthedoorsofone’screativity,doorsthatwouldremainclosedifonewerelivinginsomeoneelse’sspace.•

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C R E AT I NG “ P L AC E S O F I N V E NT I O N ” : R E G I O N S A N D N E w S PAC E S

StuartW.LeslieandRobertKargon,bothofJohnsHopkinsUniversity,comparedandcontrastedtheroleofformalplanningforinventiveregionsand

institutions.Lesliebeganwithanoverviewoftheliteratureoninvention,business,andregions.Heexplainedthatformanyyearsthepredominant

interpretationoftheintersectionofbusinessandinnovationignoredgeographyandinsteadconcentratedonthefirm,theentrepreneur,ortheindustry.

TheleadingproponentofthisapproachwasAlfredChandler,whoseground-breakingstudiesexaminedwhereresearchanddevelopmenthappenedwithin

acorporation,butwerenotconcernedwithwherethecorporationwasbased.6ThisbegantochangewiththeworkofCharlesSabelandMichaelPiore,7who

lookedatindividualregionsofflexibleproductioninseveralcountriesasanalternativetothemethodsofmultinationalcorporations,andAnnaLeeSaxenian,8

whocomparedtherelativesuccessandfailureofSiliconValleyandBoston’sRoute128corridorintermsoftheinteractionoffirmswithinaregion.

Historicallydefinedbymapsandphysicalgeography,regionstodaycouldeffectivelybemappedaccordingtotheflowofcapitalandskilledworkers.Understandingregionsinthiswayhelpstoexplainwhysomefail.Asuccessfulregioncombinestalentedworkers,venturecapital,andproduction.Butregionsmayalsofailbecauseofregulatoryantitrustpoliciesdesigned,ironically,toprotectcompetition.Athirdfactoridentifiedinthefailureofregionsistheoften-triedexerciseofreplicatingasuccessfulmodelinanunsuitablenewlocation.Tosucceed,institutionsneedtogroworganicallywithintheirregionalsettings.

Successfulregions,likesuccessfulresearchlaboratories,oftenhaveastrong,mentoringpersonalityguidingtheirdevelopment.FrederickTermaniswidelyseenashavingplayedthisroleforSiliconValley.Similarly,WilliamShockleyreceivescreditforstartingthesemiconductorindustryinCalifornia.Acharismaticfigureattractstalentandinvestors.Othermodelsofcourseexist;forexample,thecreationofgovernment-mandatedeconomicregionsinGermanyoffersacontrastingview.

Theideaoflifespanappliestoregionsaswellastoresearchorganizations,thoughtheproductiveperiodofregionsistypicallylongerthanthetwenty-yearaverageascribedtolaboratories.Lowell,Massachusetts,forexample,remainedattheforefrontofthetextileindustryforroughlyacentury.However,thecycleissimilar,andthegrouppostulatedthatthismaybeanaturalcomponentofcapitalism.Newfirmswithnewideascontrolforawhile,butoncecompetitionsetsin,resourcesarenotasplentiful.Theplacesthatsurvivethelongestaretheonesthatareresponsivetochangesinsocietyandtechnologyasawholeandarethereforeabletogrowintonewentities,sometimesbearingonlyaslightresemblancetotheirfoundingcompanies.

Whatkindofplanning,then,wouldbemosteffectiveinbuildingregionsandinstitutionsinwhichcreativepeoplemaydowhattheywanttodo?Thereareanumberofelementstoconsider.Removinglegal,organizational,andfinancialbarriersisessential.Toleratingcontrolledchaos,minimizingbureaucracy,andkeepingspacesflexiblearealsoimportant.Oneinterestingidea

discussedwastheeffectoftemporarystructuresoncreativework.Doesplanningforanearhorizon,notforthelongterm,resultinamorecreativespace?Doesminimalplanningactuallydeliverthedesiredresults?

TheManhattanProjectatLosAlamosandtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyRadiationLaboratorywereexaminedasexemplarsofcreativeplacesthatweremeanttobetemporaryandthereforenotthoroughlyplanned.Theatmosphereofflexibilityandimpermanencethatproducedsomuchcreativeworkindicatedtothegroupthatdesignersofplacesofinventionmightdowelltobegintheplanningprocesswithatestphasetoseewhatdoesanddoesnotwork.Planningfromtheoutsettobuildapermanentplaceofinventionmaymeanthattheseedsofultimatefailurearepresentfromthestart.•

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7 Charles Sabel and Michael Piore, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity, (New York: Basic Books, 1984)

8 AnnaLee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994)th

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C R E AT I NG “ P L AC E S O F I N V E NT I O N ” : A DA P T I NG E x I ST I NG S PAC E S

MertonFlemings,MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,sharedhisexperiencesover60yearsatoneoftheforemostplacesofinvention.MIT

embodiesmanyofthecharacteristicsalreadyidentifiedasessentialtocreativeplaces.Ithasaclearlystatedandsupportedmission,leadership

“withalighttouch,”astrongcommitmenttointerdisciplinaryteachingandresearch,academicindependencewithinresearchgroupsandamong

faculty,andtoleranceforthesometimeschaoticandorganizationally“messy”conditionsthatpromotecreativity.

MIT,however,addsotherfeaturestothemix.TheInstitute’scultureisintense,diverse,self-sufficient,abitcockyintermsofexpectationsofsuccess,anddedicatedtohands-onexperiences.Thiscultureisnurturedinpartbycrowdedworkspacesandbuildingsconnectedbythe“infinitecorridor,”bothofwhichpromoteinterchangebetweenandamongfacultyandstudentsandfacilitatenotonlyunexpectedbuteffectiveencounters.Inaddition,MIT’stenureprocesspromotestechnologicalcreativityandinventivenessthroughitsemphasisonanindividual’sabilitytoaffecthisorherfield,eitherthroughpublicationsthathaveinfluencedtheworkofothersorthroughproductscreated,includinginventions.

Flemings’sobservationsonlifeatMITsuggestedthreefactorsthatechothoseidentifiedearlierasnecessaryforcreatingsuccessfulplacesofinvention.Thefirstoftheseis,onceagain,flexibilityanditscorollary,impermanence.Flemingscommentedthat,longafter

theirexpectedlifespanwasover,thebuildingsthathadhousedtheRadiationLaboratorywerestillseenasdesirableplacestowork.“Evenlater,”hesaid,“whenotherbuildingsbegantogouparoundMIT,peoplestilllovedthatlab.Andnotjustfrommemory,theylovedtoworkinit!...Iftheydidn’tlikeawall,theycouldknockitout!Itdidn’ttakemuchmorethanstickingafootthroughit.”

TheinterdisciplinarynatureofMITisindicativeofachangethroughouttheuniversitysystemintheUnitedStates.Asinstitutionsmoveawayfromanemphasisoncoredisciplineswiththeirownmethods—mathematics,history,physics,etc.—toembracecriticalproblemsthattranscendanddemandthecooperationofmany,“hybrid”disciplines(e.g.,biochemistry)aswellasmultidisciplinarypractices(e.g.,publichealth,materialscience)areborn.Thiscombiningofdisciplinesisalsocommoninmanysuccessfulplacesofinvention.

Finally,proximity,withitsimpliedtensionbetweenseclusionandinclusion,alsofactorsintoMIT’screativelife.Theideaofthe“infinitecorridor”isnotuniquetoMIT.ThearchitectureofBellLabs,theRANDCorporation,andGeneralAtomic,tonameonlythree,wereallplannedtomaximizecontactamongthebuildings’inhabitants.However,individualsandtheirworkstylesdifferandthereisastrongneedtobalancethedesireforprivacywitheaseofcollaborationtotheextentpossibleforthesuccessofthework.ButwhatdoesproximitymeanintheInternetage?Isphysicalproximitystillrelevantandnecessary,especiallyasmoreresearchiscarriedoutbyvirtualteamsworkingindisparatelocations?Thegroupdidnotarriveataconclusiveanswertothisquestion,butpointedinsteadtocompaniesthatexistbecauseofandfortheInternet,likeGoogle,butstillhaveextensivephysicalcampuses.Perhapsproximityisbecominglessaboutcommunicationandmoreabouttheinspirationthatplaceprovides.•

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. . . creative places make it easy for people to discuss, share, and argue ideas . . .

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M A k I NG I D E A S C O NC R E T E : PU b L I C D I S S E M I NAT I O N

PeterFriess,TheTechMuseumofInnovation,andArtMolella,LemelsonCenter,ledthefinaldiscussion.Molellaexplainedthatthegroupwould

beaskedtobrainstormandcommentontwoseparatebutrelatedexhibitionconcepts.ThefirstisPlaces of Invention,scheduledtoopeninthe

LemelsonHallofInventionattheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistoryin2011.Theotherexhibition,Spirit of Silicon Valley,willbeinstalledatThe

TechMuseum.9ThetargetaudienceforPlaces of Inventionisfamilieswithchildrenaged6to12,withspecialeffortsmadetobringinlocalfamiliesfromthe

metropolitanWashington,D.C.,area.Spirit of Silicon ValleyisaimedatincreasingtouristvisitationtoTheTech.Thegoalofbothexhibitionsistodevelop

amodelforwaysinwhichdistantandorganizationallyseparateinstitutionsmayworkcollaborativelyandeffectivelyonamajorexhibitionproject.

Molella highlighted the objectives of the Smithsonian’s exhibition:Exploretherichrelationshipamongindividuals,communities,and•environmentsthatfosterinventiveactivity

Investigatetheroleofinventioninshapingplacesandcommunities,including•thosethatsupportsustainablelifestylesandpositivesocialoutcomes

Considerinventionswithintheirsocialandhistoricalcontext•

Inspirepeoplenotonlytolearnaboutinvention,buttoconsiderhowtheir•choicesaffectthelargerworldandtoseethemselvesaspotentialinventors

Some of the elements that will be used to meet these objectives include:Casestudiesoffamousandalsolesser-knowninventorsofdiversebackgrounds•andexperienceswhoworkinavarietyofplacesacrosstheUnitedStates,e.g.,largelaboratories,smallbusinesses,homes,cities,ruralareas,andcommunities

Multidisciplinaryperspectivesincludingengineering,arts,science,anddesign•

Documentationoftheprocessofinvention,particularlythecollaborative•natureofthecreativeprocess

FriessthenprovidedbackgroundonTheTechMuseumofInnovation,whosecoremissionis,“Inspiretheinnovatorineveryone.”Heexplainedthatcurrentlythemuseumhasnocollectionsandisintheprocessofredoingallofitsgalleries,comprisingroughly40,000squarefeet.Hehasestablishedanewdepartmenttodevelopcontentfortheoutdatedgalleries,withtheoverallgoaltomakethemuseumrelevanttoSiliconValleyresidentsandtourists.Overthenextfiveyears,themuseumwilldevelopexhibitionsandexperiment-centeredpresentationsonSiliconValleyanditsindustries.Currently,Spirit of Silicon ValleyisfocusedonthreethemesthatrelatetoplacesofinventioningeneralandSiliconValleymorespecifically:theValleyitself,thepeople/teamsbehindtheinventionscreatedthere,andtheinventions/productsthemselves.

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The discussion turned to suggestions from the group on people, places, and techniques that might be included in the exhibitions.

FeatureaShakercommunityasacasestudyininnovation,design,and•collectiveimaginationinthecontextofagricultureandmanufacturing.

FeatureahistoricalcommunityfromtheSouthwest(e.g.,theAnasazi)•toillustratefarmingtechniquesandthenotionofcollectiveinvention;communalsocietiessharecharacteristicswithplacesofinvention.

Includesituationsinpeople’slivesthatleadthemtoinventorsolveaproblem•insomeway.

Useperiodroomstoevokeasenseofplace.Theyarepopularwithmuseum•visitors.PerhapsGIScanbeusedtocreateaperiodroomofaregion.

Includeanintroductoryfilmtodefinetheexhibits’objectivestovisitors.•Havefunwithit;lookat“TheSimpsons”episodeaboutEdisonforideas.

Use“explodedobjects”todiscussregionsandtoshowhowmanyplaceshada•handinproducingtheobject.Includelaborhistory,environmentalimpact,defensecomponents,negativeconsequences.

Includeusercommunitiesinthestoriestold.•

Pullvisitorsquicklyfromthefamiliarintotheunfamiliarareasinwhichplace•hasshapedinventionandinwhichinventionhasshapedplace;useobjects,photographs,andgraphicmaterialstodothis.

Keepthemainfocusonindividuals;museumvisitorsrelatetostoriesof•individuals.

Includesomethingaboutthechangingethnicandeconomicdemography•ofSiliconValley.

Tapintopeople’spersonalinterestsinhobbiesandwheretheyparticipate•inthose(e.g.,garages,sewingrooms,smallstudios).

Challengeandexpandthemythologicalstoriesofthegarageinventor,•orthebasementinventor.

The group also offered comments on the objectives of the exhibits:Beclearthatthereisadifferencebetweensolvingaproblemandinventing•something.Aninventionissomethingnew.Solvingaproblem,ontheotherhand,isameanstocompletingaspecifictask.

Becarefulnottobetoogeneralwhenexplainingwhatinventionisandwho•isaninventor;donotlet“invention”meaneverything.

Takepeoplebacktothehistoricalpointwherekeyinventionshappened.Most•peopledonotthinkaboutthefactthateverythingintheirliveswasinvented.

Finally, the group provided some general advice:Doaudiencetestingearlyon;findoutifthetargetaudiencesareasinterested•inthetopicasthisgroupis.

Donotavoidcontroversy,butputcriticisminthevoiceoftheparticipants,•notthecurators;incorporatingfirst-personaccountsisausefultechnique.

Besuretodealwithfailure.•

Prototype!•

Givethevisitorsomesensethattherewasanearlyunderstandinginthe•Constitutionthatpeopleweregoingtobeencouragedtobecreativeandtopatentinventions.•

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ThefindingsoftheInstituteofferinsightintothequalitiesofphysicalspacethatareconducivetoinnovation;thewaysthatcreativepeopleshape

thespacesinwhichtheywork;andcommoncreativefeaturesamongplacesrangingfromthegaragesandbasementsofindependentinventorsto

academicorgovernmentlaboratoriestoregionsandcyberspace.

Places of invention that “work” share some common features.Flexibility.• Trulycreativespacesareflexible.Theyareeasilyreconfigured,modular,andresponsivetotheneedsofdifferentpeopleanddifferentprojects.Itcanbeshownthatasbuildingsandspacesbecomemoresolidandpermanent,sodotheiroccupants,oftenwitharesultingwaningofcreativity.

Leadership.• Placesofinventionarecharacterizedbymanagerswhoarticulateandpromoteaclearmission,supportindividuals’researchfreedominpursuitofthatmission,encourageinterdisciplinaryteams,andmanagewitha“softtouch”characterizedbyminimalhierarchyandbureaucracy.Often,aninfluentialmentorisresponsiblefororiginallybringingagroupofcreativepeopletogether.

Communication.• Creativeplacesmakeiteasyforpeopletodiscuss,share,andargueideas,whetherinthelaboratoryorthecafeteria.Bymaximizingbothformalandinformalcontactbetweenindividuals,suchspacesencouragecross-fertilizationofthinking.

Balancebetweeninclusionandseclusion.• Inordertosucceed,inhabitantsneedtobalancetheirneedforsolitudewiththeirneedforinteractionwithothers.Essentialtoachievingthisbalanceisgivingtheindividualprivate,personalworkspace,whileatthesametimeofferinginvitingcommunalspaces,especiallythosethatfosterinterdisciplinaryandmultigenerationalinteraction.Aspacethatisdictatedandinflexibleisunlikelytosucceedasacreativespace.

Similarly, individuals working in creative spaces exhibit some common desires and tensions.

Arrangementofthespace.• Creativeindividualswanttoarrange,modify,andadapttheirpersonalworkspacestomeettheirownneedsandwhimsy.Itisalmostaclichéthatcreativepeoplehavemessyspacesandespouseahands-onmentality.

Controlandlackofcontrol.• Chaosandlackofcontrolarevitaltocreativepeople.Itiscrucialtoremovethemfromnormal,predictablesurroundings,andtogivethemthefreedomtodowhattheywantiftheygathertheresourcesneeded.

Tensionbetweenplannedandunplannedspaces.• Isitpossibleto“plan”forspontaneity?Probablynot.Planningcreativespacesseemstoworkbestifdoneinstages,withevaluationandadjustmentalongtheway.

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Communities, whether large or small, play an important role in shaping places of invention.

Theindividualandthegroup.• Whiletheideaofthe“loneinventor”hasbeendismissedasamythusedtoexplaintheworkofinventorstotheworld,itisstilltruethatmostteamshavealeader,thatacharismaticpersonisoftenthereasonteamsform,andthatinspiteofthemovetowardsbuildingconsortiaandothertypesofgroups,individualfiefdomsofinventionpersist.Why?Partoftheanswerliesinacontinuingbiasfortheindividualthatissupportedbytheprizesystemandthepatentprocess.

Replicatingsuccessfulmodels.• Withfewexceptions,spin-offinstitutionsandreplicatedregionshavenotbeensuccessful.

Changingformsofcommunicationandinteraction.• Socialnetworkingandformsofdistributedknowledgearechangingthewaysinwhichinventorswork(forexample,bycreating“virtual”teamsofcolleaguesindisparateplaces).

Theroleofpatents.• Thepatentsystemstillactsasaconstraintandabenefittoinvention.Whileinventorspointtothetimethattheprocess,andpossibleensuinglitigation,takeawayfromcreativework,inventorswholiveincountrieswithaweakornonexistentpatentsystemseethatasadisincentivetoinvention.

The idea of “flow” or continuity is an actor throughout the history of invention.Sciencev.technology.• Whiledefinitionsof“science”and“technology”abound,itismoreusefultoseescience,technology,application,invention,andartaspartofthecontinuumofcreativity.Thisviewpointisusefulinunderstandingthechangingnatureoftheinventiveprocessfromthelate19thtothe21stcentury.

Temporalnatureofcreativespaces.• Creativeinstitutionshavelifespans.Onaverage,researchlaboratories,forexample,areproductiveforabout20years.Itisimportanttoexaminehowthefactorsthatmakeacreativeplacesuccessfulinthebeginningmaycometostifleitlateron.Creativeregionsexhibitasimilar,thoughlonger-term,pattern.Questioningwhatresourcesexist,howlongtheylast,whatthecompetitionforthemis,andgiventhosefactors,howlongtheinstitution’swayofoperatingcanbesustained,willbegintoexplainthisphenomenon.

Encouraginginterdisciplinary,multidisciplinaryinterests.• Inventionbringstogetherknowledgefromdifferentdisciplinestocreatesomethingnewandexhibitsalonghistoryofmappingideasfromonefieldontoanother.

Connectionsacrosstimeandtopic.• Linkagesareimportanttounderstandingthehistoryofinvention.Oneoftheinventor’smostpowerfultoolsishisorherabilitytocreateanalogies.Theactof“transgressivecognition,”ortheabilitytoleapoverintellectualbarriers,isaconstant.• th

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. . . an interdisciplinary group of scholars and practitioners examined the relationship between physical spaces and creativity . . .

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Merton C. FleMingS Lemelson-MIT Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.

MertonFlemingsisprofessorofmaterialsprocessingandfacultydirectoroftheLemelson-MITProgramininventionandinnovationattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.HehasbeenamemberoftheMITfacultysince1956.Inadditiontoteachingandresearch,hehasservedasfounderandfirstdirectoroftheMaterialsProcessingCenteratMIT,asheadoftheDepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,andasMITDirectoroftheSingapore-MITAlliance.Heisco-inventor,withstudentsandco-workers,of31U.S.patentsintheareasofprocessingandmanufacturing.HeisamemberoftheNationalAcademyofEngineeringandtheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences.

Peter FrieSS Tech Museum of Innovation, San Jose, Calif.

PeterFriess,presidentofTheTechMuseumofInnovationsince2006,ischargedwithdrivingthecontent,programs,andSiliconValleybusinessandeducationpartnershipsessentialto“inspiringtheinnovatorineveryone.”Hehasextensivemuseumexperience,havinghelpedcreateandthendirecttheDeutschesMuseumBonn,andhavingrunprojectsfortheJ.PaulGettyMuseum,theSmithsonianInstitution,andtheBavarianNationalMuseum.Friess‚amasterclockmaker‚receivedhisPh.D.in1992fromtheLudwig-Maximilians-UniversityMunichwithadissertationonartandtechnology.In2001,Bavaria’sStateChancelloraskedFriesstobuilduptheAgencyforMediaandCommunicationTechnologyinGermany,California,andIndiainordertoattractforeignbusinessestoBavaria,Germany.Since2003,FriesshasbeenSecretaryGeneraloftheFondazioneParmenidesofElba,Italy.

Fred H. gage Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif.

FredH.Gage,AdlerProfessorintheLaboratoryofGenetics,joinedtheSalkInstitutein1995.HereceivedhisPh.D.in1976fromJohnsHopkinsUniversity.Gage’sworkconcentratesontheadultcentralnervoussystemanditsunexpectedplasticityandadaptabilitytoenvironmentalstimulation.Inaddition,hisstudiesfocusonthecellular,molecular,andenvironmentalinfluencesthatregulateneurogenesisintheadultbrainandspinalcord.PriortojoiningSalk,GagewasprofessorofneuroscienceattheUniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego.HeisafellowoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,amemberoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesandtheInstituteofMedicine,andamemberoftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences.GagealsoservedaspresidentoftheSocietyforNeurosciencein2002andhasbeentherecipientofprestigiousawards,amongthemthe1993CharlesA.DanaAwardforPioneeringAchievementsinHealthandEducation,theChristopherReeveResearchMedalin1997,the1999MaxPlanckResearchPrize,andtheMetLifeAwardin2002.

Saul t. griFFitH Makani Power Inc., Alameda, Calif.

SaulGriffithisanMITalumnuswithmultipledegreesinmaterialsengineeringandmechanicalengineering.HecompletedhisPh.D.attheMITMediaLaboratoryin2004onself-replicatinghardwareandtheroleandlimitsofinformationandstateintheself-assemblyofcomplexstructures.WhileatMITGriffithcofoundedLowCostEyeglasses,acompanyusingtwonoveltechnologiestoprovideprescriptioneyecareatlowcostforruralanddevelopingcommunities.WithJoost

BonsenandNickDragotta,healsostartedHowtoons,analternativecurriculumforhands-on-scienceandengineeringillustratedinplayfulcartoons.AdeepinterestintheuseofsocialnetworksforengineeringanddesignledGriffithtocofoundThinkcycleandInstructables,experimentalplatformsforenablingopen-sourceapproachestodevelopingphysicalobjects.Griffith’sprincipalresearchfocusisinnewmultifunctionalmaterialsandinminimumandconstrainedenergysurfacesfornovelmanufacturingtechniques.Hisseeminglybroadarrayofinterestsstemsfromthepast40yearsofdevelopmentsinlogictheory,software,anddocumentationthatenablenewwaystolookatthewaywebuildandmanufacturethings.

lillian HoddeSon Department of History, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

LillianHoddesonisprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofIllinois.Theauthororeditorofeightbooksandmanyarticles,sheteachescoursesonthehistoryofscienceandtechnology,oralhistory,andmemory.Herbooks(mostofthemwithcollaborators)includeahistoryofthetransistor(Crystal Fire),abiographyofJohnBardeen(True Genius),andahistoryoftheatomicbomb(Critical Assembly).Anewbook(inpress)treats“megascience”asitevolvedatFermilab.PresentlysheisatworkonabiographyofStanfordOvshinsky,anindependentAmericaninventorofalternativeenergytechnologies;amonographonoralhistoryandhumanmemory;andahistoryoftheSuperconductingSuperColliderLaboratory.HoddesonisafellowoftheAmericanPhysicalSociety,theCenterforAdvancedStudyatIllinois,andtheJohnSimonGuggenheimMemorialFoundation.

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robert Kargon Department of History of Science and Technology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

RobertKargonistheWillardK.ShepardProfessorofthehistoryofscienceatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,andaco-organizeroftheLemelsonInstitute.TrainedatDuke,Yale,andCornell,heistheauthorandeditorofScience in Victorian Manchester, The Rise of Robert Millikan,andAtomism in England from Hariot to Newton,andhasrecentlycompleted(withArthurMolella)Invented Edens: Techno-Cities of the 20th Century(inpress).Inrecentyearshehasbeenexamining“knowledgeforuse,”especiallyinscienceregionssuchasSiliconValleyandRoute128,Boston;scienceandtechnologyincities;andscienceininstitutionsofhigherlearning.

Stuart W. leSlie Department of History of Science and Technology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

StuartW.LesliehastaughtthehistoryoftechnologyatJohnsHopkinsUniversitysince1981.HispublicationsincludeabiographyofinventorandautomotiveengineerCharles“Boss”KetteringandastudyofAmericanscienceandengineeringeducationinthecoldwar.Hehasalsowrittenaseriesofarticles(manycoauthoredwithRobertKargon)onthegeographyofinnovation.Hismostrecentworkincludesstudiesoflaboratorydesignandarchitecture,includingprojectsbyEeroSaarinen,I.M.Pei,andLouisKahn,intendedtoculminateinabookabout“HowLaboratoriesLearn,”andaroadbookaboutAmericanindustrialanddeindustrialhistoryfocusingontentownsfromLowelltoSanJose,titled“WeCan’tMakeItHereAnymore:ARoadTripthroughDeindustrialAmerica.”

JenniFer S. ligHt School of Communication, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

JenniferS.Lightisassociateprofessorofcommunicationstudies,history,andsociology,andfacultyassociateattheInstituteforPolicyResearchatNorthwesternUniversity.ShereceivedanA.B.inhistoryandliteratureandPh.D.inhistoryofsciencefromHarvardUniversity,andalsoholdsanM.Phil.inhistoryandphilosophyofsciencefromCambridgeUniversity,whereshewastheLioneldeJerseyHarvardScholar.Lightworksonhistoricalandcontemporaryissuesraisedbytheintersectionofnewtechnologiesandurbanlife.SheistheauthorofFrom Warfare to Welfare: Defense Intellectuals and Urban Problems in Cold War America(2003,2005),andjournalarticlesinpublicationsincludingJournal of the American Planning Association, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, New Media and Society,andTechnology and Culture.Light’srecentresearchhasbeenawardedgrantsfromtheAndrewW.MellonFoundationandtheGrahamFoundationforAdvancedStudiesintheFineArts.Shewillspend2007–2008attheSchoolofArchitectureandPlanningatMIT.

MarC J. PaCHter National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

MarcPachterisaculturalhistorianwithaparticularinterestinbiography.AsthedirectoroftheSmithsonian’sNationalPortraitGalleryuntil2008,Pachterwasresponsiblefora$30millionfundraisingcampaignthatensuresthatGilbertStuart’s“Lansdowne”portraitofGeorgeWashingtonremainsonpermanentdisplay;thecreationofthefirstnationalportraitcompetition;andtherestorationoftheNationalPortraitGallery’smagnificentNationalHistoricLandmarkbuilding.From1990to1994,PachterwastheSmithsonian’sdeputyassistantsecretaryforexternalaffairs,overseeing

Smithsonianmagazine,SmithsonianInstitutionPress,andmembershipanddevelopmentprograms.Later,hewasappointedcounselortotheSecretaryoftheSmithsonian,overseeingelectronicmediaissues,chairingtheInstitution’s150thanniversary,andfacilitatingkeyinternationalpartnerships.In1999,hewasawardedtheSecretary’sGoldMedalforDistinguishedService.FromNovember2001untilJanuary2003,healsodirectedtheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory.PachterhasbeenafrequentcommentatorforCBSNightwatch, theVoiceofAmerica,andC-SPAN,andhasauthoredoreditedanumberofbooks,includingAbroad in America: Visitors to the New Nation; Champions of American Sport; Documentary History of the Supreme Court;andTelling Lives: The Biographer’s Art.

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birgit binner thema gestaltung, San Jose, Calif.

GraphicdesignerBirgitBinnerstudiedattheHochschulefürGestaltungSchwäbischGmündinGermany,aschoolthatbuildsonthetraditionsoftheBauhaus,andreceivedherdiplomaindesignin1990.In1993BinneropenedherowndesignfirminMunich,called“themagestaltung.”Shefocusesonculturalprojectsrelatedtoindustry,museums,andfoundations.HerclientshaveincludedBayerAG,theDeutschesMuseumBonn,andtheSmithsonian’sLemelsonCenter,forwhichshedesignedtheexhibition,Nobel Voices: One Hundred Years of the Nobel Prize.ThistravelingexhibitionhasbeenseenacrosstheUnitedStatesandinEurope,India,andMexico.In2006themagestaltungmovedfromGermanytoSiliconValleytouniteBinner’sinterestsingooddesignandnewtechnologies.Shealsoteachesattheuniversityleveltoshareherknowledgewiththenextgenerationofgraphicdesigners.

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brent glaSS National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

BrentD.GlassjoinedtheSmithsonianInstitutionasdirectoroftheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory,BehringCenterinDecember2002.Aleadingpublichistorian,GlassreceivedaPh.D.inhistoryfromtheUniversityofNorthCarolina-ChapelHill.GlassservedasexecutivedirectoroftheNorthCarolinaHumanitiesCouncil(1983–1987)andasexecutivedirectorofthePennsylvaniaHistoricalandMuseumCommission(1987–2002),thelargestpublichistoryprograminthenation.HehasservedontheU.S.NationalHistoricalPublicationsandRecordsCommissionandonthecounciloftheAmericanAssociationforStateandLocalHistory.HeisamemberoftheFlight93MemorialCommission.Hisresearchinterestsincludearchitecturalandurbanhistory;thehistoryofindustryandtechnology;andthehistoryofmemorials,museums,andhistoricsites.

JoSePH n. tatareWiCz Department of History, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, Md.

JosephTatarewiczisassociateprofessorofhistoryattheUniversityofMaryland,BaltimoreCounty,anddirectorofitsHumanContextofScienceandTechnologyprogram.HeholdsanM.A.degreeinphilosophyfromCatholicUniversityandanM.A.andPh.D.inhistoryandphilosophyofsciencefromIndianaUniversity.HeistheauthorofSpace Technology and Planetary Astronomy(1990)andExploring the Solar System: The Planetary Sciences Since Galileo(forthcoming),aswellasarticlesandreviewsforprofessionaljournalsandpublicationsinthehistoryofscience,technology,andpolicy.HeisacontributortoThe Space Telescope: A Study of NASA, Science, Technology, and Politics(1989,1993).

PHil WeilerStein National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance, Hadley, Mass.

PhilWeilerstein,executivedirectoroftheNationalCollegiateInventorsandInnovatorsAlliance,beganhiscareerasanentrepreneurwhilestillagraduatestudentattheUniversityofMassachusetts.Alongwithclassmatesandanadvisor,helaunchedastart-upbiotechcompanythateventuallywentpublic.Thisexperience,followedbyseveralotherentrepreneurialventures,instilledinhimalifelongpassionforentrepreneurship,whichhehaslivedoutthroughhisworkwiththeNationalCollegiateInventorsandInnovatorsAlliance.Asanentrepreneurinanonprofitorganization,hehasgrowntheNCIIAfromagrassrootsgroupofenthusiasticfacultytoanationallyknownandin-demandknowledgebaseandresourcecenter.

Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.:

JoyCe bedi senior historian

JoyceBedihasservedastheLemelsonCenter’sseniorhistorianandwebmastersince1995.Sheisthecoeditor,withArthurMolella,ofInventing for the Environment(2003),andhasauthoredpublicationsandexhibitsontheworkofHaroldEdgertoninstroboscopicphotography.BeforecomingtotheSmithsonian,BediheldresearchandcuratorialpositionsattheMITMuseum,theIEEEHistoryCenter,theEdisonNationalHistoricSite,andtheMuseumofAppliedArtsandSciences(nowthePowerhouseMuseum)inSydney,Australia.SheisanadjunctfacultymemberinhistoryattheUniversityofMaryland,BaltimoreCounty.

benJaMin blooM new media specialist

BenjaminBloom,nowattheNationalPortraitGallery,producedWebsitesandthepodcastseries“PrototypeOnline:InventiveVoices,”fortheLemelsonCenter.HispastworkincludesonlineexhibitionsandeducationalWebsitesfortheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistoryandtheMinnesotaHistoricalSociety.

Claudine KloSe deputy director

ClaudineKlose,nowretired,waswiththeLemelsonCentersinceitsinceptionin1995andattheSmithsonianformorethantwenty-fiveyears.Shewasresponsibleforfinance,personnel,andday-to-dayoperations,overseeingdevelopmentoftwotravelingexhibitionsandadynamicseriesofprogramsandeducationalinitiatives.PriortoherworkwiththeCenter,shewasprojectmanagerforScience in American Life and Information Age,twomultimilliondollarlong-termexhibitionsattheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory,andhasheldpositionsonmanysmallerexhibitionprojectsattheMuseum.

artHur Molella Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson director

ArthurMolellareceivedhisPh.D.inthehistoryofsciencefromCornellUniversityandwasawardedanHonoraryDoctorofSciencefromWestminsterUniversity,London.HeservedasheadcuratoroftheSmithsonian’sScience in American Lifeexhibitionandco-curatoroftheinternationalexhibition,Nobel Voices.Hehaswrittenwidelyontherelationofscience,technology,andcultureandonthepoliticsofsciencemuseumsanddisplays.Hehasrecentlycompletedabook,Invented Edens: Techno-Cities of the 20th Century,writtenwithRobertKargon,tobepublishedbyMITPressin2008.

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The Lemelson Foundation:

dorotHy ginSberg leMelSon chair

DorothyLemelsonfoundedtheLemelsonFoundationwithherhusband,Jerry,oneoftheworld’smostprolificinventors.Today,DorothyLemelsonisfosteringthecouple’sdreamofencouragingandsupportingAmerica’snextgenerationofinventors,innovators,andentrepreneurs.InadditiontoherworkwiththeLemelsonFoundation,DorothyalsoheadstheLemelsonEducationandAssistanceProgram(LEAP).FromherresidenceinInclineVillage,Nevada,shebothfundsanddirectsthisprogramthatwasoriginallyintendedasacatalysttoimprovepubliceducationinhercommunity.LEAPhassinceexpandeditsoutreachtoincludescholarships,grantstoindividualschools,andspecialprogramsdesignedtohelpprovideopportunitiesforat-riskstudentstothriveandlearn.Priortopursuingherphilanthropicinterests,DorothywasasuccessfulinteriordesignerandownerofDorothyGinsbergAssociatesinNewJersey.

eriC leMelSon co-vice president and treasurer

WinemakerEricLemelsonhasalwaysfollowedinthecreativeandentrepreneurialspiritofhisfamily.Duringayearofffromlawschool,hefollowedhisintuitionandpurchasedasmallfarmborderingthewine-growingregioninYamhillCounty,Oregon.Oneafternoon,hemetnotedwinemakerDickPonzi,whoofferedtobuygrapesifEricwouldplantavineyardonhisproperty.Hespentthespringandsummerof1995tendinghistwo-acrevineyardandlovingthework.Bythenextsummer,hewasoutinthefieldspreparingtoplantanotherthirtyacresofpinotnoir,andLemelsonVineyardswasonitsway.Priortoattendinglawschool,Lemelsonworkedasacampaignstafferonlocal,state,

andnationalpoliticalcampaigns,andasalegislativeaide.HereceivedhisJ.D.inenvironmentalandnaturalresourceslawfromNorthwesternSchoolofLawofLewisandClarkCollege,withaspecialfocusonWesternwaterlaw.Followinglawschool,hedirectedaresearchcenterfocusedonPacificNorthwestwaterpolicyandaquaticbiodiversityissues.HeisalsoaboardmemberofseveralPacificNorthwestenvironmentalorganizations.

JenniFer bruMl leMelSon member, Board of Directors

JenniferLemelsonreceivedherB.A.inarthistoryfromBostonUniversityandcontinuestopursueherartisticpassionsasapotter.LemelsonVineyardskeepsherbusywithongoingspecialevents,andhercommitmenttotheruralcommunityinwhichshelivesispartiallyfulfilledwithherpositionasaboardmemberofCASA,anonprofitorganizationcommittedtothewelfareofchildreninthearea.

robert leMelSon co-vice president and secretary

RobLemelsonisananthropologistwhoreceivedhisM.A.fromtheUniversityofChicagoandPh.D.fromtheDepartmentofAnthropology,UCLA.HeiscurrentlyalecturerinanthropologyandpsychologyatUCLA.HewasaFulbrightscholarinIndonesiain1996-1997,hasconductedresearchfortheWorldHealthOrganization,andisadditionallytrainedasaclinicalpsychologist.HisareaofspecialtyisSoutheastAsianstudies,psychologicalanthropology,andtransculturalpsychiatry.HeisalsothepresidentandfounderoftheFoundationforPsychoculturalResearch,anonprofitresearchfoundationsupportingresearchandtrainingintheneurosciencesandsocialsciences.

SuSan MorSe member, Board of Directors

SusanMorseisanarchitectandpainterwhoreceivedherM.A.fromtheDivisionofSocialSciences,UniversityofChicago,withafocusonpublicpolicy.Sheworkedinthefieldofeducationalpolicybeforeturningtoarchitecture.Sheearnedhermastersinarchitecture(M.Arch.)fromtheSouthernCaliforniaInstituteofArchitecture(SCI-ARC)andiscurrentlythedesignprincipalofSMLDesignStudio.

Julia novy-HildeSley executive director

Withateamofadvisorsandstaff,JuliaNovy-HildesleydevelopsandimplementstheFoundation’sdomesticandinternationalprogramsandoverseesFoundationoperations.ShehaspreviouslyservedasthedirectoroftheWorldWildlifeFund’sCaliforniaoffice,conductedresearchoneconomicalternativestoslash-and-burnagricultureinMadagascarasaFulbrightScholar,heldpositionswithUSAIDandtheWorldBank,andhasworkedwithgovernmentagenciesandnongovernmentalorganizationsinTanzania,Bolivia,andFrenchPolynesia.Novy-HildesleyearnedamasterofphilosophyininternationaldevelopmentfromtheInstituteforDevelopmentStudiesatSussexUniversityintheUnitedKingdom,andabachelor’sdegreeinhumanbiologywithaminorinAfricanstudiesfromStanfordUniversity,whereshewasnamedPhiBetaKappa.Novy-HildesleyservesontheJohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernmentWomen’sLeadershipBoardandisafellowoftheDonellaMeadowsLeadershipFellowsProgram.

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The power of placeWhile the Lemelson Institute focused on places designed for invention, the location of the meeting lent its own aura of inspiration to the discussions. Designed by architect Roderick Ashley, the Lemelson Archives is the physical embodiment of Dorothy Lemelson’s creative sensibilities.

Nestled above majestic Lake Tahoe, the Lemelson Archives overlooks the lake and the Sierra Nevada mountain range beyond. The immediate pine forest and dense undergrowth provide a serene environment where visitors can review the work of Jerome Lemelson, while also engaging in creative discussion about the act of inventing.

The archives design is a simple architectural composition embodying subtle relationships between materials and environment that are unveiled as a person moves through the site. The project is composed of two pavilions—the archives and conference center and a guest residence—mirroring one another and connected via a raised wood boardwalk threaded through a gravel sculpture garden. This simple walkway acts as both a visual and physical connector between the buildings, bordered on the public side by a double allée of aspen trees and open to the garden and spectacular views on the other. The two buildings appear as bookends in a composition that is meant to both engage the surrounding landscape and contain the immediate gravel garden. These carefully crafted buildings are purposefully understated so that attention is directed to the exquisite natural and landscaped surroundings.

The Institute marked the installation of the first exhibit of Jerry Lemelson’s papers in the new Lemelson Archives space. To illustrate the breadth of Lemelson’s inventions, exhibit curator Joyce Bedi, Lemelson Center, selected materials that featured Lemelson’s industrial inventions in one case, and toy inventions in a second case. The notebooks, sketches, correspondence, and patent materials displayed highlighted the path of Lemelson’s invention process, showing the connections among the various ways in which he developed his inventions.

Brent Glass, director of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History, commented that Jerry Lemelson embodied the American dream in the way he continually overcame barriers, believed in progress, and created opportunities for his inventive spirit. Glass commended Mrs. Lemelson for building the Lemelson Archives as a testament to her commitment not only to Jerry’s legacy but to future generations as well.

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OrganizinganintellectuallystimulatingyetsociallyenjoyableeventliketheLemelsonInstituterequiredthededicationandhardworkofmanypeople.

WethankClaudineKlose,LeslieCasaya,andMaggieDennisoftheLemelsonCenterfortheiruntiringeffortswithplanningandlogisticsforthe

meeting.TheexpertassistanceofCarynSwobeandSusanMcLellandensuredthattheInstitute’spreparationsandproceedingswentsmoothlyin

InclineVillage.JoyceBediwasresponsibleforthepreparationofthisreport,whileBenjaminBloomhandledtheaudiovisualrequirementsforthemeeting

and,withArtMolella,servedastheInstitute’sphotographer.ColleaguesRobertKargonandJuliaNovy-HildesleyhelpedusshapethecontentoftheInstitute

andofferedmanysuggestionsforparticipants.JosephTatarewiczlenthisexpertiseinastronomytoaguidedtourofthenightskyoverLakeTahoethatnone

oftheparticipantswillsoonforget.10Finally,weespeciallythankDorothyLemelsonforherhospitality,generosity,andcontributionstothediscussions.Her

passionforplacesofinventionandherpersonalgracesetthetoneoftheInstitute.

A b OU T T H E L E M E L S O N C E NT E R

TheLemelsonCenterwasestablishedattheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistoryin1995throughagiftfromtheLemelsonFoundation.JeromeLemelson(1923–1997)wasanindependentinventorwhoearnedmorethan600patents,representingoneofthelargestpatentportfoliosinthenation’shistory.

TheCenter’smissionistodocument,interpret,anddisseminateinformationaboutinventionandinnovation,toencourageinventivecreativityinyoungpeople,andtofosteranappreciationforthecentralroleinventionandinnovationplayinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.

A b OU T T H E NAT I O NA L M U S E U M O F A M E R I C A N H I STO RY, S M I T H S O N I A N I N ST I T U T I O N

TheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistorycollects,preservesanddisplaysAmericanheritageintheareasofsocial,political,cultural,scientificandmilitaryhistory.DocumentingtheAmericanexperiencefromcolonialtimestothepresent,theMuseumlooksatgrowthandchangeintheUnitedStates.

. . . invention brings together knowledge from different disciplines to create something new . . .

10 “Astronomical Places of Invention” is available for download at http://invention.smithsonian.org/downloads/LemInst_JNT_astro.pdf

Acknowledgmentst

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P H OTO C R E D I TS

Cover:SelectionsfromtheLemelsonArchivesondisplayfortheLemelsonInstitute(left, Ben Bloom photo),andLemelsonArchivesconferenceroom(right, Stephen Cridland photo).p.3:DorothyLemelson(center) welcomedtheInstituteparticipants(Art Molella photo).p.4:JeromeLemelson,around1986(Lemelson Family collection).p.6:LillianHoddesonandRobertKargonatworkontheir“grabbag”invention(Ben Bloom photo).p.8:BoatsonLakeTahoe (Joyce Bedi photo).p.11:FredH.Gage(Ben Bloom photo).p.13:LakeTahoe(Art Molella photo).p.18:Lemelsongarden(Joyce Bedi photo).p.23:Theguestresidence(top left),LemelsonArchivesbuildingexterior (bottom left)andarchivesconferenceroom(Stephen Cridland photos).Insidebackcover:Themoon,photographedthroughthetelescopeduringthestargazingsession(Art Molella photo).

Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and InnovationNational Museum of American HistoryRoom 334A, MRC 60414th Street and Constitution Avenue NWSmithsonian InstitutionP.O. Box 37012Washington, DC 20013-7012

Phone: 202-633-3450Fax: 202-357-4517E-mail: LemCen@si.eduWeb: invention.smithsonian.org