REPORT ON ASPERGERS SYNDROME AND THE USE OF PLAY

Prelude

After completing a doctorate on children's talk, the author of this report responded to a need within the local community for her support of a child with special educational needs. On the strength of her academic work and training in play therapy, she then embarked on a few years' work in primary school and made notes both on the school's efforts to integrate the child and on his progress in that context. This initial draft of the report is written in the first person and includes reflective comments on the tensions that arose for the writer from interactions of differing viewpoints, and from the role of supporter.The role of Special Needs General Assistant began in March 1998. The span of the report covers the initial year of familiarisation with the school context and little class teacher involvement, and a second year of regular teacher involvement, culminating in the summer term of 2000 with KSI SATs and an Educational Psychologist's assessment in June of that year.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 How the study came about

The study came about as a result of mybeing employed as a Special Needs General Assistant (SENGA) for a child with autistic spectrum disorder (Aspergers Syndrome or AS) on the strength of my play therapy background. I did not intend to enter school life again, yet I had not experienced any other role in the calssroom but that of a teacher. I set my mind on the task of simply supporting the child to the best of my abilities, and to the best of my knowledge of the psychological characteristics of AS learners.

The aim of this report of the study is to use the data to clarify theretical aspects of language and learning that I had studied previously. I intended, through observing the way strategies of play and language therapy were used in relation to the way thechild developed, to comment on the cognitive and social abilities that emerged. Early child development and language theory stress the importance of one-to-one dialogue in the establishment of the roots of cognition. It is also generally acknowledged that play is an essential prerequisite for the young learner to begin to learn literacy and numeracy skills. I hope that through this report I may throw some light on how

20

40

to meet the needs of austitic learners for sensory integration and stimulus. and how conversational language is an essential tool in this activation and consolidation process. I also hope that the report may reveal the significance of the use of intensive dialogue throughout the three hour morning sessions at school, in producing a saturation of conversational language experience for the learner. This dialogue was imrovised in response the moment to moment needs of the child and the curriculum requirements. It included the following features:

- adult modelling of sentences construction andmeaning;

- adult modelling of social interaction andquesitoning strategies;

- mutual enquiry between adults and the learnerwhich encouraged initiative and meaning makingbuilding on his own ideas and responses;

Therefore one of my aims for the report is to propose a central hypothesis: that AS children need sufficient facilitated play experiences so as to ensure that they acquire the following experiences:

a) an extension of early childhood one-to-onerelationships that provide 'safe' and intimateexperiences of mutuality and co-discoverysimilar to that of a parent;

b) appropriate sensory saturation throughfacilitated play that stimulates their attentionand helps them sustain concentration in play;

c) appropriate language support in theirplayactivities in order that emotional responsesare integrated into a wide range ofcommunicative skills that attned theircreative play;

1.2 Background to the study

High performing semi-autistic children (with Aspergers Syndrome) have been observed to develop a high level of intellectual skill, while remaining socially undeveloped, and treated somewhat as an outcast for being 'weird'.

The subjectFrom the perspectives of the mother and assistant/play therapist, a high priority was given to enabling the child to have fun at school and enjoy learning activities. It was considered of paramount importance that his own creative skills - mainly drawing - would be integrated as much as possible as a basis for literacy and numeracy skills. Nothing more was known about how to deal with AS learners in formal

60

80

education by anyone at the school until his third academic year. The assistant mediated between the school community and the child from the start, with a backgorund knowledge of his home and the theory behind the disability.

Although specialist advice was sought in the second year as to how to include AS learners into the mainstream schooling, only the teacher in his second academic year had some experience. This was enough for the SENGA to work cooperatively with her in planning day to day sessions, and discussing feedback and didactic development. With this mainstream school it was not possible to have a regular quiet place to start the day and work with tailored individual work plans, therefore the goal of independent learning could only be achieved through building on his interests and emergent skills such as drawing and writing. Although theoretically it is usually attempted only after two years, integration into the social life of the school - for instance playtimes, assembly, etc - was seen to be a requirement shortly after he started to attend, and these rules were consistently met with an anxiety response and refusals were frequent.

Research Beyond a few personal accounts, there are no substantive studies of behaviour and responses to therapy in this area. New approaches to treating autism include a form of mirroring of the child's behaviour in order to create the conditions for their conscious emergence into the outer world and into relationship with others. This necessitates a faculty for play within the supporting adults, and what Rachael Pinney has called 'non-directive' collaborative play. It is this approach which underpins the following report on how one particular child in a mainstream Primary school was given play support, and the outcomes of this approach over two years.

His play therapist was recruited as his Special Needs support assistant by a school which encouraged his particpation and self respect while upholding a strict timetable of National Curriculum requirements. He now observes school rules and participates with others, while still drawing upon his rich accutely observant inner world.

Through a long period of school mornings, he played through and tested his nervousness and anxiety about the world of education and his determination to control it through his drawingwithin a tight National Curriculum timetable.

After a year and a half, at the beginning of Year 3, he began reading whole sentences, writing phrases and sentences and

100

120

140

enthusiastically joining in adding and calculating games at his own level, with a class group. Until this time he had not demonstrated what he knew except at odd times at home and with the SENGA.

The process by which he learned to do this despite his AS difficulties, was fraught with tensions and misunderstandings both on his part and on the part of the teachers and his SENGA (the writer).. At the heart of all his experiences was a one-to-one exchange of comments and information between him and me, and a style of mirroring talk that used his own rudimentary words, phrases and meanings to develop and reflect back ideas and feelings dialogically. This intensive language support included modelling words, phrases, sentences and descriptions based on what he was currently doing, gave him the chance to hear and practice adult language forms, and to play with his fantasies and storytelling. He was free to do this within a certain daily structure that became more and more committal in relation to the rest of the school. Alongside this was the chance to express and discuss feelings, his reactions to the behaviour of others, in a non-judgemental way with intimacy and trust in his rapport with me.The end result has been his development of confidence and artistic skill as well as an appreciation of what other people think and wish him to do. He now spends a large amout of time at school with adults other than myself, joining in most activities with the others of his class.

The following sections present:i) a rough outline of theretical aspects of language

and learning together with Aspergers Syndromethree pronged disability definition;

ii) a series of brief reports made over two and ahalf years on the above mentioned child whichinclude field notes and observations;

iii) a conclusion and implications are discussedbased on the evidence so far for the significanceof the role of play and the creative arts in theeducation of AS sufferers and other learnerswith special educational needs. This last sectionwill highlight aspects of the supporting adult'srole, and the skills involved.

2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS

This section covers some theretical and empirical research in two areas. Firstly in educational contexts dealing with the nature of language and learning, and the socio-cultural roots of thought which are embedded in informal conversational

160

180

language styles as well as more structured collaborative and exploratory talk in classroom learning. This touches on research into expectations of learning in classroom interaction, and the difficulty AS learners have in understanding the social purposes within learning contexts.

Secondly, there will be a brief outline of some clinical and psychiatric aspects raised in relation to autistic spectrum disorders and the understanding underpinning some therapeutic approaches which have been generally only loosely reported by parents.

2.1 Language and learning

This section attempts to scan the development of educational theory as it relates to language and socio-cognitive learning, with a view to relating some key socio-psychological principles to the education of learners with Aspergers Syndrome and/or autistic spectrum disorder.

.Vygotskian theory and neo-Vygotskian research into language and learning highlight the social basis of the relationship between thought and language. As AS learners have this particular difficulty of understanding social meanings, this area of research is particularly to understanding how they learn and the sort of language support they need.

Neo-Vygotskian theory which develops Vygotsky's and Bakhtin's ideas that language, thought and learning are rooted in social experience stemming from the first dialogue a baby has with its mother/parent. Mercer, 19... and Scrmshaw., 19... discuss how talk during computer based tasks provides peer scaffolding for cognitive skills. - scaffolding learning. Bruner's concepts of props, processes and procedures as providing scaffolding for extending cognitive skills passed the 'zone of proximal development' (what are already known, familiar and manipulable skills).

Edwards and Potter show how the social agenda that individuals seek to uphold and negotiate is at the root of developing cognitive strategies that negotiate control, identity, cultural conflict, and issues of personal accountability. AS learners are particularly vulnerable in society when they display rudimentary, undeveloped skills in negotiating and processing this fundamental social dimension of experience.

Out of this background theory has come a socio-pscychological view of language and cognitive learning that

200

220

240

has a direct bearing on the way a wholistic learning approach may be considered for AS learners. These children need appropriate focus and support on interactive skills which engage their emotions. Their emotional and sensory hypersensitivity (see 2.4) poses a challenge to teachers, and the role of various types of play activity and support needs to be understood more thoroughly.

Language playBakhtin commented on the social uses of language whereby speakers internalise the 'voices' of authority, control and identity that they hear and register emotionally. Two types of speech balance eachother: internally persuasive and centripetal (individual empowerment and purposes of development and expression), externally controlly and centrifugal (control strategies of social groups and their purposes which impinge on the individual). Within any grouping, for instance school contexts, these two informal and formal styles operate. Maybin (199...) found children rehearsing adult roles and language use in the playground, as if they were exploring how to manipulate the inherent social control strategies, for instance of their parents in the family context. Yonge (1998) found that children used a rich variety of language in their informal talk with which they rehearsed control strategies from classroom, family and football contexts (the 'yellow card'). She also found that children explored complex social issues within small groups - for instance dealing with the individual's identity as learner or as part of gender group - and played with language using puns, jokes and insults in their interactions with eachother during taskwork. These speech forms showed their underlying struggle with cultural tensions (for instance lower income group values reflecting the sporting community within middle class classroom standards implying values of group communication).

Conversational 'play'is the subject of a major area of research into 'conversational analysis' (Resnick...) where individuals learn the coloquial and dialectic nuances of their social group. However, this rich cultural 'working on meaning' has been found to be reduced in the stylised, formal interactions of the classroom. (Mercer and .......) that formal classroom interaction inhibits much of the spontaneous conversational strategies that children experience in the home and local cultural contexts. Nevertheless, these communicative skills are brought into classroom 'unofficially' and continue throughout activities (Maybin, 19..., Yonge, 19...). This is not generally accepted as valid in analysing how children learn in the classroom although some researchers (...>) critically view earning talk between teacher and learners has as being

260

280

largely 'decontextualised' and as such presents the main barrier to learning. It is also viewed as a major handicap for AS sufferers who have difficulty in probing the social meanings and purposes for theirs and others' behaviour (see 2.4 below) . It appears from the forgoing field notes that supportive informal language plays an important role for a particular AS learner, for it creates a continuum of experience between the personal and the social. It could also be significant to other 'normal' learners in harnessing conversational forms of expression into their attempts to comprehend, for instance, textual meanings in the books they read.

The innate ability in children to play with language forms in this way does seem to not so spontaneous and pervasive in AS learners, and it is one of the areas they need modeling and support from supporting and significant adults. As will be described in the section dealing with field notes on child CP, this ability can be mirrored and extended through particular types of adult interaction. I will show how important conversational play has been for CP in learning about books and the messages behind printed words, illustrations and layout.

2.2 Current research into collaborative and exploratory talk

Educational theory is developing our understanding of teaching speaking and listening skills and the use of discussion and small group activities in the classroom. These skills are particularly problematic to AS learners, but paradoxically the more they receive attention, the greater their chance is of having clear role models of interaction. This could depend on the quality of one-to-one suppor their receive in small group work. It could also imply that once mainstream learners can listen well to eachother, the AS learner will find 'spaces' or conversational pauses, in which to catch up with their thinking.

Exploratory talk and tentative speechThe inclusion of explorary talk into the classroom tasks as prescribed by the National Curriculum guidelines is attempted in the cause of teaching speaking and listening skills (National Curriculum AT1). This builds on the work of researchers who looked conversation and problem-solving speech. Phillips, (19...) showed how 'argumentation' provides cognitive stimulus in conversation, and incomplete or 'tentative' syntax and semantic construction, far from displying 'wrong answers' can be evidence of individual 'work in progress' on thinking processes. Mercer (19...) and others report how exploratory talk in tasks at the computer support cognition,

300

320

340

developing Barnes' (19..) work on structured discussion tasks that are aimed at developing rational skills. Some research provides empirical evidence of how small groupwork in the classroom allows for more informal exploratory language play. For instance in Yonge, (1998) a 10 yr old child was recorded naming a 'firefly' during a task of representing the descriptive works of the poem 'Hiawatha'. He played with the name 'Striker', a football player whose role would inspire heroism in the supporters. As the child had never seen a firefly, this was a useful strategy for him, and his exploratory talk could be seen as supporting the way he deal with new information. In this particular target group, the children were seen to work on issues of gender differentiation, differences of interest and learning ability, and thus identity and emotional predisposition were allowed to become part of the task of learning communicative skills (the rules of speaking and listening were directed by the teacher in this case). Vygotskian theory of the development of thinking skills embedded in dialogue with others, implies that the language play involves and manipulates the boundaries of informal and formal talk. Thus thinking skills can be seen to be culturally embedded, and particularly within culturally meaningful 'creative' activities such as art, music and drama.These experiences have proved particularly helpful to the AS learner, as will be described below, in the way he explored physical co-ordination (playing with a ball), mathematical values (involving solft toy play), and generating narrative for writing (again involving soft toy play and dramatic dialogue arising from play). These areas of learning through the arts stimulate and expressions of intuition, initiative and self monitored learning which in turn accommodate the search for self identity.

These social roots of talk and learning will be examined in relation to a learner with AS Syndrom for whom the social world seems inaccessible, play is inhibited, and language therefore is slow to develop. The traditional classroom interactions based on formal teacher-pupil quesiton and answer routines are not understood or exploited by AS learners, and there appears to be a confusion of approaches and understandings in relation to how to deals with their disability, In the light of the socio-psychological dimensions of language and cognition, I will also show what improvisation in drama can provide in terms of the atuistic child's developing ability to relate thoughts and feelings to others, through conversational role play. I hope to argue that they may need 'larger than life' modelling of dialogue, far more practical freedom for use of 'tentative' speech, longer periods of language and fantasy play, longer pauses (in interaction with other adults) in which to catch up with their

360

380

understanding and thinking, and plenty of encouragement for the smallest of efforts.

2.3 The social significance of play

Cultural meaniingsAnthropological research into how communities evolve their means of survival and cultural expression (Mead....) shows how embedded cultural forms of mental, emotional and physical expression emerge as ritual play and are used as strategies of cohesion. Play is seen as sustaining and building on cultural history and identify, as groups ineract with environmental changes and living conditions. Playing with cultural forms of expression and communication is regarded sociologically is a major tool for individual understanding and adaptation to his/her environment, and therefore the growth of socially embedded cognition.

Non-directive play/creative play

In order that As learners can catch up with understanding cultural meanings, it might be that they need much more time than their peers using play skills dealing with all areas of life. The implications are that supporting adult's 'scaffolding' skills need to be comprehensive in terms of variouis types of play, both non-directive (free associative and creative) and constructive (involving the introduction of learning materials).

Non-directove play:Informal and unpublished reports made on the work of child psychiatrist Rachael Pinney provide some empirical description structuring play with no preordained syllabus or judgements on the part of the collaborating adult. The approach will be described in later sections as it was used in conjunction with the class teacher's directives, and integrated with constructive or directed play using specific learning materials from the classroom. It implies certian skills of improvisation and play in the adult's role, together with flexibility to adapt to the child's eccentric and unexpected emotional moods and bizzare behaviours.

The psychotherapeutic roleRogers's (1967) considered a teacher's 'realness' (p.287) in accepting his/her real emotions an important to a teacher's presence as a person, rather than a 'curricular requirement'. He spoke of the imiportance in a teacher of 'having a wide range of ingenuity and sensitivity, and 'his basic reliance would be upon the self-actualising tendencey in his students' (p.289) . Where an adult is willing to become transparent to his/her own emotions and share them with young learners,

400

420

440

they are able to model both language and empathic relationship. This experience is particularly significant to the AS learner who appears to be in an eternal chaotic inner state of unprocessed emotional energy. Constant and consistent emotional reporting teaches them positive rules of interaction. However, it might still be a mere superficial adult ploy without wholistic experience of emtional expression and creativity. Drama and role play provided a vital grounded for CP in his understanding of reaction and roles.

Creative behaviourSome features of creative behaviour described by Maslow (1971) include a close play/work relationship, and self actualisation skills that display sensory synthesis, peripheral vision and non-conditioning (no slavish adherence to conformity and following the status quo).

High performing people and the way they think/feel -:multi-track thinking, quantum learning leaps of insight, high degree of intuitive thought. High tolerance of ambiguity -

Some of CP's behaviour indicates his 'savant' skills of making quantum leaps of insight, using 'peripheral' perception of 'formal' classroom teaching while he plays (play acts to distract from the aversion/anxiety syndrome) and quick replies to the teacher's task-sheet questioning (one-to-one and class group questions and answers). The conditions under which CP performs these 'savant' skills are interesting in that they include low incidence of 'control' phrases by the teacher, and the use of almost effusive, over-abundant praise and encouragement directed at him.

2.5 Language Assessment

In Stibbs 'Guidelines for Teachers' (1979) in which he discusses collaborative and self assessment strategies, saying that "The development of language is more like climbing a tree than a ladder" (p.137). He recommends that assessment takes account of "...imaginative work pursued for its own sake in the self-initiated pupil activities which often elicit their greatest efforts in language."(p.29). He also suggests "Where a pupil has a meaing to make and cares about maing it, s/her will want to be able to master the conventions of language...".AS children are in a league of their own and cannot be assessed against other pupils' performances. Stibbs found that teachers were assessing specific language performances by "...measuring them against previous performances, not against some standardized norms."(p.34). This observation is also relevant to AS pupils whose eratic and eccentric learning

460

480

curve cannot easily fit into ready made categories: "Measuring isolated abilities......assumes that the sort of ability which only one text will measure is equally important for every pupil [or in all contexts] "(p.41) for "...imaginative guesses may be devalued and may teach pupils an inflexible and limited view of language possibilities." (p.42)

These insights are particularly relevant in dealing with AS pupils, which constantly involves minimising their habits of avoidance and aversion. An moment-by-moment pro-active approach which does not use negative reinforcement (threats or sanctions that are unconnected to their interests or behaviour approval) is essential. Therefore, in order to stay highly motivated to learn, it is specially important that AS learners need to take the initiative in making meaning out of their world. No-one can do it for them however good they are at immitating the order of things, and emotional responses are particularly difficult to draw upon. It it important that their use of language expresses their own thinking process. Measuring their progress needs to involve negotiated standards, where the pupil learns to be self monitoring and motivated by an intrinsic interest in the task/skill.

The next section defines the disaibilites suffered by the learner with AS.

2.6 Theories concerning Aspergers Syndrome (semi-Autism) :

Several developmental problems are the source of autism related behaviour relating to control (being able to respond with intention to the world), tolerance (being able to stand the world or oneself), and connection (being able to make sense of the world).. These result in bizarre behaviour which is a signal of learners' efforts to cope and offset their discomfort. The following are some notes made from Donna Williams' book ".................."

emotional hypersensitivity - poor eye contact as it is too much effort to pay attention or listen, staring into space, clings to familiar objects incl. clothes - withdraws into inner world in the absence of someone/thing familiar - can't stand the impact of interaction when s/he is made to feel too much

systems integration swings between sense of self and other, appearance of social behaviour but no meaning from consistent experience - can't understand other's expectations - differentiation between others' behaviours and responses make them feel overwhelmed, confused, frightened and alienated with no way of grasping the significance of those feelings in context -

500

520

'speaks' own thoughts inside head and doesn't understand why people can't hear - fluctuates between using inappropriate volume, pitch or pace, monotones and 'odd' intonation taking no account of his impression on listeners - sensing, thinking, speaking/acting mismatch - senses 'on line' one at a time, suddenly switching from one to the other.

Left-right hemisphere integration - Stores experiences up for later processing - new information comes in while the old is still being processed unconsciously, so is unaware of what s/he knows unless triggered from outside - contextual filters of information don't work, therefore picks up a lot of peripheral information - is unaware of the information processed and carries about more knowledge and understanding than most so-called 'normal' people - doesn't translate with common sense, in a practical sense, in context.Difficulty accessing into consciousness - thought and feeling unconnected - bursts of contextless emotion. Unable to connect thought and feeling to action, relies on triggered stored language more than true self expression - gets responses he doesn't like, appreciates nor understands - appears ungrateful, contrary, unthinking, so learns to act as if s/he likes and wants.Copies and follows people in order to get what s/he wants or needs.Stores mental 'videos' and 'audios' from TV and uses to mirror own experiences.Unable to form mutually felt close relationships and identity is experienced as 'copies' of others. .sensory hypersensitivity - refuses to take of coat because s/he feels protected from painful sensation of touch from others - fabrics irritate, avoids being made to wear uncomfortable clothing - tears up clothes.

Based on what has been understood of the disability these learners experience, this study presents descriptive examples of the ways in which language skills have been 'scaffolded' and its outcome for one particular AS learner. Desdriptions include the strategies used by the supporting adult of mirroring, modelling and manipulating language (puns, games, tricks and role play) exploratory talk, and one-to-one brainstorming. Explantions are given as to how this was integrated into Nationial Curriculum Key Stage 2 tasks.Also described are strategies of mediating the learner's social skill acquisition through drama, role play, the arts, and shared talk amongst small groups in the classroom. The focus on emergent skills, creative work, multi-sensory experiences and empathic and exploratory adult-child communication. Rachael Pinney's approach will be described

540

as it is interwoven with directive one-to-one sessions and constructive play support (role modelling by the adult, suggestions and brain storming et.) Conclusions will be made regarding the proactive approach to the AS learner's emerging skills and inbuilt genius for .paradigmatic quantum learning. This reflects the work of Maslow on self actualisation, and Rogers notion of authenticity in therapeutic relationships.

The concept of scaffolding and the AS learnerThe AS learner needs scaffolding in the three areas of difficulty (see.2.4), and as I suggested above, may need 'larger than life' modelling of dialogue, far more licence for 'tentative' speech, longer periods of languag and fantasy play, longer pauses in which to catch up with their understanding and thinking, and plenty of encouragement for the smallest of efforts.

Peers and adults can provide this supporting role of language and modelling. . Although language and classroom activities happen too fast for AS learners to process information and prepare responses, an attitude of mutual enquiry allows for experiment with language and 'work in progress' on ideas, as will be shown.

We have already discussed the current focus on speaking and listening skills thorugh tasks using collaborative/exploratory talk. Where there is an openness to the free 'tentative' or co-enquiring use of language in peer groups in a classroom, there may be opportunities for this AS child to interact in his own way with others. In CP's case, however,, throughout many types of classroom activity, it has been possible to support his learning. The following account shows how one-to-one non-directive play can provide auppoer for the development of language, emotional expression, fantasy and narrative. Exploratory talk skills are also a form of language 'play' that encourage any child to think for themselves, by underplaying the importance of providing 'right answers'. .The next section shows how this works in context.

2.5 Some clinical aspects linked to psychiatric case studies of people with similar social behavioiur disorder.

- synaptic developmental anomalies- genetic anomalies- seratonin levels- chemical abuse (drugs) in vitro (1st and last 3 months)- parental neglect and environmental deprivation

560

580

- dietary anomalies such as hypoallergic reactions - innoculation hyper-reaction

In the case of synaptic development in the neocortex, research finds that babies who suffer malformation of dentritic growth before the age of 18 months may suffer irreversible brain damage. This can be the result of chemical abuse invitro, sensory deprivation through parental neglect and environmental constraints on the home. Individuals (Thorley, 19...) displaying inability to trust others, and to be blinkered in their mental/emotional responses to the point of obsession and paranoia, have been found to have this sort of upbringing. Increasing cases of single parent and working parent families tend to suggest that the increased incidence of autistic spectrum disorders is linked to contemporary socio-economic patterns.

In the case of CP no dietary problems have been found, and his upbringing has been exemplary providing abundant sensory and emotional stimulation from parents whose work is home based. No innoculations were given.

2.6 Therapies in general use

These are generally only reported by parents and collected for web users and related support networks with their publication.

- holding therapyA few articles have been published on this therapy, one in Autism Research Review International reporting on the effects on cerebellar stimulation of maternal bonding. A web search revealed no other clinical base for research. One medical observation states that although hugging is natural between parent and child, doing so persistently against the will of an autistic child who resists due to hypersensitivity to touch could be psychological harmful.

- daily lifeTermed the Higashi approach, this emphasises vigorous physical education, the arts, group dynamics, a socio-communicative approach using whole language, computer software for literary and academic skills and tasks specifically designed for each individual.

- sensory stimulation and integration.Relating to a well understood lack of sensory discernment and integration, this approach seeks to activate the senses from the vestibular (inner ear) to deep pressure, external senses other body awarenesses. Parental reports include

600

620

640

examples of simple activities such as swinging, rocking, wrestling, pet interaction, climbing frame activities etc.

- home-based emotional contactAn intensive programme of stimulation during the first 19 months of a child's life is recommended by the Option Institute, whose empirical evidence of results appears thin although claiming eventual total absense of autistic symptoms.

In the next section, there will be descriptive data relating to the use of play, with an analysis of the therapeutic effects that may be present. In relation to the above, these effects- sensory stimulation/integration- emotional naming and expression- integration of emotional with physical skills (physical

education - ball handling, climbing frame)- integration of fantasy imagination with physical skills

(writing)- integration of fantasy imagination and emotional

expression with social interaction (role play, drama, group work, one-to-one converation)

3.0 DATA COLLECTION

Field NotesThese were collected in the form of minute by minute notes in the classroom, and at other times retrospectively, in additiion to informal conversations with teachers, parents and support workers, attendance at review meetings, and visits to a specialist teacher..It was not considered appropriate or ethical to record the child's talk mechanically, as it would impose an added 'observer' to his activities, about which he was very sensitive, and emphatically claimed control on any material he produced. It would also have severely restricted the assistant/researcher's professional relationship with him.Notes were taken during activities in order to capture some verbatim responses and to match the child's output of writing, drawing, number work, etc.. Mostly, retrospective notes were made during breaktimes or at the end of the morning.

Specialist feedback and supportThe advice was sought of a specialist teacher of AS learners who was incharge of a unit in another school, as well as working on the 'Outreach' county programme of inclusion support. (Edna Tapper)

660

680

Her response was to congratulate the efforts so far, to reassure the assistant that everything possible was being done within a difficult context, and to suggest some strategies that helped the desensitisation of the child's condition. These views were later shared with the class teacher of Yr 2, and attempts were made to integrate them into the school system.

Teacher/school responseReceptionYear 1Year 2

Parental responseThe researcher kept in close contact with CP's parents. This was on a day to day basis when she drove CP home at the end jof the morning throughout the first year of his attendance.

Researcher DiaryPeer feedback was sought from other teachers and friends who made observations on her behaviour and psychological responses. Subjective comments were recorded regularly as to the emotional interactions between her and CP, and these were shared verbally with his parents. In this way, subjective issues concerning the researcher's own past schooling and professional understandings were examined and given some distance from the classroom experiences. All attempts were made to process internally any subjective obstacles that may arise and potentially distort the attentiveness and quality of response needed to support the child.

4.0 THE FINDINGS - WHAT THE DATA REVEALED

Researcher diary

It was commonly acknowledged that there was agreat deal of tension associated with the role of supporter for AS learners.Informal discussions with a professionally trained AS teacher (Edna) addressed some of the problems of working in the classroom with little professional input as to how to teach CP. In was revealed that the ideal situation was to bring the learner to the stage of being an independent, self motivated learner. In order to achieve this end, the child would ideally be provided with his own quaiet space out of the classroom where his individual timetable could be explained at the begining of the day and reviewed at the end of the day. The main role of a supporter, I was advised, was to calm the pupil, distract from his avoidance patterns, stimuilate his imagination and motviate his efforts generally with

700

720

740

encouragement, praise and rewards related to his interests/obsessions (i.e. animals, Beanie Babies, dramatic play and music). This was not provided, as it was practically impossiible in this specific school context. It was therefore agreed in Year 2 that improvised teaching focus would be provided within the intuitive guidance of the teacher's delivery of the National Curriculum to the rest of the class. I would back up this input, and soothe, explain and engage the child in relation to curriculum materials and tasks.

Both the teacher and I had simplified notes about procedural issues with AS learners, and over time integrated these insights into ways of bridging the curriculum, the classroom culture, the school culture and his personality.

Within this background of unclarity and contextual pressures, I worked with the class teacher from September 1999 to July 2000 as best I could. I felt a great amount of tension from my professional expectations of being more in control of CPs curriculum timetable as was recommended by Edna. In between sessions with the teacher, in which CP got to know her, and she became familiar with his character and ways of working, I endeavoured to work on his imagination and 'emergent skills' in relation to the curriculum tasks.

ReportsInitial reports were made for the benefit of the school, and the researcher's attempts to ellicit feedback on progress.

These reports spanning two and a half years build a picture of how different play strategies were used within private sessional and school classroom periods. These techniques focused on the learner's emergent skills and knowledge, and involved:

a) Non-directive play which encouraged fantasy,free association and choosing in order to buildon immediate postiive responses of interest andrecognition of approval, etc.

b) Directed or structured play introducing schooleducational materials such as books, equipmentetc.

c) Mutual co-enquiry language play that encourages fantasy, supports idea/imaginationtheir development/expression throughproductive work such as writing, making models, etc.

e) Improvisation in drama sessions that developedunderlying emotional themes or 'social stories'with child in relation to other children.

760

780

Empirical descriptions of autistic-spectrum behaviouir

This section covers reports and field notes of CP over his first a year at school getting familiar with the school culture; his second year in which he reveals his learning with new people, and provides proof of how he learns through absorption and a sort of peripheral vision. Evidence of how he practices writing and reading tasks at home, and waits maximum praise and encouragement before producing work at school.

4.1 Pre-school experience - October 1997 - March 1998CP was taught by his aunt using Montessori Method of mullti-sensory education.and physical co-ordination. He also learned the alphabet and numbers 1-10, already writing these clearly in his solitary play.

In September 1997, aged 6 yrs, he received weekly sessions of creative play therapy (Children's Hours using Rachael Pinney's technique of non-directive play with an adult 'witness'.She noted:- he finds reasons to break routines of formal exercises- he is obsessed with things (Mr Men, Beanie Babies,

animals)- can copy writing that refers to his interests at the time

"how do you do this?", sometimes writes backwards- makes detailed elegant animal drawings, and ornate illuminated lettering- he is bossy and physically strong at times- he will not change his clothes, makes holes and chews parts of cothes and his hat doesn't come off except at bathtimes- he thinks he's a horrible person- talks incoherently and fast with broken sentences- he plays for long hours into the night, drawing for a lot of

the time and interacting with his sister- can dance rythmically to a drum beat- loves playing 'chase monkey'- when he makes request, he talks under his breath- 'reads' the pictures of a book in a high-pitched 'play'

voice with a lot of indistinct words- makesno eye cntact wihth strange adult- talks in oblique references and ;asides'After six sessions it was noted that he was responding torequests to make choices of colours; shows discernment/matching of rhythms; matches words and pictures (his own drawings of animals); makes requests as to adult's responses to his drawings 'which do you like?'; discusses character role play 'nice' and 'nasty'. elaborates on

800

820

840

themes of chase with many images flasing in and out projected through 'cheeky Monkey', 'Moley Mole', and 'Ghosty Ghost'.He engages in different levels of interaction:- talking through and progressing the story of images drawn

by him - roleplay through assumed characters- roleplay through toy animals- talking through story while constructing lego- talking collaboratively while drawing- solitary talking with adult in the backgroundHis first tasks were to link his drawing of animals to their names in the creation of his own scrap book.

This supported his language skills and built an emotional bond between CP and the therapist who later became his support helper at school. He also displayed a high level of artistic ability, and a natural talent for role play with small puttpets, although his oral sentences were muddled and fast, barely coherent. By the time he attended school, he could frame his words a little better. The following notes describe some hurdles that he passed prior to attending school in March 1998 and as a result of about ten intensive 3-hour play support sessions focusing on both play and basic literacy/numeracy tasks..

In February 1998 he had an emotional breakthrough, and began looking into my eyes briefly, speaking more clearly, and played with richer, deeper feelings projected onto animal characters.. His emotional expressions generally were 'larger', his concentration improved, displaying times of silent thought or dreaming in between rich imaginative play. He keeps in time with rhythm of songs, his charcters' speech had good mimickry and clearer words revealing adult ways of saying things (voices). He began writing more letters and words on his own initiative, and drew characters from unual angles (starting upside down, from one side, etc) showing great skill. this led to elaborately illustrated letter formation influenced by the 'Letterland' characters.6.11.97 Odd letters emerge in his drawing, sometimes back to front, often large and clear. Copying words: 'penguin', 'fat', 'cat', 'bat', 'swan', 'Tom' (backwards), mnkey. Counts the teeth on his picture of a crab's claw, draws the same number on the other claw. Practices numbers on his jown initiative and with model of his mother's written examples.14.1.8 Charlie does some homework during the long hours of drawing that he does at home. He has drawn many thingsusing the basic C letter form and the word 'cat'. He writes his name in lower case and uses think bubble and signs (with picture or word) in his drawings.

860

880

5.2.98 He accepts attempts to share literacy experiences, as he drew a 'giant peach' in response to the book 'James and the Giant Peach' We are consolidating his written language: adult: "Look I have made some words.....what does that say?". He responds by reading 'bug', 'toy'. then rearranges the letters and asks me what they say. He counts to six, using it for a drawing of a six bug-eyed monster.25.2.98 After verbalised play about sleeping and dreaming, he said the following about his toys and drawn animals: "My animals don't speak, they think." He started saying goodby to me without prompting. His mother observer that he is using speech more clearly, asks questions in a way he never did before. Refers to 'my alphabet book' in which he has written letters and copied words for his pictures. Says "This is a rhyme in a book" and draws pictures of 'cat', 'mat', 'bat', 'rat'...this is repeated three or four times. Responds to "A for Alligator" with a picture of the animal with an A on his head.5.3.98 The alphabet is coming alive in self initiated projects. He repeats "O for owl" as he draws and colours a beautiful large owl. Then he adds: "O, O, O, I know [draws an otter] O for otter" which he repeats to himself.18.3.98 Hi drawings of animals show very clear emotions from anger to laughter - he shows his astute observation this way, although not being able to verbalise his feelings in other ways.12.3.09 He explains a picture with clearer partial sentences:"This one has something in his tail...""These are not real eyes...he has a hat on...""He has a talk like this.""He has a wig on.""He has false eyes...""His arms go like this...""...like a balloon..not like a balloon with fur.""...has eyes all over, that's why he has to wear gloves."

All these experiments at writing and speaking preceded his first attendance at school, although little of his drawing and letter copying emerged in the classroom for a term or two while he acclimatised to the environment of the school. He previous experience of schools had been negative, and in his play talk with his sister he had repeated "school is borning", 'boring' being the key word to express a wide range of emotional responses.

Researcher Diary

Being a therapist and researcher.

Research skills are observation skills.

900

920

940

PhD experience was a personal journey into theoretical sensitivity and the intuitive sense that the role of language in subjective meaning making was central to the process of building/negotiating self identity.

The process of projection from the adult-child spectrum of experience - a journey of identification with a child while being objective and responsible as an adult.

Using peer support - co-counselling with other teachers and friends.

Coming clean with CP's parents and being intimate.

Intimacy and authenticity with the child in contexts which were previously deeply disturbing and threatening.

Past experience as 'teacher' and the need for control was challenged and dislodged by the child's strong will and rage responses. Drawing on experiences as a Montessori teacher, proactive strategies integrate with therapist strategies.

4.2 March 1998 - first term

Educatioinal objectives:- to learn to interact and communicate with unfamiliar people- to learn to cope with new situations and reduce his dependence on familiar routines and objects- Feel secure enough to take part in new experiences and understand his world in order to develop his

skills and concepts- to learn appropriate ways of expressing discomfort and distance in all situations which he finds

himself in (this will enable adults to gain a better understanding of his needs)- to develop his skills to a level commensurate with his underlying ability- have full access to the National Curriculum appropriately modified so that Charlie can be assessed

on a programme of study appropriate to his individual needs rather than a Key Stage.

The assistant ensures that he has a familiar person/things with which to relate during this change of environment and experience, and initiates contact on his behalf with familiar things and people, verbalising contact and creating spaces in which he can respond without being overwhelmed with stimuli. Given the opportunity, CP holds concentration on a theme well, but needs relative quiet and non interruption. Several areas of the school have therefore become familiar, quiet and associated with 'successful' learning experiences:

The sandpit outside the classroom, with lorries and spinning wheel toys.The corridor outside the classroom in which puppet and stage are used.- furry puppets have become firm friends (esp Gordon Goffer, Haffertee Hamster and Howly Owl).

960

980

The computer inside the classroom for a limited period of time at the beginning of the day. Concentration flags after children have entered and about 1/4 hr has elapsed.The library where he is interested in the book - encyclopaedia with numbers on the outside which can be rearranged - books about animals.The activity room with alphabet poster - also alphabet poster in classroom which he is interested in and copies/draws or contributes his own animals and associations.The head teacher's room with box of interesting things including book 'Dinner Time' which he enjoys 'reading' to assistant with good expression and memory for the words. This was the first room he came to with his mother at interview, therefore has good memories.

CP has replied to unfamiliar teachers and children occasionally without whispering as he had done at other schools, although still shy and averts his eyes. T: He's got it on his back [describing]CP: A rucksack.]Teacher came over to see his picture]T: "I want it".[tells teacher what character is saying]

"He is jealous" [explains what character feels]

He recalls images from books and plays with or draws them with a good sense of character and clear dialogues. For instance 'Little Bear' and night/dark fear resolution; "If you are afraid of the dark, remember to go up to the moon"He enacts his own underlying fears, using themes from books, e.g. 'Dinosaurs' about one who was scared to go to school, to which he responded to SENGA "I would like to come to school if you don't come."Technical books interest him, and shared reading (in a quiet place) and discussing is one of his favourite activities: the globe; model of a rocket, magnifying glass experiments, 'My Body' book about bones, teeth and bacteria; magnets, the weather on a computer programme. He drew skeletons and discussed the difference between animal skeletons.

Through using the computer he is getting the idea of the letter/sound relationship. He also starts writing words he knows such as 'fox' and 'zoo', names of family and pets, and printing them out.

He has demonstrated that he listens to what people say (e.g.. the party, Goffer's clothes, being good friends) but can only respond a little time later through play. This is why having an assistant who mirrors his language at these times gives him the greatest chance of consolidating connections between hearing, thinking and speaking.

He has drawn letters of the alphabet at home and at school which are similar or the same as those on wall charts. It's just that the meanings arise unexpectedly in his mind and not when adults prompt with Q/A routine.

He is excited and impatient to come to school, so he is obviously thoroughly enjoying the new experiences, exploring things visually and practically and feeling successful with his own way of learning.

He begins to take charge of times when the noisy classroom starts to make him feel anxious, and asks to go to the library. He is choosing experiences and giving his attention to the demands of materials for imaginative play and literacy experiences. He studies and wall chart alphabet closely and expresses a strong interest in letters.

4.3. May - July 1998 - second term

Report:School experience for Charlie is more difficult than we can imagine, and the classroom presents sensory and emotional over-stimulation that militates against his ability to concentrate. He leaves the room constantly, shouts out loud inappropriately, declines to do what is asked of him directly, and behaves in play as if ignoring what others are doing or feeling. One or two activities (reading books, computer games) give him a sense of accomplishment, while mostly his tendencey is to feel different, especially when children ask why he wears a hat, why the assistant is always with him, etc. The issue is whether there is enough positive reinforcement for what he can and likes doing to make it worthwhile facing the challenges of school life. He currently expressed boredom and aggression to family and SENGA.

Charlie participated in occasional tasks in the classroom, for instance the 'volume' task of pouring water into containers. However, he is still very sensitive and chooses to leave the classroom for a quiet room frequently. In talking about a task in the calm and quiety, his attention deepens and sustains, for instance on a task 'Find the boat which rhymes', which he can make correct guesses after having time to think. He still needs repeated questions and calm receptivity on the part of the attending adult. He also needs adult verbalisation of his experiences in activity, cause and effect and no imperative commands.

His moods changed from day to day due to underlying issues and sensitivities that could not immediately be interpreted. Some days he has better focus on books than on activities, and vice versa.

He continues to 'read' books to SENGA voraciously chosing one after the other and seeking for what they may reveal in relation to his animal interests. The Oxford Reading Tree sets

1000

1020

were examined thoroughly, later to be judged as too 'boring' by him.

He is very sensitive about what they think of him: "Is Charlie shy?" one asked the SENGA, to which he replied "I am NOT shy".

He is using "Write Away' on the computer, composing his own words and asking how to spell them.

He continues to need stimulation for his fantasy and narrative work, but has some impressive attempts: A monster, killed by his animals (a lion, tiger and monkey) goes to heaven and came back. He kissed his lion and became friends, transformed into a monkey.

His anger bubbles near the surface and once or twice he has reacted with rage, nipping and shouting loudly. For instance one girl said "Charlie is an alien" three times while he was drawing with a group at a table. He stood up: "Shut up! twice at the top of his voice. If provoked with threats of not performing as expected, pressed to do something he has not understood or had time to consider, his mood can change for the worse very suddenly, and sustained for a period of time with sullenness and unresponsiveness.

4.4 Third term - September-December 1998

Reading and writing skillsCP has been observed, both at school and at home, interacting with other children and adults with clear, meaningful speech. He has also been observed by the SENGA and his mother on many occasions to try and read phonetically words that occur in his environment, checking with an adult as to what it meant and sounded like. His mother commented that he has begun trying to write simple sentences phonetically, e.g: yor plas is [nice?] = Your place is [nice]. He has therefore come a long way in his manipulation and rehearsal of literacy skills. He likes to make games out of words and often removes letters and asks how they now sound like, or reverses them. This all happens spontaneously throughout his play, so long as there is someone following him around who will:- read back his writing;- correct/affirm his reading/writing;- respond to his role play of making the adult symbolically the 'stupid' one in order to avoid his own underlying fear of failure;- encourage his explorations and add a little more challenge when appropriate;- praise success.

His parents comment that he is rapidly overtaking his sister (one year older, who has been at school longer than he) in becoming more enthusiastic and skilful at manipulating language to his own learning needs. To date, words such as 'party shop' or OXFAMSHOP' have appeared in his writing, signifying that he can observe written language in

1040

every day affairs well, gestate information, and then reproduces it when opportunities to share it with an adult present themselves.

Taking the initiativeAt home and at school, if suggestions are given to him as to what he could do next, he almost invariably finds an 'opposite' in order to make the activity more interesting. For instance, being presented with carefully prepared sheets with the appropriate animals for each letter of the alphabet, he produced a sheet with 'jet' and an icon of a jet plane from the computer, saying 'I can do things that are not all animals....boring things..'.

Social skills at schoolAt lunch playtime he has begun drawing and writing with other children with chalks, and being recognised as a good drawer by others. He interacts a bit more each day, it seems, so long as there are opportunities to share his interest in animals.This term inaugurated the drama sessions in which he spent half an hour with two or three others doing improvised story and character work. He looked and sounded highly charged at the end of these sessions, and his rapport with the other children improved. They have helped greatly to open up lines of communication between him and other children. He has become more relaxed and confident in approaching children with conversation about animals and other subjects are coming in too. In drama, Charlie takes the lead introducing characters and roles. The SENGA made suggestions about how to tell stories, who was to be the storyteller, and how to build characters. Rudimentary stories were brought in by the children and improvised were mirrored and verbalised by the SENGA in order to facilitate the nrrative development.

TimetablingIn addition to benefiting from plenty of play, CP also likes routines and keeping to particular spaces for the same activities, particularly in terms of drama. This leads to upsets if the timetable is altered for school activities. The best way out is for the SENGA to suggest similar interesting games for two, after letting him know what is happening in good time.

Character and emotionsThis development is seen as a result of his being allowed freedom to play rather than be constricted to conventional tasks. This is perceived as due to his personality and strong desire to learn and express himself in his own way. There seems no other approach to take, since his strong will and temper comes into play when his inner 'rhythm' is thwarted. However, he does respect others' wishes when explained properly to him, and when he is given sufficient time to question and understand what they entail - to be repeated in a non-challenging, relaxed manner. With his form of emotional sensitivity, a relaxed approach to his outbursts or emotional withdrawals is the best way of moving through an 'episode'. He still has great difficulty understand his own strong reactions but can successfully reason with an adult if given time, calm, slow and clear interaction - this mainly works best if his feelings are verbalised and mirrored in a non-judgmental way. Gentle exaggeration through mime and role-play (clowning and laughter) also succeed, again given time and calm.

Non-direct confrontationLiterature covers the need to use 'non-direct confrontation' with autism related behaviour. It is a difficult approach for teachers of a large class, so one-to-one support with the play technique used by the SENGA is

proving effective. It is a specific one used by child psychologist Rachael Pinney with autistic children, and which is currently being used successfully by other practitioners with similar children. It seems that because of their internally chaotic world the best chance for these children of imposing order on what they experience is in an idiosyncratic manner, choosing activities and signalling what makes sense to them in the course of free-ranging activity. This is offset by the use of learning materials, and introductions to new activities that occur often but with no confrontational direction.

4.5 Fourth Term - January-March1999

Cognitive Skills

CP has taken a major step in his literacy learning this term and began reading Ladybird books (1-4) at home. It appears that although his involvement in classroom literacy tasks has been ad hoc, self managed learning patterns have included work with the alphabet and word manipulation (magnetic letters, computer tasks such as 'Write Away' and 'Wordspell'. These experiences have given him an accumulation of cognitively manipulative skills that lead to his breakthrough into reading. Although his learning style is to play with materials and print, etc, not taking readily to classroom tasks but more comfortably to those of computer literacy games, his interest and concentration levels have been high.

Social Skills

Inevitably the social context of his thinking skills has not taken a high profile. Unless his ideas for drama are recorded at the time, it is too difficult to record all the complex narrative forms that he uses to recount stories. They arrive in fast, short bursts of talk that the other children cannot easily pick up and work with without interpretation. They still have difficulty understanding what he is saying, his speech is fast and his eye contact with individual addressees is fractured and intermittent. However his social exchange is improving on a one to one basis, and several adults have been able to converse with him without the presence of SENGA. Group communication is the most difficult thing for him to handle, although through his shyness he shows a strong desire to impart his thoughts. They tend to 'come out' with loud speech and large emotional behaviour, with some frustration at being misunderstood, innocently ignored or being reacted to. He has nevertheless been able to engage in 'Show and Tell' sessions in the classroom, sharing his animals in an alphabetical guessing game or responding with interest to what other children have brought in. His communicative behaviour at some of these sessions has revealed his thoughtfulness and enthusiasm in reaching out to others for positive responses.

CP wishes to be invisible and therefore his behaviour tends to be devious, seeking calm solitude for his cognitive concentration and exploration. The classroom is still a place of fast activity and talk that he mainly cannot understand and therefore becomes impatient, confused and frustrated. With his need for slow talking, with pauses and repetitions with practical explanations, this behaviour still may be misunderstood for wilful disobedience and lack of interest when he moves away suddenly searching for what he is familiar with and enjoys doing. Under beneficial conditions he can bargain and reason through talk with another adult or

child, experimenting with sentence construction and his ideas and feelings. He understands the need for quiet talk and if not reprimanded will follow the whispered conversation happily, which he found frustrating earlier on in his school experiences.

CP is still very sensitive to criticism and when upset needs a calm, explanatory tone of voice with pauses and good humour. This way he seems to consider other's points of view. Being artistically inclined and brought up, it is incongruous for him to be in a highly disciplined setting like Literacy Hour. This incompatibility of learning styles is a source of tension for him at school, and may be a symptom of the rigorous application of the National Curriculum requirements. However, the willingness of the class teacher to include drama sessions in the timetable, linked to literacy tasks, has meant that CP and his peers have had opportunities of contextualising their learning and social skills over and above the classroom routine. It has given other children a better chance to get to know his different ways. In drama linked to Literacy Hour, the small group were given clear instructions to e.g. develop characters, which he observed by standing back, waiting for a narrative invitation to contribute. The sessions have been less unstructured and more a source of frustration to him, but he seemed to be following the plot in a distanced way.

Over the last year the richness of CP's learning experiences and self expression has increased enormously. He has risen to the occasion, although expressing a desire not to attend school from time to time. With his temperament, it may always be difficult, but if more adults bear this in mind and engage him in conversation from time to time at play times - as they have been - his socialisation will progress, hopefully as will his independence from the SENGA.

DramaMarch, 1999: Examples of interactions abetween CP and other children, facilitated by SENGA reveal that his usual reserve is dissolving aand letting a highly excited tumble of images trigger dancing movement as he holds a puppet up for others to respond to. The SENGA keeps questioning: "What hapens next?", "What does......say?", "How does .... fel?" "How does it feel like to be...?" and 'The Lion King'. Most popular are 'Naughty Children' , Gorilla and 'LIttle Red'Themes chosen were 'Little Red Riding Hood', 'The Three LIttle Pigs', Gorilla at the Zoo, 'The bad teacher and the naughty children'.

Narrative19.3.99 CP is beginning to write and draw at home. It was difficult to et him into the car, so took pen and paper with him. Impatient, he was angry on arrival not wanting to be interrupted.He was soothed, and began drawing in the classroom, starting and starting again when the spelling was not right. His sense of perfection is strong, and he gets angry with SENGA in his urgency to achieve. Finally 'The Three LIttle Pigs and the Wolf' was drawn in an artistic and elegant front page.This is the beginning of a new stability in his presentation of what he knows. However, these products are few and far between.

Assessment 6th MarchCP's progress in social and cognitive behavioiur was noted. It was also noted and accepted that literacy hour presents severe parameters and that he was rejecting the direcitons to

stay in the classroom in favour of his desire to be more fluid and self expressive elsewhere.

CP makes a quantum leap in using presentational skills.He has expressed an aversion to classroom activity until this term, when he spent a couple of mornings in the hall, spinning and humming to himself. He was given freedom to do this, and it was the last time he did so, as shortly afterwards, his mood towards the classroom changed. He began remaining during literacy hours and started to draw and write a few words during the first hour or so of the morning. He received rewards for his work in the form of stickers, and he wrote more as a result. The following is the report made at the time.

Social skillsCP is obssessed with 'naughty' behaviour, and it is a major theme in all his fantasy play. It seems to be the way in which he resolves the fact that he cannot comprehend what sort of behaivour people require of him. If he sees others as regarding him as naughty, he reacts strongly, almost in a rage. Puppets and Beanie Babies continue to play out his inner conflicts.

4.6 Fifth Report May-July, 1999

4.7 Sixth Report September 1999 - March 2000

Charlie continues to present his skills, respond to the teacher and provide evidence that he has kept up with his peers, sometimes surpassing them, sometimes struggling to reach the same levels of accomplishment.

Charlie continues to learn through co-discovery/enquiry dialogue with SENGA:

For example: 11.4.00

5.0. ANALYSIS

This section presents some categories of behaviour and interaction that influenced SP's learning, and considers some hypotheses concerning this child's learning patterns which are illustrated.by the partially verbatim examples given below It will attempt to compare categories drawn from aspects of the theory of child development and language and learning, to the behaviour found in using different play techniques.

It will highlight learning styles associated with the arts.

1060

and skills that seem to trigger paradigmatic leaps of insight/intuition.

It will also highlight some behavioural features of adult support using natural conversational language modelling and mirroring which helps the child extend and experiment with emerging language skills.

Theorerical categories - Autistic spectrum disorder- synaptic deficiency- integration skils- sensory hypersensitivity - emotional hypersensitivity

Glossolalia - incoherent speech - self reference in third person - noises and movements

Theoretical categories - Child development

Emergent language - environmental print and loral anguagemirroring talk by parent -

Theoretical categories- Language and learningExploratory talk - informal talk (dialogue) - conversational analysis - Yonge and rich varieties of talk styles, such as puns, word games, manipulative strategies exploring adult meaning

Emergent categories from the data

My experiences as a researcher equipped me to observer acutely what is being said. There was not doubt in my mind that tone and repetition were used to indicate approval at all times, even when admonition and corrective statements had to be given for instance for the correct use of materials/equipment. I used an upbeat tone of voice conveying interest, enthusiasm and approval when I spoke to CP both while he was required to fulfill a task (e.g. 4.7.00: listing comparative descriptions between Victorian and modern day ways of life/school life). I repeated conversational-style questioning, reinforcing and conversationally motivating phrases, such as well done, was it [doing this], what is he saying, how do you [do this], what do you [see], etc. In addressing CP, I would command his attention through energising my voice with a positive tone, and be genuinely interested in what he had started doing. While drawing, which he did constantly when stitting at his table, he exhibited interest and attention to what was being said to him. It was as if direct confrontation was too stressful (as theory has us believe) but oblique interaction preferred (secondary or subliminal focus being the drawing which he

1080

1100

1120

could do well with 'savant' skills) that did not make him unnecessarily anxioius.

CategoryNarrative:

ExampleMay and later on June 8-9 Making books at the beginning of the day, free associating through drawing, and building narratives 'The Map' - where all the Beanies live, but ''Who lives in the ice?:"'When will Cheeks ever learn?" - Cheeks won't let anyone tread on his shadow'The Beanies Picture' - eat until they get fat, Cheeks gets huge, breaks the world so that the continents stick to his body - he sees a planet, thinks planets are balls, one hits him on the head,'Do you get scared?; - Beanies take off in a rocket, get Cheeks back to normal - but he's not speaking English - talks to hissy, while Paul scratches his head and gets frustrated, because he can't understand.Notes: He processes his reactions (at the beginning of term when he vowed never to come to school again and got promised Beanies at the end of term, then he came) - uses cartoon conventions to depict action and reaction - writing economically to convey implications as genre of 'real' books.NC delivered through the medium of the arts, resoiurcing creative self expression, building emergent skills, short bursts of tasks interspersed with creative/expressive work, and play (a skill that is also stunted)

CategorySpelling

9.6.00 List of words on board, "How many words can you draw?" he draws all of them showing he knows what they mean, and processing their spelling.He did the task without writing out the whole words, only filling in the blank spaces and drawing his interpretation - he worked fast, full attention without chatting, and did two tasks on the other side of the paper that were not set for today.

CategoryPhysical-emotional-cognitive integration

Examples:Playground skills - - role play for developing physical co-ordination (hitting the ball as if it was a child/teacher)

1140

1160

teaching football skills and keeping scores - physical ways of learning mathsdrama and play/fantasy skills for relating with other children - archetypal control patterns - underlying agression played out through the day using SENGA

CategoryDrawing

Examples

20.9.98 - Moral themes: A picture story emerged in which a mouse bit a cate's tail off was hit on the head by a cat who said "You would'nt like it if someone did it to your head" to the mouse. This sort of summary justice was enacted throughout drawings and drama.

He works fast, using cartoon conventions to depict movement, dramatic effects, facial expressions and speech bubbles. These are highly expressive, abbreviated drawings with colour only hinted at times, nevertheless effective use of highlihging.His imagery is clearly action packed, full of emotional significance which only he can experience. SENGA tries constantly to engage his speech, asking questions about the story, pointing to characters, incoherent writing etc, proposing guesses and asking for the correct narrative.It seems essential that drawing comes into his maths work - 14.6.00 animals with numbers in their segments.

CategoryDrama improvisation

ExampleC was given regular daily sessions of drama with small groups of children during Year 1 (1998-1999). They made pictures of their drama narratives afterwards. C was exhilarated by his experience and drew with vivid colouring and flair for action and expression on character's faces. Themes were recorded and drawings were done after the sessions during which C interacted with the others discussing favourite animals etc.During Year 2 (1999-2000) he was allowed only occasional sessions. Since he was resistent to structure, the other children were instructed to develop character, setting and plot. C joined in but waited for invitations with specific questions from SENGA: "What happened next to -- ?" "Where are they now?" "What does -- say to that?"C needs a great deal of stimulation, but from time to time his enthusiasm takes off and he shrieks with

1180

1200

1220

delight as a dramatic situation develops - the other children do not seem to respond with the same intensity - C's emotional responses peak suddenly and then subside just as quickly as he withdraws to a safe off-centre position.C needed as much prompting on turn taking as the others, listening to others' ideas and plot moves and making choices.Many themes centred around the role of the teacher and naughty children, or a giant or fierce animal that chased the others. These were invested on the SENGA by common consent of the children. Often this role was killed, blinded or otherwise incapacitated, and thus formed a psychotherapeutic function for the anxieties of all members of the group. This role often had to play 'stupid', does everything wrong and takes the blame.12.11.98 - "The naughty children put a frog in the teacher's cup. The teacher was very cross and got the police. They set fire to the policeman, so the teacher called the firebrigade, water jets hosed water all over the children. They escaped and said 'Ha ha ha ha' at the teacher pointing their fingers at her."17.11.98 - The teacher told them off. They chopped her up, set fire to her and sent her bones to the museum. The man there said "this is only a ball of bones from a teacher", and played football with it. 4.12.98 - The children kicked the teacher and one was taken to the prison by the police. He escaped through a tunnel and was caught again. Then her pet dog came through the tunnel with the key. She unlocked the door to the cell and ran off. After a short run,, she was caught again. This time she was chopped up and fed to the dog. The ghost began haunting the police so they called in the ghost busters who zapped the ghost for ever."

2.11.98 - Example of the metamorphosis of characters:"The teacher told the children off, then they tied her up. When she escaped they tied her to a shop. After that they became wolves. The wolves came and ate up the shop keeper and everything in the shop. One wolf turned into a small toy, the other became a baby wolf. The toy fitted into a cannon."

4.11.98 - Example of a storybook theme 'The Little Red Hen' reworked:"The foxes were furious with the hen. The hen ran away from the foxes, ran and ran so that they could not catch her. She hid in a shed and teased them. Then she flew away to another country. The foxes took a place, but the hen put a bomb on board and blew the foxes up.

1240

1260

They lost all their fur and looked like skin and bone. The hen then made a dummy hen with fluff on it and floated it down the river. One fox jumped to catch it and fell into the river. The other fox knew it was a dunny hen and anyway was lazy. The foxes were furious with the little red hen."Another version of this story of how the hen cooked a loaf of bread after the others refused to help her."When the loaf was cooked, the hen said she was going to eat it herself. All the animals then ran up, took the bread and ate it. The hen then made more loaves, and the animals ate them all. Then she made 100 loaves and ate them all herself and became very fat. They had to cut her open to get the bread out."Another story went:"When the foxes chased the hen, they were shot with her gun so that all their fur came off. Then they shot her and her feathers came off. She put them back on again, but the foxes had to wear fur coats. The hen captured these and the foxes were never the same again.":7.12.98 - Another storybook theme 'The three little pigs" became 'The wicked witch and the two little pigs" with a similar plot.Many themes were of animals in the jungle fighting and chasing. They too metamorphosed within the emotional theme.20.11.98 - The elephants faught the tiger and tripped his fur off. Then he died and became a ghost, after the elephants squirted water on him. The ghost was frightening but could not really hurt anyone.

.CategorySENGA dialogue included praise for effort and imagination, and included the following:

ExampleIn drama, stimlulating imagination/narrative/character/plot/setting: What's next/what did they do then/where did they go/what's happening/quick quick, let's [get out of here] (in character, interacting with pupil-generated character and narrative.In drama, encouraging turn-taking: CP tells the story now/Emily's turn to tell the story/ what's happening now David/what's the ending, everyone find out how the story ended.Observing CP drawing, encouraging story, dialogue, explanation, use of interaction: What is he doing/I like

1280

1300

1320

him/he's got a [big nose]/you're drawing quickly/a-ah, he's eating a[bone]/are you going to do [a picture of...]Bringing in music and percussion to depict scenes or atmospheres:What's a jungly sound/what's a sound like rain.

CategoryRole play in the classroom context noise etc

Examples- using Beanie Babies, extending narrative to writing task using specific words, etc. - triggering his interest/obsession and extending fantasy through exploratory talk

- addressing fear of traversing ladder, encouraging with role play by SENGA of fear, disbelief, heroic ordeal, etc.

Categoryat the computer - play and technical skills

Examples:

- asking for interpretations as to what is happening on screeen, or what he is intending or doing.

Categorymaths - oral skills of exploratory talk between teacherand child

Examples- physical problems, such as how many in five boats for 14 people, etc, which he was able to draw - using Beanie Babies to group and explore concept of 'sharing'8.6.00- Jumping tens - I show a picture, draw animals, he draws, while I chatter about jumping tens. He writes down a line of numbers, then 4+10=14, I say yes that's jumping in ten's - then the teacher comes and says, if 4+10=14, what is 14+10? and so-on, while he gives ansers correctly demonstrating he knows number relationships of 10.- C is allowed free association with drawing - he reworks the narrative of animals jumping (fox/rabbit/frog jump lily pads and fox falls in because he is too heavy) SENGA draws animals. Next day/lesson, C looks as her drawings and begins drawing his own maths games with a squirrel and trees numbered 34, 44, 54 - he goes back later to add 33 and 43.

The reference to animals soothes and prepares his mathematical ability to come out.....swift, short bursts of taskwork in between playing with or drawing animals.

1340

1360

9.6.00 'How many ways can you find three numbers that add up to 12 - showed him rods of 10 with cube units - he separated the cubes - tried to do it mentally - reminded to use cubes and went on to do 9 examples.

CategorySettling into class routines after a break

Example7-6-00 - The first week after half term he 'never wants to go to school agan' - parents bribe him with Beanie toys - he made books expressing themes conccerning his responses 'When will Cheeks ever learn?" and others expressing his interests, using pictures and economic use of words/sentences/phrases as in 'real' books.14-6-00 - the 2nd week after half term he settles in and goes to the carpet for group reading without being asked. - he makes books without writing, still with emotionally vibrant themes, but he does not tell the stories coherently, they are automatic, personally intimate narratives which he assumes others can 'read' without words - SENGA tells him she cannot understanding the story without words, and he complies briefly with incomplete sentences.

CategoryBehaviour in group sessions, e.g. teacher explains couting in 10's on board with 100 square, asking children for answers.

Example8.6.00 - he flops against SENGA, turns away, sinks down, daydreams, fiddles, yawns, all symptoms of boredom and avoidance.Given a practical counting problem, with rods of 10 and unit-cubes, his attention stirs. Given drawings he gets more animated, allowed to draw he is distracted towards pictures, and given narrative he begins free association with maths themes on his own accord, expreessing an inner willingness to hang on to the subject.

Categorypraise and encouragement

Examples:- stickers for everything - over the top tone of voice works - negotiate treats and competitive praise in his favour

Category

1380

1400

1420

Discussion skills relating to issues of fairness, his responses and attitudes

Examples:frank discussions discussing payoffs - treats and tradeoffs, school rules -

CP explains his thinking and feeling responses - monologues with SENGA explaining his feelings about changing school, being in a new classroom with a new teacher but with the same children.About assembly, "They should make the teachers sit on the floor and see how they like it."Refers to people as 'stupid', e.g. another assistant who has bullied him into responding with "Speak to me Charlie" emphatically and dogedly despite seeing him embarrased and silent.About another child being spoken to sternly for crying: "Charlotte, it only makes it worse, it only makes it worse." He was ani

CategorySocial/school/home experiences split

Examples:the home/school divide - learning spills over, but he resists talking about school to parents, about home to teacherThe social psychological structures of school life still remain a mystery and a source of anxiety for CP. Teachers need to use all their skill of positive reinforcement such as promising drama sessions and other rewards.

CategorySavant learning patterns - unexpected intuitive leaps -quantum leaps of insight and the experiences that lead up to them

Examples- narrative play around 'counting in tens by jumping'CP drew three trees with squirrel (see above Mathstask)- May/June 2000 :drawing very quickly and cryptically describing a narrative through facial expressions and cartoon conventions (see also above Drawing skills) - he makes his own books with se-quential episodes- May 2000: oral responses in conversationaldiscussion abouta task - teacher delivers the KSI SATorally while CP writes answers with little hesitation.- 4.7.00: SENGA explains and questions him con-

1440

1460

versationally about Geography Assessment task 'what things can you see outside the windwo?', and 'Drawwhat a bird would see flying above the playground' drew a very quick response which he gave orally andpictorially (scribed by SENGA for explanatory purposesin teacher assessment)

CategoryTalking one-to-one to an adult

Example- the adult tries to goad a specific respoinse with 'Speak to me CP, Speak to me (repeated with critical, impatient tone: CP ignores, looks away, mumbles and carries on walking.- June 2000 the adult (Educational Psychologist) encourages CP's response with praise and interest: CP talks freely and intelligently

The Educational Psychologist's assessmentObservations from tasks set: good performances in: verbal reasoning; reasoning with imagery; story interpretation; conversation in which he tested the EP. Low performance: mechanical, repetitive task; general knowledge.Comments: He has many talents and skills that he does not let on as having, and that other AS learners may not have (imaginative reasoning). He has a lot of control over what he does at school.She is worred as to where his latent anger comes from.The fact that he is not at school the whole day, and that he did not attend school until 6 yrs contributes to this anger [at his own low performance compared to others?]His lack of general knowledge stems from not being at school long enough for the appropriate exposure to knowledge.She doubts whether his behaviour should actually be put down to Aspergers Syndrome.

Research comment on the EP assessmentThe high performance on imaginative tasks is clearly due to the fact that both his parents are artists, stimulate his creative and artistic talents, as well as my (the SENGA's) creative play interaction.The EP lacks experience of interacting with AS learners, but is good at making any child feel special, therefore creates the 'halo' effect reported by researchers as being an artificial form of behaviour. CP responds well out of context of the general working of the school which involves group work and for example sitting long periods on the flow trying to listen in assembly. In stressful contexts, he behaves eccentrically, displaying AS symptoms, but these are not taken into account

1480

1500

in 'laboratory' types of situations such as an interview with the EP.

General concluding comments to dataThese categories of experience seem to confirm theory of AS behaviour and suggest that AS learners respond with high performance in response to certain types of adult behaviour, such as praise and encouragement. Stressful contexts of group interaction make them respond poorly or very economically, or not at all. Assumptions made on their 'good' behaviour are that they should/could produce this at all times, and therefore deserve reprimand as any other child.The benefits of creative play and narrative are shown in CP's ability to use creative imagination, and to talk fuently and clearly to adults. This is easily overlooked by untrained teachers.In a short period of time - from Sept 1999 to July 2000, CP learned to read, write and perform maths and other scientific/general knowledge tasks. Previously he did not display these skills, but played and rehearsed them throughout his supported play, in his dialogue with exploratory sessions while drawing, and in drama or music, physical skills on a one-to-one basis with me (as SENGA).The implications are that AS learners might need more exploratory play and talk to accumulate sufficient sensory experiences and language skills than 'normal' children. In addition, they seem to need specific conditions under which to successfully develop cognitive and emotional skills, that include positive reinforcement at all times, outlets for difficult responses to stressful situations, and plenty of opportunities to access their obsessions as motivating episodes before and after meeting challenging classroom tasks.

5.0 DISCUSSION OF IMPLICATIONS - DISAFFECTED LEARNERS AND GIFTED LEARNERS

This section will consider how the data has given rise to some indications as to the possible emotional, cognitive and physical development that may be taking place It will also consider the implications regarding the use of play and the arts in helping AS learners' inhibitions in the use of play, use of the imagination, exercising choices, interaction sociall with others, and generally demonstrating what s/he has learned within the school learning context.

I will argue for the increased use of a variety of play strategies in the education of AS children, based on the

1520

1540

1560

educational theory and empirical support contained in this report.

In the light of the need of these learners for integrated learning material (that deals with immediate social and cognitive material in the learners' living contexts) and less dependence on 'decontextualised' material that isolates abstract thought and encourages stressful learning patterns that accentuate AS learners avoidance/anxiety patterns. I will also consider the learning skills that transcend the systematic rote learning patterns contained in conventional educational settings, for instance those which make use of individual creative problem solving and mutli-sensory, multi-track modes of thinking and learning.

Play

Play is essential to these children, it is not a strong skill, and they need a playful adult to model and extend their powers of imagination and psycho-motor skills that accompany rich play patterns.provides a style of exploratory ltalk for earning

The arts enhances the development of social, emotional and cognitive skills

The 'savant' skills of Aspergers Syndrome Savant or intuitive learning patterns demonstrated in this report are perhaps the most mysterious of all the aspects of the AS 'disabilities'. Maybe this lies as the root of their difficiulty in integrating social modes of communication with their intimate sensory life and subjective thinking. It could be that they demonstrate what is commonly lacking in all children's education, experiences of using the creative imagination, that develop self monitoring learning patterns and social skills that communicate, support and enhance individual skills within group goals (e.g. themework incorporating writing, reading, historical narrative and expressive arts (drama etc.)).

5.1 Speculations on the imlications:

Gifted and disaffective learners - are we all a little autistic and disaffected? - using non-directive and constructive play with gifted learners.

Human potential - Maslow, Jung, Edwards and Potter, Gardner, The mind's potential performance entails integrated functions.

1580

1600

Is ustism is something that we all have?

5.2 Implications for teaching

What would happen if we applied the quality of play used on autistic learners with disaffected learners - giftedness and creative potential harnessed.

Integrating mental play into the curriculumLipman's Philosophy for Children - philosophical enquiry as social/mental play

Integrating aristic play into the curriculum: Rachael Pinney's Children's Hours - school counsilling non-directive play as tapping the motivation and integrating emotional responses at appropriate times and places- constructive play using scientifically designed learning materials (e.g. Montessori)

6.0. CONCLUSION

At the beginning of this report I expressed my wish that it might reveal the significance of the use of intensive dialogue throughout the three hour morning sessions at school, in producing a saturation of conversational language experience for the learner. The lack of recorded material of dialogue that was imrovised in response the moment to moment needs of the child and the curriculum requirements should not cause the descriptions contained herein to be seen as mere abstract wish-fulfillment My experiences as a researcher equipped me to observer acutely what is being said, and there was not doubt in my mind that repeated questioning and conversationally motivating

included the following features:- adult modelling of sentences construction and

meaning;- adult modelling of social interaction and

quesitoning strategies;- mutual enquiry between adults and the learner

which encouraged initiative and meaning makingbuilding on his own ideas and responses;

Therefore one of my aims for the report is to propose a central hypothesis: that AS children need sufficient facilitated play experiences so as to ensure that they acquire the following experiences:

1620

1640

1660

a) an extension of early childhood one-to-onerelationships that provide 'safe' and intimateexperiences of mutuality and co-discoverysimilar to that of a parent;

b) appropriate sensory saturation throughfacilitated play that stimulates their attentionand helps them sustain concentration in play;

c) appropriate language support in theirplayactivities in order that emotional responsesare integrated into a wide range ofcommunicative skills that attned theircreative play;

FinallyAre we all autists - a proposition based on Howard Gardner's theories that speculate the existence of an individual and unique expression of intelligence within a wider range of categories: emotiona/social, musical, verbal, mathematical, visual, kinesthetic, etc. Aspergers Syndrom may be the symptom of a more deeply lopsided intelligence, and each individual very differently skilled - this target pupil visually endowed with latent verbal ability (apparent photographic memory for reading and spelling).

Those we lavel 'autistic' are more deeply identified with their inner world. Apsergers sufferers, while mostly endowed with very acute perception and high performing intellect, are deeply caring and agonised by their inability to think and feel in the same way as others, and therefore .need more practice and exposure to conversaltional skills than other children.Vygotsky's theory in practice shows evidence of integration of functions through intensive. oral dialogic support.. Mathematical abililty seemed to emerge in tandem with visual/narrative skills.Writing and spelling emerged from play/obsession material that was supported with dialoguic exploratory talk that developed narrative from pupil generated material (rudimentay sentences, words and responses in general)

The nature of the brain and our universal need for integration using mulsti-sensory experiential learning.. Extending the vocabulary for subtler levels of consciousness, super learning, superconsciousness, profounder sense of self as both collective and individual.

Possibilities for re-designing the curriculum for genius:- with systematic task design for group enquiry;- with systematic, scientifically designed learning materials;

1680

1700

- with abundant artistic/constructive play materials;- with mental play objects/machines such as computers. 1720

MORE NOTES ON THEORY AND EXPERIENCE

These notes explore the relationship between school experience and educational insights, particularly those of Donna Williams.

Integration and non-directive play

Autistic learners need help stimulating their imagination and integrating it with language and physical activity. The adult in this role helped CP to stimulate and engage his imagination. Making responses bigger and explicit helped CP to come to grips with his own responses and those of whomever was in the room with him. Repeating phrases and sentences that described what is going on, what C Pis doing and the effect it is having on an implement or material, helped him to think into the next phase of problem solving.

The arts present an educational medium which is cross curricular, multisensory and polymodal (involving a variety of forms and materials). As autism manifests as an inability to synthesise brain functions, the arts offer a style of learning that suits these learners needs for integration. Drama in particular integrates social behaviour with language use and problem solving, and targets their biggest problem which is socialisation. All cultural art forms involve contextually embedded cognition in the form of dialogue and narrative - interactive sequences that negotiate through many levels of meaning. A rich variety of communicative styles and language forms of self expression in spoken and written language are offered by the arts, and tasks can target problems of everyday interaction.

The autistic learner's skills of fantasy are said to be under developed, and again the arts offer a strong medium to facilitate the externalisation of imagery. Non directive play allows a specific emphasis on the learners own self initiated imagery, strengthening and confirming its learning potential. Through this method, learners can reach cognitively beyond their initial expression in play to a new level of cognitive or affective skill.

Non-directive play in educational contextsMaking educational contexts can be likened to creating a hothouse, a protective environment conducive to concentration, exploration of new information and responses, and attempts at constructive and productive output. Play and art form a vital part of learning hothouses, and provide opportunities for monitoring and observing behaviour. They provide freedom of expression within complex structures, and can be woven into the National Curriculum targets at the appropriate level for autistic learners who need special support in speaking and listening and social awareness. For

example, C has an obsession with animals and is a good drawer through which he plays intensely with his fantasy themes. Non-directive play has allowed him to practise his own language forms and develop them into coherent exchanges with an adult. When using the computer, word games, books, letters or story and drama, and interacting with an adult through non-directive play, he has been able to reach beyond his existing knowledge and skill (manual dexterity, eye-hand co-ordination, verbalisation of thoughts and responses). His toy animals have mediated with the outside world and given him security when confronted with uncertainty and new information. He begins by clutching the toy as he uses another implement, then sets the toy down to look at his activity as he gets more and more engrossed. He can now interact with another child at the computer, mediating through animals, and being supervised with non-directive communication by an adult which repeat and embellish thoughts, words, images, responses, etc.

CP is highly intelligent and is aware that his behaviour is different to that of others. He is very fearful of being 'stupid', and he has learned to use his assisting adult as a foil in his game of outwitting the tricks of conventional classroom tasks. For instance, on the computer his first insights into how the machine provides corrective measures for a task such as spelling prompt him to make up his own game of deliberately 'getting it wrong' and watching the icons restore the correct spelling. Often he will grasp the assistant's hand and make her punch the 'wrong' letter for a word, and the game gets better when the adult plays into the role by saying "Oh no, I don't want to get it wrong again!", or "Oh I know how to do this....Oh help, wrong again". This playing into the negative/wrong answer aspect of behaviour erupts in other contexts, where if directed to do something firmly, or when he is aware of what someone does not like to do, C almost writhes in glee and impatience to trigger the 'unwanted' response. If drama takes root, this is done to a healthy and constructive effect. Watching CP's hilarity reveals his need not to be caught out or labelled 'stupid' - his self worth is delicate and in constant need of encouragement. Autistic learners know they are different and do not understand how or why. They work at what's going for them, what is familiar to them, with obsessive intensity. CP loves drawing and sees writing as an extension of this. He produces ornate, artistically pleasing outlined letters that decorate his intricate, expressive drawings. His best drawings are done at home in safety and peace. Part of the assistance he has in school has been to encourage him to draw while sitting at the same table as others. This has followed drama sessions which stimulate his imagination and heighten his mood. Using improvisation, CP's own imagery and stories have been built up along familiar themes such as animals and has brought him into contact with a couple of children whose ideas he has responded to.

They negotiate likes and dislikes, or levels of reality: "He's not really like that...doesn't do it that way..." etc. Story improvisation can make use of all initiatives of a small group, and allows material to merge or coalesce into larger narratives. It relies on the ability of the supervision adult to engage in improvised story.

Post-modern theories of learning involve concepts such as narratology and the dialogic nature of thought. By role playing dialogues, the autistic learner also engages in cognitive development. It is referred to as socially embedded cognition (ref: Bruner (1986), Vygotsky (,1978) Resnick (1993), Mercer (1995), Rosen (1988), Wells (1986), Maybin (1994), Lyle (1996), etc.).

The arts, then, provide a vital ingredient to the autistic learner's curriculum. It provides a socio-cultural context for learning which must be mediated by 'teachers' that are non-directive and know how to stimulate and flow flexibly with these learners' self initiated play and self expression. The multisensory approach is essential for them to learn how to integrate brain functions: to link spoken language with thought, feeling and physical activity, and most importantly to respond to those of others.

--------------------------------------------------------------------Main refs: Bruner (1986), Lyle (1996), etc.).Maybin (1994), Mercer (1995),Resnick (1993), Rosen (1988), Vygotsky (,1978)Wells (1986), Donna Williams (1996) 'Autism: An Inside-Out Approach', London, Jessica Kingsley Publishers.