Parin Patel

University of Southern California

Faculty Advisor: James McHugh

Archaeology and the Literary Narrative

Safeguarding Material Culture in Modern-Day Anti-Buddhist Gandhara

“Birth of the Buddha”: H. 12.15 cm; (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California

Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9633).

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Abstract The focus of my research is centered on a collection of approximately 50 artifacts donated in 1986 to the

University of Southern California Archaeology Research Collection from the private antiquities collection of the

Raport family. The artifacts are known to have originated in a region known as Gandhara, located in modern-day

India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (See Appendix B).1 The Gandharan region was home to cultures that were

predominantly Hindu and Buddhist and the collection, ranging from the 2nd Millennium BCE to the 5th Century CE,

portrays these distinct ideologies, as well as their changes over time. My initial research is targeted towards a few

artifacts from the collection and will gradually expand to include a larger number of artifacts over the course of the

following school year.

Upon initial inspection of the collection, I realized that a few of the artifacts were visual narrative panels

that correlated with Aśvaghoṣa ‘s Life of the Buddha (Buddhacarita), which chronicles the life of Siddhārtha

Gautama, an ancient king from the Shakya clan who renounced everything he had in order to gain enlightenment

and end suffering. Gautama eventually became known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened One”.2 Aśvaghoṣa

(Ashva∙ghosha) was a Hindu Brahmin who converted to Buddhism and became a monk.3 He was a well-versed

Brahminical and Buddhist scholar, as well as a gifted poet. He wrote Life of the Buddha in the traditional format of

an epic poem, which consists of 28 cantos, or chapters. The first half of the original Sanskrit version still exists

today and the latter half survives through Chinese and Tibetan translations.4 In his Sanskrit-to-English translation

and analysis of the epic, scholar Patrick Olivelle predicts that Aśvaghoṣa lived in the 2nd Century CE. He notes that

similarities in Life of the Buddha and Manu’s Code of Law, which is known to be written in the 2nd Century CE,

provide concrete evidence that Aśvaghoṣa was alive in the 2nd Century CE, as opposed to the previously accepted

date that was set one century prior.5 Once I found the starting point of Aśvaghoṣa’s life, I knew that this was the

earliest cutoff date for the artifacts because they directly pertained to his rendition of the Buddhacarita. I began by

critically analyzing Aśvaghoṣa’s epic, and then moved on to artifact analysis. I then utilized scientific analysis in

order to determine the composition, manufacturing method, and possible uses for the artifact.

1 Map 1: Location of Ancient Gandhara; Modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. 2 “Life of the Buddha”: Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/hd_buda.htm (April

2011). 3 Aśvaghoṣa; trans. Olivelle, Patrick; Life of the Buddha, xix. 4 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, 417. 5 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, xix-xxi.

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USC Archaeological Research Collection Artifacts

The first object, Artifact # 9633, depicts a woman in the center holding onto a tree branch

with her right hand.6 A man to the left of the female figure is holding what seems like a newborn

child to the right of her waist, but it is not clear because the figure in his arms is broken off.

Another male figure is seen to the right of the female. His left hand is on her stomach. A fourth

figure, presumably female, is standing to the far right with a large leafy branch in her hand.

Evidence from the text corroborating the depiction in the scene is linked to the birth of

Siddhartha Gautama:

Maya, then, the queen of that god-like king (Shuddódana),

her womb bearing the glory of his line,

by her purity freed from delusion,

sorrow and fatigue, set her mind

on visiting that faultless grove.

…

… a son was born

from the side of the queen consecrated by rites,

without pain and without ill,

for the welfare of the world.7

The passage explains that Maya, Siddhartha Gautama’s mother, goes to a grove to bear her child.

The child has a “miraculous birth”, in that he is born from his mother’s right side and not the

birth canal. This is visibly apparent in the text, as well as the artifact. Comparanda (a similar

artifact) from The Metropolitan Museum of Art also depicts the same scene and is known to

represent the image from the text.8 The Metropolitan Museum of Art estimates that their artifact

6 Plate 1, USC Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9633. 7 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, 1.5-1.10. 8 Plate 2, “Birth of the Buddha”; New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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is dated to the Kushan Period in ancient Gandhara, approximately between the 2nd Century BCE

and the 3rd Century CE.9 The major difference between the Kushan artifact and the USC artifact

is the inclusion of a Corinthian column in the latter.10 The column provides evidence of Greek

influence, which was visible in Gandharan art through the conquests of Alexander the Great,

whose Greek soldiers impacted local Gandharan culture.11

Artifact # 9609 depicts a man holding an object on the left side of the artifact.12 Next to

him, is a figure holding up the front leg of a horse. Atop the horse is a man holding reigns

attached to the horse’s muzzle. There is another figure underneath the horse. The figure is

holding up the horseback rider’s left leg. A final figure to the far right of the artifact is holding

the rider’s left arm. This image is a match for the scene of Siddhartha’s departure from the

palace:

He (Siddhartha) woke up Chándaka (his advisor and charioteer) and told

that quick-footed groom of his horse:

“Quickly bring the horse Kánthaka!

I want to leave this place today,

To arrive at the deathless state.

…

Then, he brought to his lord that sterling steed,

a horse endowed with strength, heart, speed,

and breed–

its mouth was furnished with a golden bit,

its back was covered with a soft bedspread,

its chine, rump, and fetlocks were long,

hair, tail, and ears were short and still,

with sunken back, bulging belly and flanks,

and with wide nostrils, forehead, hips, and chest.

…

Yakshas (divine dwarf-like creatures), then, bending their bodies low, supported

the horse’s hooves with the tips of their trembling hands,

9 Map 2: Kushan Empire; 2nd Century BCE – 3rd Century CE. 10 Plate 3, Example of Corinthian Column; New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 11 Personal Communication, Lynn Swartz Dodd; April 7, 2011. 12 Plate 4, USC Archaeology Research Collection: Artifact # 9609.

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…13

The imagery is quite apparent between the text and the artifact, as we can see the description of

the horse matches the horse in the relief. The man to the left of the horse is Chándaka,

Siddhartha’s trusted charioteer and friend who helps him escape the confines of the palace.

Siddhartha is seated atop the horse. The figures behind and underneath the horse are Yakshas,

mystical dwarf-like creatures sent to help Siddhartha make a stealthy departure from the palace,

so as not to alert anyone.14 The Metropolitan Museum of Art provides comparanda for this

artifact as well.15 The comparanda dates back to the 3rd Century CE and has a similar artistic

style, suggesting the age of the USC artifact is likely to be from the same time period.

The third artifact is USC Archaeological Research Collection Artifact # 9629.16 On this

artifact, there is a figure to the far left who is facing sideways and has his hands clasped in

prayer. Next to the figure, there is a Corinthian column separating the left quarter of the artifact

from the other section. On the other side, there are two figures with large leaves in their hands.

They are holding the leaves above a fourth figure, who is sitting with his legs crossed and hands

held together, situated in his lap. The fourth figure’s eyes are closed and he has his hair styled in

a round bun at the center of his head. All of the figures are wearing long, creased robes. It was

increasingly difficult to place the final object within the storyline of the text because the text

translation ends at Canto XII, which is the Buddha’s Awakening. Due to the amount of text that

has deteriorated from the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscript, a line-by-line translation from the

Sanskrit text was not possible.17 Instead, the final cantos of the text were translated and

13 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, 5.67-5.81. 14 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, Page 476. 15 Plate 5, “Great Departure and the Temptation of the Buddha”; New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 16 Plate 6, USC Archaeology Research Collection: Artifact # 9629. 17 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, Page 417.

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paraphrased from surviving Chinese and Tibetan translations of the text. The artifact still

manages to fit within the storyline in Canto XX, Acceptance of the Jeta∙vana Monastery.18 The

seated figure is the enlightened Siddhartha, now known as the Buddha. He is either being fanned

or shaded by his disciples. A third disciple is praying in the left corner of the artifact. The Los

Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) has comparanda matching the USC artifact and its

description.19 In both the USC and LACMA artifacts, all of the figures are wearing the

traditional ochre robes of Buddhist monks and sages. The Corinthian column is also present in

both artifacts.

The final artifact, USC Archaeological Research Collection Artifact # 9600, shows three

separate scenes within the object. 20 The first scene shows two men, the left one with his left

shoulder and entire lower body covered with a cloth and the right one with both of his shoulders

and lower body covered in a cloth. The next scene depicts both of the men speaking to another

man seated in a straw hut. The ascetic is bearded his upper body is exposed, while his lower

body is covered in a cloth. He is also holding a round object in his left hand. His left arm is laid

on top of his calves in order to show the round object to the viewer. The description of the seated

man indicates that he is an ascetic.

Ascetics were commonly dressed in a cloth covering their lower bodies and had their

upper bodies unclothed in Gandharan visual representations. Forest ascetics were always bearded

and were depicted living in straw huts. The main indication that the man is an ascetic is his round

pot held in his left hand. The pot is known as a kamaṇḍalu and was used by ascetics to carry

drinking water. Alfred Foucher, one of the premier archaeologists that studied Gandharan

18 Olivelle, Life of the Buddha, Page 424. 19 Plate 7, “Buddha Shakyamuni with Attendants”; Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 20 Plate 8, USC Archaeology Research Collection: Artifact # 9600.

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Buddhism in the late 19th and early-to-mid 20th Centuries, noted that, “The kamaṇḍalu, that is the

attribute par excellence of the Brahmin ascetic, always watchful about the purity of his drink.”21

The final scene shows two ascetics, as evidenced by their ascetic garb and kamaṇḍalus in-hand.

The ascetic on the left has his right hand raised and is faced toward the ascetic on the right. The

second ascetic is faced with his front toward the viewer and seems to be conversing with the

ascetic on the left.

The artifact matches comparanda found in the Peshawar Museum.22 In the comparanda

artifact, there are two men with long hair, partly knotted on the top of their heads and partly

draped over their shoulders. They have a cloth draped over their left shoulders. The seated man is

an ascetic, as noted by the kamaṇḍalu in his left hand and the fact that he is also seated in a straw

hut. The scenes depicted in the USC relief match the storyline in Cantos XV and XVI in Life of

the Buddha, where the newly enlightened Siddhārtha Gautama (now the Buddha), visits Hindu

ascetics in order to convert them to Buddhism. The relief shows the Buddha, along with his

assistant, speaking to a Hindu ascetic with the intention of converting him. After they speak to

the ascetic, he goes to speak to another Brahmin ascetic, as though to “spread the word” of the

Buddha. The storyline states that the Buddha’s fellowship multiplies exponentially through

word-of-mouth, so the depiction could be an indication of the spread of Buddhism.

Physically, the artifact fits the characteristics of a stūpa drum panel, as noted by the

circular shape of the object. The artifact was compared to examples of stūpas in their entirety and

the shape was determined to fit the architectural design of a stūpa. Using a mathematical

equation for solving the radius, given the height and width of an arc, we were able to measure the

21 Alfred Foucher, L’art gréco-bouddigue du Gandhara, Vol. 2 Pt. 1, p. 257. 22 Plate 9; “The Visit to the Ascetic”: Peshawar: Peshawar Museum.

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circumference of the entire stūpa that the panel was a part of.23 The circumference of the stūpa is

about 214.82 cm, which is equal to about 6.55 times the size of the panel in the USC collection.

The other artifacts in the collection could have been part of a stūpa panel or used

alongside temple walls in order to provide an artistic depiction of the Buddha’s life. Because of

the limited amount of individuals who were actually literate and that fact that Siddhārtha

Gautama’s death predated the written account of his life, the importance of the visual depictions

of the Buddha were vital to the preservation and spread of the biography of the Buddha, as well

as the Buddhist religion itself.

The History of Buddhist Stūpa Veneration

The history of stūpas spans across the time and spectrum of Buddhism and serves as a

clear indication to the force behind the Buddhist movement. Stūpas are reliquary mounds or

drums used to hold human burial remains and artifacts (including manuscripts) owned by those

23 The formula for the radius of a circle is: R= (H/2) + (W2/8H), where W is the width of the arc and H is the height

of the arc. By plugging in the height (4.2 cm) and width (32.8 cm) of the arc, the radius was calculated to be 34.19

cm. The circumference, C= 2πR, of the stūpa is about 214.82 cm. because the stūpa panel in the collection is 32.8

cm wide. 214.82/32.8 is equal to about 6.55, so the circumference of the stūpa was 6.5 times the size of the panel in

the USC collection. (See Figure A in Appendix C)

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individuals, varying in size from monumental to quite small. The practice of using stūpas was

mainly a Buddhist tradition, and the first stūpas housed relics of the Buddha’s body. These

reliquary monuments are found throughout Asia in areas with high concentrations of Buddhist

influence. China, for example, has sites with hundreds of intact stūpas, sometimes referred to as

“pagodas” in English. Some stūpas contained the remains of revered Buddhist monks and

famous Buddhist figures, including burial remains believed to have belonged to the Buddha.

The notion behind stūpas might seem quite contrary to the conventional understanding of

Buddhist mortuary and spiritual practices, since in religious texts Buddhists often attach no

importance to the body, living or dead, and cremation would simply dissolve the body back into

the elements. The stūpas, however, provide evidence that ancient Buddhists sometimes acted as

if the remnants of the body contained some essence of the person to whom they belonged—

which is even more striking given that Buddhists theoretically rejected the belief in a permanent

soul of any sort. In fact, Gregory Schopen indicates many texts about stūpas that show the

connection between the person’s “spirit” and their burial remains. These texts were known as

dhāraṇīs and could be seen as oral rituals used by Buddhists. They are quite similar to Hindu

mantras. One such example is the following:

Moreover, if someone were to write this dhāraṇī in the name of another (who is

deceased) and were to deposit it in a stūpa and earnestly worship it, then the deceased,

being freed (by that) from his unfortunate destiny, would be reborn in heaven. Indeed,

being reborn in the region of the Tuṣita gods, through the empowering of the Buddha he

would (never again) fall into an unfortunate destiny.24

This Tibetan translation from the Raśmivimalaviśuddhaprabhādhāraṇī shows that Buddhists

believed that praying to the remains of relatives kept within stūpas could provide salvation to the

24 Schopen, Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, 121.

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person within the stūpa. Another example, from the Sarvakarmāvaraṇaviśodhanidhāraṇī, shows

that a spirit can be sent to heaven even when it has already been reborn in a new physical form:

If one, reciting (this dhāraṇī) over earth or sesame or white mustard or water, were to

scatter it over the corpse, or if, having washed (the body), one afterwards were to cremate

it or deposit and preserve it in a stūpa, writing this dhāraṇī and attaching it to the top (or

head), then the deceased—although already reborn in an unfortunate destiny̲—being

freed, would without a doubt after seven days be reborn in a blessed heaven, or else he

would be reborn through the power of his own vow.25

The dhāraṇī shows that Buddhists believed that some sort of spiritual energy within the physical

remains of the body could affect the trajectory of the “person” that once dwelled within it. With

the modern misconception that cremation severs the tie between the physical and spiritual

aspects of the “self” in Buddhism, it would seem strange to believe that this practice was

inherently Buddhist, but the practice of using stūpas in order to connect with the dead was

commonplace two thousand years ago. Modern Buddhists still worship reliquary fragments of

the Buddha today, proving that the practice isn’t an outdated tradition.

Many Buddhists worshipped the Buddha’s burial remains after his death because they

were believed to be consecrated with his dharma. According to Aśvaghoṣa’s Life of the Buddha

(Buddhacarita), the Buddha’s body was initially cremated and separated into eight different

stūpas by eight kings from various regions in India. Then, the Maurya king Asóka allegedly took

the remnants from seven of those stūpas and distributed them to eighty thousand stūpas

throughout India.26 This statement in the Buddhacarita is reverberated in the Pāli version of the

Mahāparinibbāna-sutta as well:

Indeed, Ānanda, whosoever being engaged in visiting the shrines [stūpas] with a devout

mind dies, they all after the breakup of their body, after death, will be reborn in heaven.27

25 Schopen, 121. 26 Aśvaghoṣa; trans. Olivelle, Patrick; Life of the Buddha, 430-431. 27 Schopen, 118.

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The notion that being in the proximity of the Buddha’s remains could grant any Buddhist of

devout conscience into heaven was held as a guaranteed path to nirvana. This idea was believed

so much so that archaeological evidence from stupas sites in Gandhara often show many smaller

stūpas were built around large, single stūpas that contained relics from revered monks or relics

of the Buddha in order to grant those individuals salvation “by proximity.”

Schopen compares this idea to the Christian practice of burial ad sanctos, in which many

followers of saints would be buried next to them in anticipation of the Christian rapture that

insured all Christian followers would literally rise from the ground and enjoy “Heaven on

Earth.”28 The Christians that practiced burial ad sanctos believed that the closer they were to

these saints in proximity, the quicker they would come back to life. This practice sparked from

the idea that these saints would rise first after the second coming of Jesus Christ in order to aid

him in the rebuilding of this earthly Paradise.

From these examples, it can be showed that this mortuary theme was not isolated to the

Gandhara region or solely to the Buddhist religion. Rather, this was a global theme that was

practiced across time, space, and religious affiliation. The main conclusion to draw from this

practice is that even though Buddhists actively utilized cremation in their burial practices, they

still believed that spiritual energy emanated from the remnants of post-cremation bodily remains.

This ideological belief led to an engineering revolution that centered on the creation of intricate

and ornate stūpas that scattered the landscape. Over time, these stūpas were a source of artistic

creativity and building these extravagant monuments was the primary fundraising activity

associated with individual monasteries. Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks, for

example, correlates the expansion of Buddhist religion through the perpetuation of monetary

28 Schopen, 123.

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transactions along trade routes.29 The culture and traditions of Buddhism were perpetuated

through the web of trade routes throughout Gandhara and Asia as a whole. Many of the trade

routes served as passages for large amounts of goods from Asia to Europe and vice versa, so the

movement of Buddhism can be seen not only through the passage of Buddhist goods, but also

from markers along the routes. Many stūpas were found along the routes or atop high areas

overlooking trade routes. These stūpas were found with inscriptions in regions as far as Bactria.

The Peshawar Basin, in particular, has stūpas in high concentrations. The fact that the stūpa

panel has the story of the Buddha converting Hindu Brahmin ascetics carved into it may be an

indication that the individual whose remains were interred in the stūpa was a Hindu who

converted to Buddhism.

Technical/Visual Analysis

Following the literary and artifact analysis, the artifacts were processed using state-of-

the-art Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) technology and carefully examined with under the

Meiji Binocular Stereomicroscope for details on the composition, manufacturing method, and

usage of the objects. First, the artifacts were taken for PTM processing. A camera is centered

29 Neelis, Early Buddhist Transmissions and Trade Networks. 29 Schopen, Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, 121.

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atop a pre-constructed dome. The interior of the dome is surrounded by 32 different lights set at

precise angles and the artifact is placed inside the dome. Each light is turned on individually and

32 separate photos are taken of the artifact. All of the photos are then combined to provide a

“moving picture” of the artifact that can be artificially manipulated to show unique

characteristics of the artifacts that are not visible to the naked eye. After the PTMs were taken of

the artifacts, it was apparent that all of the artifacts were broken off of a larger artifact or

structure. This meant that they were not used individually as idols for ritualistic purposes.

Instead, they may have been used for decorative purposes within a home or temple. The fact that

the artifacts were part of a larger structure classified them as panels. The PTM also revealed that

they artifacts were meticulously carved from single blocks. This technique is known as a carved

relief. The final step was to check the composition of the artifacts. Using the Meiji Binocular

Stereomicroscope, an intense close-up of the artifacts revealed a unique structure of the rock

material.30 The enhanced image, when compared to Plate 2, an artifact with a known

composition of grey schist, revealed that the material used in all of the artifacts was identical.31

Through the three-stage method of literary, artifact, and scientific analysis, the artifacts

that were once unknown now have a proper identification as carved relief panels comprised of

grey schist. However, the most important discovery about the artifacts is the meaning that the

fabricators of the objects intended for them to have. The true pursuit of archaeology is to

understand the lives of humans in the past through the things that they leave behind. The

importance of collecting artifacts is to know how people in the past lived and what they valued.

Scientific analysis can provide new information that was not known previously, but the

30 Plate 10, Close-Up of USC Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9600. 31 Plate 2, “Birth of the Buddha”; New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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importance of literary text is still an incredibly useful tool in deciphering archaeological finds.

Because of Aśvaghoṣa’s contribution, the artifacts were revealed to be religious representations

used for decorative purposes within structures of their respective civilization.

Cross-Cultural Influences and Relic Veneration in the Hindu and Jain

Traditions

Relic worship is not solely characteristic of Buddhist religious practices and it should be

safe to assume that the notion of venerating and worshipping burial remains, whether physical or

symbolic, did not originate with the advent of the Buddhist religion. There is evidence that relic

worship took place in Hindu and Jain religious practices as well. Phyllis Granoff suggests that

relic worship was a cultural tradition that spanned across various religions within the area,

mainly Hinduism and Jainism.32 One specific example of a relic originating from religious

figures in Hinduism is the Hindu god Indra’s thunderbolt weapon, or vajra.33 The Mahābhārata

(3.98) explains that the sage Dadhīca sacrificed his body in order for the gods to fashion it into

Indra’s famous vajra. The Śiva linga, or phallic statue associated with the Hindu god, is directly

associated as a part of his body and is worshipped to promote fertility, among other things. The

highly venerated conch shell is said to have originated from the demon Śaṅkhacūḍa’s bones after

32Granoff, Phyllis; Relics, Rubies and Ritual. 33 Granoff, 61.

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Śiva slayed him and cast his bones into the ocean.34 Yet another account in the Puranas tells of

the story of the demon Bala and how his bodily remains created various precious objects after

Indra killed him.35 His nails became gold, his fat turned into crystal and emeralds, his teeth

became pearls, his tongue turned into coral, and his feces, semen, and urine morphed into bronze,

silver, and copper, respectively. All of these objects are used for various remedies and

apotropaic rituals in the Hindu tradition.

Peter Flugel also notes parallels in Jainism that provide explicit examples of relic worship

in contemporary Jain traditions.36 Although traditional Jain doctrine does not accept the concept

of venerating burial remains and material objects, there are many instances where the living

traditions of religions do not coincide with the written standards of their respective beliefs.

Flugel states that there has been a movement by certain sub-sects of Jains that have turned

toward the veneration of deceased teachers through constructing stūpas and interring their burial

remains within them.

There are three separate, unique beliefs toward relic worship in the Jain tradition. The

first type promotes the veneration of bone relics, both hidden and visible. This type of veneration

is comprised of worshipping burial remains of Jain saints. After the cremation of Jain saints, the

bones are gathered and preserved until they are interred under a funerary memorial, while the

remaining ashes are available to anyone who is interested in collecting them. Sometimes the

ashes are divided amongst close followers of the saint and are buried in separate locations. Many

elaborate shrines have been built to commemorate Jain saints in order to ascertain power from

their remains. The remains are also distributed to followers of the saints in wrapped paper

34 Granoff, 63. 35 Granoff, 65. 36 Flugel, Peter, Jains Relic Stūpas.

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satchels and also within metal amulets that can be worn on the followers’ bodies. The second

belief in the Jain tradition rejects the veneration of burial remains, but does allow the veneration

of contact objects, such as the clothing of Jain saints. There have also been accounts of

venerating the hair and clothing of living ascetics, so the Jain tradition has evidence of “remote

worshipping” by using these living relics. The final set of beliefs follows the traditional Jain

doctrine and rejects any type of veneration of human burial remains. The ashes are dispersed in

large rivers and bodies of water, such as the Ganges. This tradition is identical to the Hindu

tradition of dispersing human post-crematory remains in rivers. The concept of rejecting the

veneration of human remains is the mainstream ideology in Jain religious practices, while the

other two sets of beliefs are not practiced widely, but practiced nonetheless.

Conclusion

The artifacts in the USC ARC collection are likely to have been created in order to retell

the story of Siddhārtha Gautama, the Buddha, and distribute his message in a visual

interpretation. The narrative panels predate the written narrative by hundreds of years, and before

the story was written, it was passed along through oral tradition and visual depictions. The visual

interpretation of the story was vital to the livelihood of the religion because widespread illiteracy

made the written narrative unavailable to the vast majority of the population. These panels

adorned monasteries and other buildings related to Buddhism, as well as stūpas, which were

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above-ground reliquary panels used to inter ashes of Buddhist monks, the Buddha, and followers

of Buddhist religious practices.

It is safe to assume that stūpas would not have originated solely from Buddhism because

the tradition has ties in religions that pre-date the Buddhist practice by countless centuries. The

history of relic worship and stūpa creation is highly complex and cannot be directly attributed to

a single religion. Rather, the veneration and interring of physical and symbolic burial remains

have been used in various cultures throughout the Gandharan region. Stūpas were of vital

religious importance to Buddhist and Jain ritual practices. The veneration of bodily remains was

important in these religions, with Buddhism and Jainism following the veneration of physical

remains and Hinduism following the veneration of symbolic remains.

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Appendix A: Plates

Plate 1; H. 12.15 cm: “Birth of the Buddha” (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern

California Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9633).

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Plate 2; H. 16 cm: “Birth of the Buddha [Pakistan (ancient region of Gandhara, probably Takht-i-

Bahi)] (1987.417.1)”. Age: 2nd Century BCE – 3rd Century CE (Kushan Period). In Heilbrunn

Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1987.417.1 (April 2011).

Plate 3; H. 38.3 cm: Bronze spout in the form of a Corinthian column, [Roman (Imperial)]

(00.13.16). Age: 1st – 2nd Century CE. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/all/bronze_spout_in_the_form_of

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_a_corinthian_column/objectview.aspx?page=1&sort=6&sortdir=asc&keyword=CORINTHIAN

%20COLUMN&fp=1&dd1=0&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=0&OID=130007388&vT=1&hi=1&ov=

0 (April 2011).

Plate 4; H. 10.97 cm: “The Great Departure” (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern

California Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9609).

Plate 5; H. 144.2 cm: “Great Departure and the Temptation of the Buddha, [India (Andra

Pradesh, Nagarjunakonda)] (28.105)”. Age: 3rd Century CE. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art

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History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/28.105 (April 2011).

Plate 6; H. 9.81 cm: “Buddha with Attendants” (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern

California Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9629).

Plate 7; H. 16.51 cm: “Buddha Shakyamuni with Attendants [Pakistan (Gandhara Region)]”.

Age: 1st – 2nd Century CE. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, South and

Southeast Asian Art Department.

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http://collectionsonline.lacma.org/mwebcgi/mweb.exe?request=record;id=54342;type=101

(April 2011).

Plate 8; H. 11.0 cm: “The Visit to the Ascetic” (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern

California Archaeology Research Collection; Artifact # 9600).

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Plate 9; H. 41 cm “The Visit to the Ascetic [Pakistan (Gandhara Region)]”. Age: Unknown.

Peshawar: Peshawar Museum. In Pakistan: Les arts du Gandhara.

Plate 10; Close-Up of USC Archaeology Research Collection Artifact # 9600.

Appendix B: Maps

Map 1: Location of Ancient Gandhara; Modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

http://www.colonialvoyage.com/asia/it/images/foto1.jpg (April 2011).

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Map 2: Kushan Empire. Department of Asian Art. "Kushan Empire (2nd Century BCE – 3rd

Century CE)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of

Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kush/hd_kush.htm (April 2011).

Appendix C: Figures

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Figure A: Depiction of the radius, given the width and height of the object. Formula is R= (H/2)

+ (W2/8H).

Bibliography

Aśvaghoṣa. Life of the Buddha. Translated by Patrick Olivelle. New York: New York University

Press, 2008.

Brown, Kathryn Selig. "Life of the Buddha." New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art–.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/hd_buda.htm (April 2011).

Dodd, Lynn Swartz, interview by Parin Patel. Greek Influence in South Asian Art. April

7, 2011.

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Flugel, Peter. Jaina Relic Stūpas, Centre of Jaina Studies. Issue 3, March 2008.

Foucher, Alfred. L’art gréco-bouddigue du Gandhara. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1922.

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Neelis, Jason. Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange

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