Report on Motivation

8/2/2019 Report on Motivation

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REPORT

ON

MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPT

To,B.M. RAZZAK

Faculty of Business

Northern University of Bangladesh

By,Harun or Rashid ( L )

Id.BBA05021382

Md.Asaduzzaman

Id.BBA050201392

Golam MostofaId.BBA050201398

Ismail Hossain

Id. BBA050201364

Amzad Hossain

Id. BBA050201380

Sohorab Hossain

Id. BBA050201354

Section: D

Date of Submission: 26/05/07


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Letter of Transmittal

Feb, 26. 2007.

To

BM. RAZZAK

Course TeacherOrganizational Behavior

Department of Business Administration

Northern University, Bangladesh.

Subject: Submission of Repot on Motivational Concept of Organizational Behavior.

Dear Sir,We, the student of Organizational Behavior course are here by presenting you

Motivational Concept. It is a great pleasure for us to present you the Motivational

concept as a requirement of the course.

To prepare this Motivational Concept we have tried to maintain your guidelines from

several discussions. The whole experience of this Motivational Concept enables us to

bridge the gap between classroom and real life situation to a great content. Here, we want

to declare that, the Motivational Concept is uniquely prepared by us and we would be

happy to provide further clarification regarding this Motivational Concept whenever

necessary. We have tried our level best to submit this paper within the short time frame.

Hope our effort on writing this Motivational Concept could serve you as a factual

source of information. Thanking you for providing us with such opportunity.

Thank you.

Sincerely

Md.Asaduzzaman

Id.BBA050201392

Golam Mostofa

Id.BBA050201398

Harun or RashidId.BBA05021382

Ismail Hossain

Id. BBA050201364

Amzad Hossain

Id.BBA050201380

Sohorab Hossain

Id. BBA050201354


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Acknowledgement

We the students of Northern University Bangladesh completing 6th semester. We are

working for several days to prepare the Motivational Concept as a course requirement.

All students of our section D and most of the employers of the several organizations have

done a real service and helped a lot to our Motivational Concept with their time and

effort. With the help of those efforts we able to prepare this Motivational Concept there is

no doubt that our report would become a batter on with their help. We would like to

thank the entire student who helped a lot in preparing this report.

Last but not least over riding debt goes to Lecturer, BM. RAZZAKSir for giving us this grateful opportunity to work on such an important subject. This

would definitely help us to build and develop ourselves as a team player in the future.

Besides this he has also guided us through the total Motivational Concept. So we are

very grateful to him.


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Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CHAPTER-1: Introduction1.1 Statement of the research problem

1.2 Scope and Objectives of the Study

1.3 Methodology

CHAPTER-2: Discussion

2.1 Overview of the problem:

2.1.1 Mission and Vision

2.2 Motivation: Defined

2.3 Motivation Theories

2.4 The motivation process

2.5 Types of theories

2.6 Maslow's Need Hierarchy

2.7 McGregor's theory X and theory Y

2.8 Herberg's two-factor theory

2.9 Alderfer's ERG theory

2.10 McClellands Need Theory2.11 OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS

2.11.1 Goal Setting Theory

2.11.2 Vroom's Expectancy Model

CHAPTER-3Findings and Analysis

3.1 Results and Discussion

3.2 Reinforcement Contingencies

CHAPTER-4Recommendation and Conclusion

4.1 Recommendations

4.2 Conclusion

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


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Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated

employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees helporganizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective,

managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles

they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguablythe most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes

constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as

employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also,as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator.

CHAPTER-1: Introduction


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1.1 Statement of the research problem

The purpose of this study was to describe the importance of certain factors in motivating

employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center.Specifically, the study sought to describe the ranked importance of the following ten

motivating factors:

(a) Job security,

(b) Sympathetic help with personal problems,

(c) Personal loyalty to employees,(d) Interesting work,

(e) Good working conditions,

(f) Tactful discipline,

(g) Good wages,(h) Promotions and growth in the organization,

(i) Feeling of being in on things, and

(j) Full appreciation of work done. A secondary purpose of the study was to compare

1.2 Scope and Objectives of the study


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The scope and objectives of the Motivations are portrayed below:

Gather knowledge and information how an organization perform their task and

what are the efficient and effective procedures for motivating market

environment.

To determine the facts that would be considered and opportunities of market,

culture, business system, global marketing, products and services, marketing

channels, International transportation and communication, pricing policy of the

company.

To mitigate or balance the subject knowledge and practical experiences that

enable for doing business in international market.

1.3 Methodology


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The subject of Organizational Behavior plays a good role for the students of Bachelor

of Business Administration, for the well fare of practical knowledge about business. We

the students of BBA need to have a vast experience about the business concern

continuing around us and to make a good communication in between text knowledge and

practical experience. For that reason we were imposed by our course teacher

BM.RAZZAK.For any research methodology is very important. Without adopting proper

methods it is difficult to conduct a successful research. The optimum outcome of the

research depends largely upon the adopting of the proper methods suitable to the research

topic in the field of investigation.

There are two types of method are follows-

I) Primary Methodii) Secondary Method

i) Primary Method:

Prepares this report the information has been collected by directly

interviewing employees of a company.

ii) Secondary Method:

For prepare this report the information also has been collected by

# Searching Internet.

# Search out the company Web-Site through Internet.

# Personal Interview of the officers of the company

1.4Limitation of the study


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We have more limitations for complete this report these are follows:

1. Poor conception of the interview lack of knowledge of the despondence

was the major problem that created much Confusion regarding verification of

information.

2. Lack of time

3. Maintain confidentiality

4. Scope of this study.

5. Lack of Lab facilities.

CHAPTER-2:Discussion


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2.1 Overview of the problem:

Motivation is how can get action toward personal or organizational goals. However,sometimes it becomes difficult to understand. This is because of individuals have

different motives, motives change over time and motives conflict with one another. There

are several approaches to motivation, which play a crucial role in the organization. These

are Maslows Hierarchy, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory, and Goal Setting. Amongthese theories, the most important is expectancy theory. Hence, motivation in an

organization helps in determining the success or failure of the organization.

2.1.1 VISION AND MISSION

The vision and the mission of an organization emerge from important social, economic,

spiritual and political values. They are meant to inspire and promote organizational

loyalty. Vision and mission are those parts of an organization that appeal to the heart; thatis, they represent the organizations emotional appeal. They motivate people and draw

upon staff and stakeholders hopes and aspirations. In this sense, the vision and mission

of an organization provide inspirational motivation.

Clarifying the vision and mission are important in both private and public sectororganizations. Private sector organizations often identify the importance of serving their

customers, and have created visions and missions to support this theme. In the publicsphere, schools, hospitals and even line ministries have begun to see their roles in terms

of service to the public, and have developed vision and mission statements that supportsuch ideas.

At issue for many organizations is not only to write but to then live the statements. When

vision and mission statements are not lived up to, the result is not to enhance motivationbut to foster cynicism. Assessing an organizations motivation primarily involves looking

at its mission, since this is more closely linked to what the organization wants to do.

However, in examining the mission, the link to the larger vision, as well as more

operational components, must also be assessed.

2.2 Motivation: Defined


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Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask

someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation

is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can bedefined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and

persistence of effort expended at work, according to Schermerhorn, ET al.this is an

excellent working definition for use in business. Now that we understand whatmotivation is, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and

then a look at some of the theories on motivation.

Motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior induced by the

expectation of satisfying individual needs. Motivation is the set of processes that moves aperson toward a goal. Thus, motivated behaviors are voluntary choices controlled by the

individual employee. The supervisor (motivator) wants to influence the factors that

motivate employees to higher levels of productivity.

Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has

been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction(Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific,

unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy anunsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). For this paper,

motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to

accomplish personal and organizational goals.

2.3 Motivation Theories

Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus ofmany researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra,

1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation areMaslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two- factor theory, Vroom's expectancy

theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory.

According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943):

physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower levelneeds had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees.

Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes

(Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as

achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, suchas pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction.

Vroom's theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and

performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). Rewards may be either positive ornegative. The more positive the reward the more likely the employee will be highly

motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be

motivated.


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Adams' theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other

workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs is equal to

other employee outcomes over inputs (Adams, 1965).

Skinner's theory simply states those employees' behaviors that lead to positive outcomes

will be repeated and behaviors that lead to negative outcomes will not be repeated(Skinner, 1953). Managers should positively reinforce employee behaviors that lead to

positive outcomes. Managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads tonegative outcomes.

2.4 The motivation process

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs =>Reduction of tension => new unsatisfied needs

2.5 Types of theories

(1) Need-based theories

Maslow's need hierarchy McGregor's Theory X and Theory

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Alderfer's ERG theory McClelland's need theory

(2). Process-based theory

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

Reinforcement theory:

Attribution theory

(3) Individual-organizational goal-congruence theories

Exchange


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Accommodation

Socialization

Identification

2.6 Maslow's Need Hierarchy

(1) A hierarchy of five basic needs

Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm

Social needs: affection, belongingness, love, acceptance, and friendship.

Esteem needs: internal esteem (self-respect, autonomy, achievement), andexternal esteem (status, recognition, attention, power, and face)

Needs for self-actualization: the drive to best realize one's potential, including

potential in personal growth, achievements, and self-fulfillment.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as ahierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated need last.

People move up the hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose their strength and

the next level of needs is activated. As basic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative. A satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful

employee need is the one that has not been satisfied. Abraham Maslow first presented the

five-tier hierarchy in 1942 to a psychoanalytic society and published it in 1954 inMotivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row).

Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water,

and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees' physiological needs by a

paycheck.

Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm.The organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by benefits.

Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and

belonging. The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs through sportsteams, parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showingdirect care and concern for employees.

Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from

others. The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteem needs by matching the skillsand abilities of the employee to the job. The supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by

showing workers that their work is appreciated.


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Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and the realization

of the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs

by assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds while drawing on their aptitude andtraining.

Low-order needs: physiological and safety needs, they are satisfied externally (payment,

unions)High-order needs: social, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they are satisfiedinternally.

(2). Basic assumptions:

A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates

It is the lowest level of ungratified need in the hierarchy that motivates behavior As a lower level of need is met, a person moves up to the next level of needs as a

source of motivation

(3).The socio-cultural construction of need hierarchy


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2.7 McGregor's theory X and theory Y

Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility,

and much be coerced to perform.

Theory Y: the assumptions that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibilities,

and can excise self-direction.

Theory X: assumes that lower-order needs motivate individual behavior.

Theory Y: assumes that higher-order needs motivate individual behavior.

2.8 Herberg's two-factor theory(1). Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Traditional view:

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction


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Herzberg's view:

Satisfaction No satisfaction No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

(2). Two factorsMotivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly intrinsic

factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, andgrowth

Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are mostly

extrinsic factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, work condition,and salary.

Management implications: job enlargement & enrichment, empowerment, and

participative management

Criticism:

Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high motivation

Attribute theory as an explanation


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2.9 Alderfer's ERG theory

(1). Three groups of core needs

Existence needs: physiological and safety needs

Relatedness needs: the desire foe maintaining important interpersonal

relationships: social needs, and the external components of the esteem needs

Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsiccomponent of esteem, and self-actualization


Satisfied low-order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order needs.

Multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time.

Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to alower need.

Alderfer developed the ERG theory of motivation in response to criticisms of Maslow's

hierarchy.

ERG stands for existence, relatedness, and growth needs ERG theory. Existence needsare satisfied by food and water pay fringe benefits and working conditions. Relatedness

needs are satisfied by relationships with co workers, superiors family and friends.

Growth needs cover the need to advance and develop.

As with Maslow's theory, assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy, but it hastwo important differences:

ERG theory suggests that more than one level of needs can cause motivation at the same

time;

ERG theory has a frustration-regression element that suggests that if needs remainunsatisfied at some high level; the individual will become frustrated, regress to a lower

level, and begin to pursue lower-level needs again.


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2.10 McClellands Need Theory

McClelland's Learned Needs divides motivation into needs for power, affiliation, andachievement.

Achievement motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. They like to beable to control the situations in which they are involved. They take moderate risks. They

like to get immediate feedback on how they have done. They tend to be preoccupied witha task-orientation towards the job to be done.


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Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to set a higher goal, to seek higher

responsibility, and to strive to succeed

Seek personal responsibility

Seek feedback on their performance

Seek moderate risks and goals

Power motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to seize control

or dominate others. They love to influence others. They like to change situations whetheror not it is needed. They are willing to assert themselves when a decision needs to be

made.

Need for power: the desire to have impact on, to influence and control the behavior of

others.

o Socialized power: used for social benefits

o Personalized power: used for personal gain

Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others. This

may distract them from their performance requirements. They will usually respond to anappeal for cooperation.

Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others.

2.11 OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN

ORGANISATIONS.

2.11.1 Goal Setting Theory

This approach suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for the individual

on a regular basis and that rewards should be tied to the accomplishment of goals.Research support for goal-setting theory is more consistently favorable than any other

single approach to employee motivation.


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2.11.2 Vroom's Expectancy ModelSuggests that people choose among alternative behaviors because they anticipate thatparticular behaviors will lead to one or more desired outcomes and that other behaviors

will lead to undesirable outcomes.

Expectancy theory

Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is based on how much we want somethingand how likely we think we are to get it.

The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom. Thisframework states basically that motivation plus effort leads to performance, which then

leads to outcomes.

According to this theory, three conditions must be met for individuals to exhibit

motivated behavior:

Effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero;

Performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than zero; and

The sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater than zero.

Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception of the probability thateffort will lead to high performance. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a

strong belief that effort will lead to high performance.

Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perception that performance will

lead to a specific outcome. This expectancy ranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-to-outcome expectancy would be 1 or close to it.


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Equity theory

It is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair or equitable situation is

one in which people with similar inputs experience similar outcomes. Employees will

compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their efforts. If employeesperceive that an inequity exists, they are likely to withhold some of their contributions,

either consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance.


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CHAPTER-3Findings and Analysis

3.1 Results and DiscussionThe ranked order of motivating factors were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c)full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f)

promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal

loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personalproblems.

A comparison of these results to Maslow's need-hierarchy theory provides some

interesting insight into employee motivation. The number one ranked motivator,

interesting work, is a self-actualizing factor. The number two ranked motivator, goodwages, is a physiological factor. The number three ranked motivator, full appreciation of

work done, is an esteem factor. The number four ranked motivator, job security, is a

safety factor. Therefore, according to Maslow (1943), if managers wish to address themost important motivational factor of Centers' employees, interesting work,

physiological, safety, social, and esteem factors must first be satisfied. If managers

wished to address the second most important motivational factor of centers' employees,good pay, increased pay would suffice. Contrary to what Maslow's theory suggests, the

range of motivational factors are mixed in this study. Maslow's conclusions that lower

level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not

confirmed by this study.

The following example compares the highest ranked motivational factor (interesting

work) to Vroom's expectancy theory. Assume that a Centers employee just attended a

staff meeting where he/she learned a major emphasis would be placed on seeking

additional external program funds. Additionally, employees who are successful insecuring funds will be given more opportunities to explore their own research and

extension interests (interesting work). Employees who do not secure additional funds will

be required to work on research and extension programs identified by the director. Theemployee realizes that the more research he/she does regarding funding sources and the

more proposals he/she writes, the greater the likelihood he/she will receive external

funding.

Because the state legislature has not increased appropriations to the centers for the nexttwo years (funds for independent research and extension projects will be scaled back), the

employee sees a direct relationship between performance (obtaining external funds) and

rewards (independent research and Extension projects). Further, the employee went towork for the centers, in part, because of the opportunity to conduct independent research

and extension projects. The employee will be motivated if he/she is successful in

obtaining external funds and given the opportunity to conduct independent research andextension projects. On the other hand, motivation will be diminished if the employee is


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successful in obtaining external funds and the director denies the request to conduct

independent research and Extension projects.

The following example compares the third highest ranked motivational factor (fullappreciation of work done) to Adams's equity theory. If an employee at the centers feels

that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, as being too low relative to anotheremployee, an inequity may exist and the employee will be dis-motivated. Further, if all

the employees at the centers feel that there is a lack of appreciation for work done,inequity may exist. Adams (1965) stated employees will attempt to restore equity through

various means, some of which may be counter- productive to organizational goals and

objectives. For instance, employees who feel their work is not being appreciated maywork less or undervalue the work of other employees.

This final example compares the two highest motivational factors to Herzberg's two-

factor theory. The highest ranked motivator, interesting work, is a motivator factor. The

second ranked motivator, good wages is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, &

Snyderman (1959) stated that to the degree that motivators are present in a job,motivation will occur. The absence of motivators does not lead to dissatisfaction. Further,

they stated that to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job, dissatisfaction willoccur. When present, hygienes prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. In

our example, the lack of interesting work (motivator) for the centers' employees would

not lead to dissatisfaction. Paying centers' employees lower wages (hygiene) than whatthey believe to be fair may lead to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, employees will be

motivated when they are doing interesting work and but will not necessarily be motivated

by higher pay.

The discussion above, about the ranked importance of motivational factors as related to

motivational theory, is only part of the picture. The other part is how these rankingscompare with related research. A study of industrial employees, conducted by Kovach

(1987), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work,

(b) full appreciation of work done, and (c) feeling of being in on things. Another study ofemployees, conducted by Harpaz (1990), yielded the following ranked order of

motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, and (c) job security.

In this study and the two cited above, interesting work ranked as the most importantmotivational factor. Pay was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors

by Kovach (1987), but was ranked second in this research and by Harpaz (1990). Full

appreciation of work done was not ranked as one of the most important motivational

factors by Harpaz (1990), but was ranked second in this research and by Kovach (1987).The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates

employees differs given the context in which the employee works. What is clear,

however, is that employees rank interesting work as the most important motivationalfactor.


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3.2 Reinforcement Contingencies.

Reinforcement contingencies are the possible outcomes that an individual mayexperience as a result of his or her choice of behavior. There are four of these:

positive reinforcement, avoidance, punishment, and extinction.

Positive reinforcement is a reward or a positive outcome after a desired behavior

is performed; it serves to strengthen behavior.

Avoidance occurs when the individual chooses a behavior to avoid unpleasant

consequences; it can strengthen desired behavior.

Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken undesired behavior.

Extinction is ending undesired behavior by ignoring and not reinforcing it.

Providing Reinforcement

There are four approaches to providing reinforcement.

o A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement at fixed intervals of

time, regardless of behavior.

o A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement at varying time

intervals.o A fixed-ration schedule gives reinforcement after a fixed number of

behaviors, regardless of the time that has elapsed between behaviors.

o A variable-ration schedule varies the number of behaviors needed for each

reinforcement and is the most powerful schedule for maintaining desired

behaviors.


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CHAPTER-4Recommendation and Conclusion

4.1 Recommendations

As we developed our approach to analyzing organizations, it became apparent to us thatorganizations, like people, have different personalities and work in different rhythms. We

were often surprised at how well some organizations seem to work under incredibly

difficult circumstances, while others are continually failing to perform under much morefavorable conditions. Why? And why do people in some organizations seem to throw

themselves at their work with tremendous zeal, while in others, they come to work and do

as little as possible? Why is it that some organizations have a vision that puts them in theforefront of innovation, while others are always lagging behind, not knowing where they

are going? The ideas associated with organizational motivation help provide insight into

why organizations and the people inside them behave the way they do.

For almost a century now, organizational analysts have pondered the issue of why someindividuals are more motivated than others (Maslow, 1997). A great deal can be learned

from this literature about the types of working conditions that support or hinder how

individuals in organizations perform. Only over the past 20 years has interest shifted fromsimply understanding the individuals role in organizational motivation, to some of the

underlying personality aspects of the organization itself (Bloor and Dawson, 1994).

Although organizational motivation is manifested in a variety of ways, four primary

concepts provide insight into the underlying personality of most organizations: history,mission, culture and incentives.


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4.2 Conclusion

Motivation management is a modern, practical approach that will be useful to

management trainers and trainees. Also, it will be a good guide in solving motivation

problems within an organization.In reality, it does not add significantly to the theories ofPavlov, Maslow, McClelland, Herzberg, and Vroom.

It seems to borrow a little from each of their works on motivation.

Motivation is a continuous challenge among managers today. The problems and solutionsto motivation problems can be complex to say the least. Tools and ideas are available to

managers and leaders to help with motivation. Studying the timeless theories of

Herzberg, McClelland, Vroom, Pavlov, and Maslow can provide ideas and solutions tomotivation problems. Motivation management and the individual motivation profile are

also useful tools in discovering how to motivate certain individuals. Improving

motivation starts with employee selection and high organizational expectations.Managers that utilize these tools and ideas can be successful motivators


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Bibliography:

Organizational Behavior, 10th EDBy Stephen P. Robbins

http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.html.Journal Editorial Office,[email protected].
http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.htmlhttp://www.joe.org/joe-jeo.htmlmailto:[email protected]://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.htmlhttp://www.joe.org/joe-jeo.htmlmailto:[email protected]


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Appendices:

Methods of Motivation:

Yesterday and Today

By Brian C. Young

Introduction

Motivation: Defined

Methods for Managers to Gauge Motivation Probability

A Brief Look at Motivation Theories of the Early and Mid Nineteenth Century

A Look at a More Recent Theory

Comparison Between the Two Generations

Conclusions

Reference

Introduction

What is motivation?What factors influence motivation and, therefore need to be

addressed?How does a supervisor or manager motivate employees to do their best?Can it

be done using the older, mid-twentieth century theories of Maslow, McClelland,Herzberg, Vroom and Pavlov in todays business world?Or, should theories based on

more modern research, which is more up to date, be used?The challenge of anorganizations leaders and mangers to motivate is extremely complex.They must find out

what works for them in their situation in their respective organizations.We will look at

the traditional theories from the early to mid twentieth century.We will see how they can

still be applied in business today.We will also analyze a more modern theory, which maybe more applicable today.We will compare the two generations of theories.There is

probably no absolute to this study, because both generations of theories have many

parallels to each other.We will attempt to answer all of the preceding questions in thepages to follow.

Top Of Page

Motivation:Defined

Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask

someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation

is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can be
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defined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and

persistence of effort expended at work, according to Schermerhorn, et al.This is an

excellent working definition for use in business.Now that we understand what motivationis, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and then a look at

some of the theories on motivation.

Motivation in Organization

1. Definition: motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviorinduced by the expectation of satisfying individual needs

2. The motivation process

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs =>Reduction of tension => New unsatisfied needs

3. Types of theories

(1) Need-based theories

Maslow's need hierarchy

McGregor's Theory X and Theory

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Alderfer's ERG theory McClelland's need theory

(2). Process-based theory

Equity theory Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

Reinforcement theory:

Attribution theory

(3) Individual-organizational goal-congruence theories

Exchange

Accommodation

Socialization

Identification


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4. Maslow's Need Hierarchy

(1) A hierarchy of five basic needs

Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm

Social needs: affection, belongingness, love, acceptance, and friendship.

Esteem needs: internal esteem (self-respect, autonomy, achievement), and

external esteem (status, recognition, attention, power, and face)

Needs for self-actualization: the drive to best realize one's potential, including

potential in personal growth, achievements, and self-fulfillment.

Low-order needs: physiological and safety needs, they are satisfied externally (payment,unions)

High-order needs: social, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they are satisfied

internally.


A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates

It is the lowest level of ungratified need in the hierarchy that motivates behavior

As a lower level of need is met, a person moves up to the next level of needs as a

source of motivation

(3). The socio-cultural construction of need hierarchy

5. Alderfer's ERG theory

(1). Three groups of core needs

Existence needs: physiological and safety needs

Relatedness needs: the desire foe maintaining important interpersonalrelationships: social needs, and the external components of the esteem needs

Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsic

component of esteem, and self-actualization


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Satisfied low-order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order needs.

Multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time.

Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to alower need.

6. McGregor's theory X and theory Y

Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility,

and much be coerceded to perform.

Theory Y: the assumptions that employees like work, are creative, seek

responsibilities, and can excise self-direction.

Theory X: assumes that lower-order needs motivate individual behavior.

Theory Y: assumes that higher-order needs motivate individual behavior.

Management implications?

7. Herberg's two-factor theory

(1). Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Traditional view:

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view:

Satisfaction No satisfaction

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

(2). Two factors


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Motivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly

intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,

advancement, and growth

Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are

mostly extrinsic factors such as compony policy and administration, supervision,work condition, and salary.

Management implications: job enlargement & enrichment, empowerment, and

participative management

Criticism:

Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high motivation Attribute theory as an explanation

8. McClelland's Need Theory

Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to set a higher goal, to seek higher

responsibility, and to strive to succeed.

The characteristics of a higher achiever:

Seek personal responsibility

Seek feedback on their performance

Seek moderate risks and goals

Need for power: the desire to have impact on, to influence and control the

behavior of others.o Socialized power: used for social benefits

o Personalized power: used for personal gain

Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others.

Discussion: the role of money in motivation: argument and counter-argument.


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Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is based on how muchwe want something and how likely we think we are to get it.

The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed byVictor Vroom. This framework states basically that motivation pluseffort leads to performance, which then leads to outcomes.

According to this theory, three conditions must be met forindividuals to exhibit motivated behavior:

o effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero;

o performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than

zero; ando the sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater

than zero.

Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception ofthe probability that effort will lead to high performance. Thisexpectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a strong belief thateffort will lead to high performance.

Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perceptionthat performance will lead to a specific outcome. This expectancyranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-to-outcome expectancywould be 1 or close to it.

Outcomes are consequences of behavior. An individual mayexperience a variety of outcomes in an organizational setting. Eachoutcome has an associated valance, which is an index of howmuch an individual desires a particular outcome. An outcome thatan individual wants has a positive valance. An outcome that theindividual does not want has a negative valance. When theindividual is indifferent to the outcome, the valance is zero.

Porter and Lawler extended the basic expectancy model bysuggesting that high performance may cause high satisfaction.

When performance results in various extrinsic and intrinsic rewards,the individual evaluates the equity of these various rewards relativeto the effort expended and the level of performance attained. Theindividual is satisfied if the rewards relative to the effort expendedand the level of performance attained. The individual is satisfied ifthe rewards are felt to be fair.


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Implications for managers:

Nadler and Lawler suggest how managers can applythe basic ideas of expectancy theory. Managersshould first determine the outcomes each employee islikely to want. Then they should decide what kinds

and levels of performance are needed to meetorganizational goals, making sure that the desiredlevels of performance are attainable. Managers thenneed to ensure that desired outcomes and desiredperformance are linked. Finally, the rewards need tobe large enough, and the total system needs to beequitable.

Equity Theory.

Equity theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, suggests that once anindividual has chosen an action that is expected to satisfy his or herneeds, the individual assesses the equity or fairness of theoutcome. Equity is an individual's beliefs that he or she is beingtreated fairly relative to the treatment of others.


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Three attitudes are possible: an individual may feel equitablyrewarded, underrewarded, or overrewarded. When individuals feelunderrewarded or overrewarded, they will do something to reducethe inequity. The single most important thing to remember aboutequity theory is that if rewards are to motivate employees, they

must be perceived as being equitable and fair.

REINFORCEMENT-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION.

These approaches to motivation explain the role of rewards as they causebehavior to change or remain the same. Behavior that results in rewardingconsequences is likely to be repeated. Expectancy theory and reinforcementtheory are similar in that both consider the processes by which an individualchooses behaviors in a particular situation. However, expectancy theory focusesmore on behavior choices, and reinforcement theory focuses more on theconsequences of those choices.

Reinforcement Contingencies.

Reinforcement contingencies are the possible outcomes that anindividual may experience as a result of his or her choice ofbehavior. There are four of these : positive reinforcement,avoidance, punishment, and extinction.

o Positive reinforcement is a reward or a positive outcome after a

desired behavior is performed; it serves to strengthen behavior.o Avoidance occurs when the individual chooses a behavior to avoid

unpleasant consequences; it can strengthen desired behavior.o Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken

undesired behavior.o Extinction is ending undesired behavior by ignoring and not

reinforcing it.

Providing Reinforcement

There are four approaches to providing reinforcement.

o A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement at fixed intervals oftime, regardless of behavior.

o A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement at varying time

intervals.o A fixed-ration schedule gives reinforcement after a fixed number of

behaviors, regardless of the time that has elapsed betweenbehaviors.


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o A variable-ration schedule varies the number of behaviors needed

for each reinforcement and is the most powerful schedule formaintaining desired behaviors.

OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS.

Goal Setting Theory.

This approach suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for theindividual on a regular basis and that rewards should be tied to theaccomplishment of goals. Research support for goal-setting theory is moreconsistently favorable than any other single approach to

Theories of Motivation

Many methods of employee motivation have been developed. The study of workmotivation has focused on the motivator (supervisor) as well as the motivatee(employee). Motivation theories are important to supervisors attempting to beeffective leaders. Two primary approaches to motivation are content andprocess.

The content approach to motivation focuses on the assumption that individualsare motivated by the desire to fulfill inner needs. Content theories focus on theneeds that motivate people.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are bestseen as a hierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the mostsophisticated need last. People move up the hierarchy one level at a time.Gratified needs lose their strength and the next level of needs is activated. Asbasic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative. Asatisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is the one

that has not been satisfied. Abraham Maslow first presented the five-tierhierarchy in 1942 to a psychoanalytic society and published it in 1954 inMotivation and Personality(New York: Harper and Row).Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They includefood, water, and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees'physiological needs by a paycheck.Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe fromharm. The organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by benefits.


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Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendshipand belonging. The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs throughsports teams, parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill socialneeds by showing direct care and concern for employees.Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or

recognition from others. The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteemneeds by matching the skills and abilities of the employee to the job. Thesupervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by showing workers that their work isappreciated.Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and therealization of the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs by assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds whiledrawing on their aptitude and training.

Alderfer's ERG identified three categories of needs. The most importantcontribution of the ERG model is the addition of the frustration-regressionhypothesis, which holds that when individuals are frustrated in meeting higherlevel needs, the next lower level needs reemerge.Existence needs are the desires for material and physical well being. Theseneeds are satisfied with food, water, air, shelter, working conditions, pay, andfringe benefits.

Relatedness needs are the desires to establish and maintain interpersonalrelationships. These needs are satisfied with relationships with family, friends,supervisors, subordinates, and co-workers.Growth needs are the desires to be creative, to make useful and productivecontributions and to have opportunities for personal development.

McClelland's Learned Needs divides motivation into needs for power,affiliation, and achievement.


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Achievement motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. They liketo be able to control the situations in which they are involved. They takemoderate risks. They like to get immediate feedback on how they have done.They tend to be preoccupied with a task-orientation towards the job to be done.Powermotivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to

seize control or dominate others. They love to influence others. They like tochange situations whether or not it is needed. They are willing to assertthemselves when a decision needs to be made.Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others.This may distract them from their performance requirements. They will usuallyrespond to an appeal for cooperation.

Watch the videos.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory describes needs in terms of satisfaction anddissatisfaction. Frederick Herzberg examined motivation in the light of job content

and contest. (See Work an the Nature of Man, Crowell Publications, 1966.)Motivating employees is a two-step process. First provide hygienes and thenmotivators. One continuum ranges from no satisfaction to satisfaction. The othercontinuum ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content, such asachievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, andgrowth possibilities. Herzberg uses the term motivators for job satisfiers sincethey involve job content and the satisfaction that results from them. Motivatorsare considered job turn-ons. They are necessary for substantial improvements inwork performance and move the employee beyond satisfaction to superior

performance. Motivators correspond to Maslow's higher-level needs of esteemand self-actualization.

Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors, extrinsic or jobcontext, are not present on the job: pay, status, job security, working conditions,company policy, peer relations, and supervision. Herzberg uses the termhygiene for these factors because they are preventive in nature. They will notproduce motivation, but they can prevent motivation from occurring. Hygienefactors can be considered job stay-ons because they encourage an employee tostay on a job. Once these factors are provided, they do not necessarily promotemotivation; but their absence can create employee dissatisfaction. Hygienefactors correspond to Maslow's physiological, safety, and social needs in thatthey are extrinsic, or peripheral, to the job. They are present in the workenvironment of job context.

Motivation comes from the employee's feelings of accomplishment or job contentrather than from the environmental factors or job context. Motivators encouragean employee to strive to do his or her best. Job enrichment can be used to meethigher-level needs. To enrich a job, a supervisor can introduce new or more
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difficult tasks, assign individuals specialized tasks that enable them to becomeexperts, or grant additional authority to employees.

Watch the videos.
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The process approach emphasizes how and why people choose certainbehaviors in order to meet their personal goals. Process theories focus onexternal influences or behaviors that people choose to meet their needs. Externalinfluences are often readily accessible to supervisors.

Vroom's Expectancy Model suggests that people choose among alternativebehaviors because they anticipate that particular behaviors will lead to one ormore desired outcomes and that other behaviors will lead to undesirableoutcomes. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to first-order outcomes,

any work-related behavior that is the direct result of the effort an employeeexpends on a job.

Equity is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair orequitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similaroutcomes. Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received byothers for their efforts. If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are


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likely to withhold some of their contributions, either consciously or unconsciously,to bring a situation into better balance.

For example, if someone thinks he or she is not getting enough pay (output) forhis or her work (input), he or she will try to get that pay increased or reduce the

amount of work he or she is doing. On the other hand, when a worker thinks heor she is being paid too much for the work he or she is doing, he or she tends toincrease the amount of work. Not only do workers compare their own inputs andoutputs; they compare their input/output ratio with the input/output ratio of otherworkers. If one work team believes they are doing more work than a similar teamfor the same pay, their sense of fairness will be violated and they will tend toreduce the amount of work they are doing. It is a normal human inclination towant things to be fair.

Bowditch and Buono note (see Bowditch, James L. and Anthony F. Buono,APrimer on Organizational Behavior, 4th, John Wiley & Sons, 1997) that while

equity theory was originally concerned with differences in pay, it may be appliedto other forms of tangible and intangible rewards in the workplace. That is, if anyinput is not balanced with some fair output, the motivation process will be difficult.Supervisors must manage the perception of fairness in the mind of eachemployee. If subordinates think they are not being treated fairly, it is difficult tomotivate them.

Reinforcement involves four types of consequence. Positive reinforcementcreates a pleasant consequence by using rewards to increase the likelihood thata behavior will be repeated. Negative reinforcement occurs when a personengages in behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences or to escape fromexisting unpleasant consequences. Punishment is an attempt to discourage atarget behavior by the application of negative outcomes whenever it is possible.Extinction is the absence of any reinforcement, either positive or negative,following the occurrence of a target behavior. Employees have questions about


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their jobs. Can I do what management is asking me to do? If I do the job, will I berewarded? Will the reward I receive be satisfactory to me?

Reinforcement is based primarily on the work of B.F. Skinner, a psychologist,who experimented with the theories of operant conditioning. Skinner's work

shows that many behaviors can be controlled through the use of rewards. In fact,a person might be influenced to change his or her behavior by giving him or herrewards.

Employees who do an exceptionally good job on a particular project should berewarded for that performance. It will motivate them to try to do an exceptional

job on their next project. Employees must associate the reward with the behavior.In other words, the employee must know for what specifically he or she is beingrewarded! The reward should come as quickly as possible after the behavior.The reward can be almost anything, but it must be something desired by theemployee. Some of the most powerful rewards are symbolic; things that cost

very little but mean a lot to the people who get them. Examples of symbolicrewards are things like plaques or certificates.

Report on Motivation

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