Religious, Moral and Philosophical Studies...Buddhism is based on human experience and potential....

Religious, Moral andPhilosophical Studies

World Religions – Buddhism

[INTERMEDIATE 2;HIGHER]

Angela Brown

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Acknowledgement

Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National

Qualifications support programme for RMPS.

First published 2004

© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2004

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by

educational establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.

ISBN 1 84399 053 9

The Scottish Qualifications Authority regularly reviewsthe arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of allNQ support materials, whether published by LT Scotlandor others, are reminded that it is their responsibility tocheck that the support materials correspond to therequirements of the current arrangements.

© Learning and Teaching Scotland

RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H) i i i

CONTENTS

Staff notes v

Section 1: IntroductionBuddhism, an overview 1What does it mean to be human? 2Factfile – the human being 3

Section 2: The human conditionThe Three Universal Truths 5The Wheel of Life 8Dependent origination: cause and effect 11The Four Noble Truths 20

Section 3: The goalsKamma and skilful actions 23Nibbana 29

Section 4: The means 35The Three Jewels – The Buddha 36

The Dhamma 38The Sangha 41

The Noble Eightfold Path 47

Bibliography 59

Glossary 61


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H)i v


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H) v

STAFF NOTES

Introduction

The student materials contained in this pack have been written tosupport the study of Buddhism in the World Religions unit at Higherand Intermediate 2 levels. Tutors who intend to present students forcertification in these units must read the relevant national unitspecifications and statements of standards before using these materials.

The materials are divided into three sections to reflect the organisingprinciples in the World Religions unit. Each section also has a number ofsub-divisions which explore the content relevant to each organisingprinciple at Higher level. Those teaching Buddhism at Intermediate 2level may wish their students to work through all the materials but placeless emphasis on an in-depth study of certain aspects of the content.Others may wish to adapt the materials by removing some sections. Thisis a matter for each individual’s professional judgement. Tutors shouldread the national unit specifications and statements of standards beforedeciding on this issue. These give a clear indication of the differencesbetween the Higher and Intermediate 2 unit.

Comments on content

Each section contains the following:

• Student information• Student activities• Suggestions for further research• Suggestions for further reading.

The student information provides an introduction to the sources, beliefsand practices to be studied in this unit. It is very important that tutorsdiscourage students from relying exclusively on this information: itshould be emphasised that an appropriate depth and breadth ofknowledge will only be acquired through wider reading and research.Tutors should supplement the information with additional textual,internet and audiovisual resources.

Visiting speakers from the Buddhist community could be invited to talkto students. This could help to bring the information ‘alive’. It couldalso help students to fully understand how the Buddhist faith influencesthe lives of its members in contemporary Scottish society.


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS –BUDDHISM (INT 2, H)v i

STAFF NOTES

There is a variety of suggested student activities. Some activities aredesigned to help develop knowledge and understanding of theBuddhist faith. Other activities help students to engage with, and reflectupon, the sources, beliefs and practices they study. Tutors may wish touse all the suggested activities as they appear; or they may adapt them tosuit the needs of the students in their classes. Alternatively, tutors maywish to develop their own activities. The approach taken is a matter forthe professional judgement of each tutor based on his or her knowledgeof the students studying the unit.

The suggestions for further research and reading are included to helpstudents deepen their understanding of the Buddhist faith. They willalso help tutors who wish to encourage their students to take someresponsibility for their own learning by developing investigative skills.Additional suggestions may be added by the tutor to reflect theresources available.


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H) v i i

STAFF NOTES

Approaches to learning and teaching

Each tutor has her or his own preferred approaches and strategies forproviding a positive learning experience to students. Students also havetheir own individual learning styles. For this reason care has been takento give examples of a wide variety of activities in the student activitiessections. However, the examples provided are not exhaustive and a listof all the suggested activities which appear in the Higher andIntermediate 2 course guidelines is given below:

• tutor presentations of information• tutor-led ‘question-and-answer’ sessions• individual study which is reinforced by structured questions• individual, group or paired work which is focused on the retrieval of

information (e.g. text, video or internet research accompanied by alist of predetermined questions)

• individual, group or paired work which is focused on expressingopinions, beliefs and values in relation to a set topic – ‘controversial’statements may be used as a stimulus for discussion

• feedback sessions from individual, group or paired work whichinvolve recording information, ideas, opinions and conclusions

• multiple-choice questions – these may be attempted individually, inpairs or in groups; they could be approached in the manner of a‘formative assessment’, ‘quiz’, ‘match-up’ or ‘arranging under thecorrect headings’ exercise

• ‘true or false’ activities which require the individual, group or pair togive reasons for the choice of answer

• visits by external speakers which involve both ‘presentation’ and‘feedback’

• structured debates in which candidates are required to propose oroppose a motion which may not be in agreement with their personalviews

• visits to information centres, places of worship, community centres orexternal debates

• homework exercises which are designed to reinforce or extend theactivities in the classroom or lecture theatre

• structured individual, group or paired study of sources• attempting ‘past paper’ questions individually or in groups or pairs• feedback from unit assessments which highlights the ‘achievements’

and ‘next steps’ for each student.


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS –BUDDHISM (INT 2, H)viii

STAFF NOTES

Students should also be given frequent opportunities to discuss andreflect upon their own experiences, beliefs and values. This will ensurethat the study of Buddhism makes a significant contribution to eachstudent’s personal and social development.

Further reading

A list of resources which will help tutors to increase their ownknowledge of the Buddhist faith appears at the end of this guide. Someof the suggested resources may also be suitable for use with students.


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H) 1

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1

Buddhism – an overview

Buddhism is named after the title given to its founder, SiddhattaGautama – the Buddha. He was born in Kapilavastu in Northern India inabout 563 BCE and died at the age of 80 in about 483 BCE. The exactdates are unknown to us, but all we need to know is that he lived forabout eighty years sometime between the sixth and eighth centuriesBCE.

The religion of Buddhism was spread from India to Sri Lanka andThailand by its early followers. The form of Buddhism that exists inthese countries today is known as Theravada (the Teachings of theElders) and resembles the earliest forms of the religion. Buddhism itselfdied out in India for many centuries although it has now regainedpopularity with some groups of Indians who have rejected the castesystem of Hinduism.

These support materials are based on the teachings found within theTheravadist tradition. Where they look at adaptations, explanations willbe given.

When this tradition of Buddhism was taken into Northern Asia itunderwent many adaptations, as it tried to make itself relevant to thepeople living in the different areas. Buddhism spread into China,Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, Bhutan and Tibet. Today thisBuddhism is referred to as Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and containsmany different branches or schools, including Pure Land, NichirenShosu, Yoga Cara, Zen Tendai and Tibetan. This last school is sometimesconsidered to be a different form of Buddhism in its own right and iscalled Vajrayana (or Thunderbolt Vehicle).

Buddhism became more widely known in the west during the twentiethcentury. Members of many of the different schools of Buddhism nowhave established links with western countries and have attracted newfollowers. Two of the best known communities in Britain are theTheravada Forest Hermitage viharas in Warwickshire, Middlesex andHampshire and the Samye Ling Tibetan vihara in Eskdalemuir,Dumfriesshire. In addition, the formation of the Friends of the WesternBuddhist Order by Sangarasita – a British-born Theravada-ordainedmonk – has made the teachings and practices of Buddhism easier for


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H)2

INTRODUCTION

many western people to understand, and to follow. FWBO communitiesexist throughout Britain.

Buddhism is now an international religion with over 300 millionfollowers worldwide.

What does it mean to be human?

In this pack we are going to look at some of the answers that a Buddhistmight give to this question. Before we do, it will be helpful to thinkabout your own ideas and your experiences of what it is like to be ahuman being. We are all different in many ways – we look different, havedifferent lives and experiences – but we all have the commonexperience of living a human life.

Activity 1

Think about, discuss and record your class’s ideas and answers to thesequestions:

(a) Where does human life come from?

(b) What different things make up a human being?

(c) What makes human life happy and enjoyable?

(d) What makes human life unhappy and difficult?

(e) What do human beings need for survival?

Activity 2

Take a note of all the different ideas you discussed in the previousactivity and review them before completing this exercise.

(a) Circle all the ideas which you think help to describe what it is liketo be a human being.

(b) Use these ideas to help you make up your own ‘profile’ of a humanbeing.

You could present your ideas as a piece of writing, a poem or use themto complete the factfile on the next page.



INTRODUCTION

Factfile – The human being

1. The origins of human life:

2. The different parts of ahuman being:

3. The things which make lifehappy and enjoyable:

4. The things which make lifeunhappy and difficult:

5. The essentials for humansurvival:



THE HUMAN CONDITION

Buddhism is unique among world religions as there is no belief in apersonal God. Buddhism is based on human experience and potential.Buddhism teaches a way of life that avoids extremes. It offers ‘a MiddleWay’ between a life of self-indulgence and a life of self-denial. So in placeof belief in an actual God, Buddhism concentrates on the actions of theindividual person.

Buddhists believe that all existence is dependent upon conditions – inother words, that nothing can exist in isolation. For example, a fishcannot survive without water and a human cannot survive without air tobreathe.

Buddha taught that there are three conditioned marks of existence.These are also known as the Three Universal Truths, and they are calledAnicca, Anatta and Dukkha.

Consider this body! A painted puppet with jointed limbs, sometimessuffering and covered with ulcers, full of imaginings, never permanent,forever changing.

This body is decaying! A nest of diseases, a heap of corruption, bound todestruction, to dissolution. All life ends in death.

Look at these grey-white dried bones, like dried empty gourds thrown awayat the end of the summer. Who will feel joy in looking at them?

A house of bones is this body, bones covered with flesh and with blood.Pride and hypocrisy dwell in this house and also old age and death.

The glorious chariots of kings wear out, and the body wears out and growsold; but the virtue of the good never grows old, and thus they can teach thegood to those who are good.

If a man tries not to learn he grows old just like an ox! His body indeedgrows old but his wisdom does not grow.

I have gone round in vain the cycles of many lives ever striving to find thebuilder of the house of life and death. How great is the sorrow of life thatmust die! But now I have seen thee, housebuilder: never more shalt thou

SECTION 2



THE HUMAN CONDITION

build this house. The rafters of sins are broken, the ridge-pole of ignoranceis destroyed. The fever of craving is past: for my mortal mind is gone to thejoy of the immortal NIRVANA.

Those who in their youth did not live in self-harmony, and who did not gainthe true treasures of life, are later like long-legged old herons standing sadby a lake without fish.

Those who in their youth did not live in self-harmony, and who did not gainthe true treasures of life, are later like broken bows, ever deploring oldthings past and gone.

Source: Dhammapada 147–156

The first mark of conditioned existence is Anicca, which means thateverything is constantly changing. Anything that has a beginning will notstay permanently the same or fixed forever. Even the conditions thatcause things to come into existence are not fixed forever. Theyconstantly change too.

Buddhists believe that impermanence is what life is all about. Nothing ispermanent because everything is constantly changing. Human beingsfind this difficult to understand and so have a false sense of permanencewhich only leads to ‘unsatisfactoriness’.

To try to make sense of this concept think about what you have donetoday. In how many different places have you been? How many peoplehave you spoken to? How many changes have you made to yourappearance since you woke up? How many absolutely identical days haveyou experienced? If that seems like a lot of changes then multiply it bythe number of days in your life!

It is not just our lives which are constantly changing but everythingaround us. Some things move so quickly they appear to be permanentwhile others change so slowly they appear to stay the same. Look at theexamples of a stream and a mountain. The stream is a constantly movingflow of water; so it appears to be one constant object but it is, in fact,composed of many different drops of water. The mountain changes too,due to erosion, but this happens over so many years that it appears toremain the same.

Most people want to see the world as an unchanging place. Whenanything good happens people want it to last for ever, but whensomething bad happens they complain about the experience and long



THE HUMAN CONDITION

for it to end. Neither experience will last for ever; but it appears thatway to many people.

The Buddha realised that impermanence was the key to a properunderstanding of the human condition. If people could understand this,they would have less suffering in their lives. By refusing to see this,people continue to be attached to things which only lead todisappointment and suffering when the things change.

Buddhist teachers emphasise the need not to get too attached topleasures as they do not last and can lead to suffering.

The second mark of conditioned existence is Anatta, which means thatif everything is subject to constant change there can be no such thing asan individual or separate self.

In relation to human beings, the concept of Anicca must be seen inconjunction with Anatta. Unlike other religions Buddhism centresaround the belief that, since nothing is permanent, there can be noimmortal self (soul). Human beings are made up of five skandhas, orbundles of impermanent existence – body, feeling, sensations, mentalformations and consciousness. If we take each skandha and examine itcarefully the lack of permanence becomes clear. The physical bodychanges from the moment of conception to the moment of death. Thesame is true of an individual’s feelings and perceptions. So what you callyourself is not a permanent entity but rather an association of past ideaswith present thoughts and feelings.

In the Buddhist scriptures – in The Questions of King Milinda (a Greekking of the second century) – Nagasena explains the concept of Anattaby using the metaphor of a chariot to explain how the skandhas, makethe appearance of a Self but are not a Self. He asks the king to explainwhat part is the actual chariot and when he cannot do this Nagasenaclaims that there is no chariot. King Milinda explains that the concept ofa chariot depends on all the parts and not just on each individual part.

Buddhists of course understand that there are two levels of truth whenit comes to accepting Anatta. On an everyday level it is convenient totalk about my ‘self’ and your ‘self’, because the human brain needscategories in order to make sense of what is being experienced.However, on an ultimate level, there is no such thing as ‘self’ sinceeverything is interconnected with everything else!



THE HUMAN CONDITION

The third mark of conditioned existence is Dukkha, which meanssuffering. There is a general unsatisfactoriness about life because itchanges, and we change also. Because we exist, we suffer.

We see, and are part of, suffering in everyday life. We grow old, we aresubject to illness, and eventually we die. We watch loved ones do thesame. We also see the sufferings of other individuals in the situations ofwar, poverty and famine.

We also suffer because everything is subject to change or impermanence– Anicca. Good things cannot last. Take the example of the simplepleasurable experience of eating chocolate. The pleasure is there as weeat it, but is the pleasure still there an hour later?

Finally we suffer because of our human limitations. We do not have theanswer to everything, even though we may seek it. We do not knowwhat our future holds for us, even though we may want to know.

Buddhism teaches that there are three mental poisons or fires whichlead to continued suffering – greed, hatred (tanha) and ignorance(avidya).

Buddhists believe that this conditioned existence is endless. It is oftendepicted as a cycle, the Cycle of Samsara, or the Wheel of Life, whichshows the distorted image that humans have of reality. We fail to seethings as they really are. Buddhists say that we therefore experience lifefrom a standpoint of ignorance – and it is with ignorance that the Wheelof Life begins and continues.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

Student activities

1. Why is Buddhism unique amongst world religions?

2. What do Buddhists mean when they say that all existence isdependent upon conditions?

3. What are the three marks of conditioned existence?

4. Copy and complete the following passage. Unscramble the wordsunderlined as you go along.

Buddhists believe that there are three marks of neconiotiddexistence. These are anicca, tanata and dukkha. The first is anicca,which asnem impermanence. Everything that we know stycantonlchanges. We too change. We do not stay the meas and as suchthere can be no such thing as an vidinualid and separate self. Thisis the second mark of stexiceen – anatta. Finally, since humans failto sareeli and accept that this is the way the drowl really is then wesuffer. This is the third kram – dukkha. There is a generalstorunnessifactias about life because it changes and we change also.Because we exist we ruffes.

5. In the Buddhist scriptures, Nagasena uses the analogy of a chariotto explain the concept of Anatta. Do you think this is an effectiveanalogy? Give reasons for your answer.

6. Take each of the five skandhas and explain how each of themconstantly changes. You may illustrate your answer with drawingsand diagrams.

7. Can you give any arguments to support the idea that there is anindividual self?

8. Do you agree with Buddhists when they say that there is a generalunsatisfactoriness about life because it changes, and we alsochange? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Do you think that the three marks of existence are a pessimistic ora realistic way of looking at life? Give reasons for your answer.


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H)1 0

THE HUMAN CONDITION

Further research

• Sunyata• The story of Kisagotami• Nagasena• King Milinda• The five skandhas.

There are suggestions for websites and other sources on page 60.

Further reading

Buddhist Scriptures, by E Conze: pages 146–151


RMPS: WORLD RELIGIONS – BUDDHISM (INT 2, H) 1 1

THE HUMAN CONDITION

Dependent origination: cause and effect

Remember that, according to Buddha, each thing originates because ofanother thing that has gone before it. Things have existence but they arenot permanent or eternal. We exist – this is not an illusion. However, tothink that we are eternal and have a separate core self is an illusion.

Material and mental things have causes and this chain of becoming isconstant. Your experiences result from a series of causes and effects thatbegin in your mind. Dependent origination was a means for the Buddhato teach his followers how they are agents of their own fortune, and howthe Noble Eightfold Path offers them a way to free themselves fromsuffering.

Dependent origination is very often depicted as a wheel of life. It is asymbolic representation of what life is really like. It is not meant to beinterpreted literally. At the centre of the wheel of life are the threemental poisons or flames which fuel this samsaric cycle – greed, hatredand ignorance. They are usually depicted as a cock, a snake and a pigbiting each other’s tails to show that they feed off each other.

The two circles beyond the centre show the Six Realms. These are:

1. The realm of the gods – devasThese beings live a life of luxury and pleasure and want fornothing. They are not gods in the sense of, for example, theChristian, Jewish or Islamic concept of god.

2. The realm of asurasThese are usually called angry gods: gods who would like theposition of devas and will go out of their way to get what theywant.

3. The realm of pretasThese are called hungry ghosts. They are constantly hungry andthirsty. They never feel full no matter how much they have beengiven. They can never be satisfied.

4. The animal realmConsciousness here is not as great as within the human realm.Ignorance is greater. Animals hunt and kill. They prey on eachother to survive.

5. The human realm6. The realm of hells

This is the exact opposite of the devas.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

Finally, the outer ring depicts the twelve links or nidanas which showhow cause and effect create continual rebecoming. It shows why thewhole Wheel of Samsara keeps turning.

Outside the wheel stands the Buddha pointing to the moon, whichsymbolises freedom – nibbana. The wheel is held by a formidable masterwith three eyes, fangs and a crown of skulls. He is called Yama, the Lordof Death, who has ultimate control over the fate of those who live insamsara. Their lives are conditioned through their ignorance to seereality as it really is.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

In the next few pages you are going to look at the twelve links ofdependent arising, or interdependent origination. This is the outercircle of the Wheel of Life depicted on the previous page.

1. Ignorance – A blind man hobbling along

This is shown as a feeble blind manstumbling from one difficulty to another.He can’t see where he is going because heis blinded by his own ignorance. He iscompletely mistaken about the way thingsreally are – being unaware that nothing ispermanent including the self. He is feeblebecause, although ignorance can have apowerful hold over people (and ignoranceis seen as the source of all suffering), it canbe overcome by wisdom.

2. Predispositions (kammic formations)– A potter at his wheel

From the standpoint of ignorance youengage in actions of body, speech andmind. All of these have kammicconsequences, not just now but in thefuture too. All of these shape a new lifejust like the potter takes a lump of clayand creates a new pot.

3. Consciousness – A monkey scampering up a tree

Consciousness arises from intentional activities.Consciousness remains after the death of the physicalbody unless it is ended with liberation – nibbana at thepoint of death. The monkey climbing up and down thetree symbolises the movement from one life to thenext.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

4. Name and form – Two people carried in a boat

From consciousness come names and forms. Name andform refer to the newly conceived being’s embryonicmind and body. One traveller stands for ‘Name’, themental consciousness that is coming from a previous lifeto join the sperm and egg. The other traveller symbolises‘Form’, the small embryo that will grow into the newbody for this consciousness.

5. Sensations – An empty house

From names, forms and consciousness come thesenses – sight, sound, smell, taste, touch andmental activity. They are shown as an emptyhouse because at this point the senses are notfunctioning: complete on the outside but emptyon the inside.

6. Contact – A man and woman embracing

The senses develop – seeing things,hearing things, smelling things, tastingthings, touching things and mentalactivity. Naturally they do not all developat the same time. This is shown as a manand woman embracing or kissing tosymbolise the initial contact that happensto each of the senses in order to begin todevelop.

7. Feeling – A person with an arrow in his eye

Through contact with external things(seeing, hearing, smelling, touching,tasting and mental activity), feelingsand emotions begin. These feelingsand emotions include things like pain,pleasure, love, hatred, likes anddislikes. Feelings and emotions createattachments or aversions to things inthe world.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

In this link you will receive the results of previous kamma and you willalso produce kamma which will have results in the future. Kamma hasconsequences although not always apparent and immediate.An arrow sticking in a person’s eye shows the immediacy of an actionand a consequence.

8. Craving – A person drinking alcohol

Feelings create cravings. When you experiencepleasure you want it to continue. You seek furtherpleasure. When you experience pain you want it tostop and you try to avoid it.A person drinking alcohol symbolises this link asyou seek pleasurable experiences to make you feelgood and try to separate yourself from badexperiences. This is a powerful addiction. It has ahold over you. You are compelled to act this way.

9. Attachment (grasping) – A monkey snatching fruit

From cravings come attachments. You attach toideas and objects in the world and how theymake you feel. You cling to desires to have andto hold or avoid and escape from. These are notthought-out actions, they are the automaticresponse of craving and grasping that you havebeen accustomed to throughout your life. Themonkey snatching fruit symbolises that: as yourdesire grows, you tend to grasp at pleasurableobjects, just as a monkey snatches at fruit.

10. Being (becoming) – A pregnant woman

From the attachments come being or becoming. Asyour craving and grasping increase in strengththroughout your life, rebirth or rebecoming is assured.All of this is leading to the next life coming intoexistence; it is almost like kammic seeds being planted.A pregnant woman symbolises this new life.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

11. Birth (rebirth/rebecoming) – A woman givingbirth

Birth arises from the previous link. The kammicseeds come to fruition. Your dying consciousness,clinging to life and wanting new life, and yourkamma are pushed into a new life.

12. Ageing and death – A person carrying a corpse

From rebirth or birth comes thewhole experience again. Fromignorance you are forced to carry theburden of unwanted suffering. Aperson carrying a corpse symbolisescarrying this burden.Remember birth will be in one of thesix realms.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

Student activities

For activities 1 and 2 students should try not to refer to their notes.

1. Collect a series of pictures of the twelve links or nidanas. Arrangethem into the correct order. Check with your tutor that you havegot this correct.Now glue the correctly ordered pictures onto sheets of A4 paper.Write an explanation of each link beside the appropriate picture.

2. Collect a picture of an empty wheel of life. Add in as muchinformation and detail as you can. You may discuss your answerswith your partner(s).

3. Do you agree or disagree with Buddha that we are agents of ourown fortune? Give reasons for your answer.

4. What kinds of people do you think the six realms are describing?Which do you think describes you and your situation? Give reasonsfor your answer.

5. It is sometimes thought that Yama is holding up the wheel like amirror to us. When we look at it we see our reflection. Do youthink this is a good analogy? Give reasons for your answer.

Further research

• Cause and effect• The wheel of life – variety of depictions• Jakata tales• Samsara• The six realms within Tibetan Buddhism.

Further reading

Buddhist Scriptures, by E Conze: pages 19–33 – Buddha’s previous lives;pages 146–51 – The questions of King Milinda;pages 186–9 – Wisdom



THE HUMAN CONDITION



THE HUMAN CONDITION

The Four Noble Truths

At the end of the last section we began to look at dukkha, or suffering,which is part of what Buddhists call the Four Noble Truths.

1. All living beings suffer – dukkha.

2. This suffering is caused by craving and attachment to things –tanha.

3. Suffering can be overcome – nibbana.

4. The way to achieve this is by following the Noble Eightfold Path –magga.

A common Buddhist analogy is to illness and medicine. A doctoridentifies the illness, diagnoses why the patient has the illness, and thenoffers a cure by prescribing a medicine.

• Buddha is the doctor who makes the diagnosis – dukkha.• The illness is craving, or tanha.• The cure is nibbana.• The prescription is the Noble Eightfold Path.

We are now going to look at the second noble truth – craving, or tanha.

If a man watches not for NIRVANA, his cravings grow like a creeper and hejumps from death to death like a monkey in the forest from one tree withoutfruit to another.

And when his cravings overcome him, his sorrows increase more and more,like the entangling creeper called birana.

But whoever in this world overcomes his selfish cravings, his sorrows fallaway from him, like drops of water from a lotus flower.

Therefore in love I tell you, to you all who have come here: Cut off the bondsof desires, as the surface grass creeper called birana is cut for its fragrantroot called usira. Be not like a reed in a stream which MARA, the devil oftemptation, crushes again and again.

Just as a tree, though cut down, can grow again and again if its roots areundamaged and strong, in the same way if the roots of craving are notwholly uprooted sorrows will come again and again.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

When the thirty-six streams of desire that run towards pleasures are strong,their powerful waves carry away that man without vision whose imaginingsare lustful desires.

Everywhere flow the streams. The creeper of craving grows everywhere. Ifyou see the creeper grow, cut off its roots by the power of wisdom.

The sensuous pleasures of men flow everywhere. Bound for pleasures andseeking pleasures men suffer life and old age.

Men who are pursued by lust run around like hunted hares. Held in fettersand in bonds they suffer and suffer again.


Buddha said that the unsatisfactoriness we experience is caused bycraving, or tanha. All suffering and unsatisfactoriness comes from ourneed to attach to things. For example, we need to examine ourexpectations of material items like that new fashion garment, or thelatest electronic gadget: or our expectations of a new emotionalrelationship with someone.

It is not the desire for these things which is wrong, it is the expectationswe place on them, because we assume that having them will lead topermanent happiness.

How long before the garment wears out or tears? How soon before thegadget is no longer state of the art? In that new relationship, does thatinitial feeling of love or lust endure?

Remember Buddhists believe that our view of reality derives from astandpoint of ignorance. We fail to see things as they really are –impermanent and changing. Because of this mind-set of ignorance webecome attached, and therefore we try constantly to fulfil our desires.We have an addiction to worldly life. This keeps us tied to Samsara.

Craving creates more craving, and the craving derives from the threemental poisons of greed, hatred and ignorance. These three are alsolikened to flames which fuel this endless Cycle of Samsara.



THE HUMAN CONDITION

Student activities

1. Make a list of four things that make you happy and four things thatmake you unhappy. Explain from a Buddhist point of view whythese things will not make you permanently happy and unhappy.

2. Describe your understanding of the Buddhist teaching on cravingor tanha. When was the last time you felt like this and why?

3. List six sufferings which you can see in the world. Beside each onewrite down what you think causes it. Also give a Buddhist responseto each.

Suffering Cause Buddhist response

Further research

• The Four Noble Truths• The three yanas.



THE GOALS

SECTION 3

Kamma and skilful actions

Kamma means action. Kamma is described by Buddha as the law ofeffects following from causes. It is a natural law, not a moral one.

What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our presentthoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind. If aman speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheelof the cart follows the beast that draws the cart.

What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our presentthoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind. If aman speaks or acts with a pure mind, joy follows him as his own shadow.

‘He insulted me, he hurt me, he defeated me, he robbed me.’ Those whothink such thoughts will not be free from hate.

For hate is not conquered by hate: hate is conquered by love. This is a laweternal.

Many do not know that we are here in this world to live in harmony. Thosewho know this do not fight against each other.

He who lives only for pleasures, and whose soul is not in harmony, whoconsiders not the food he eats, is idle and has not the power of virtue – sucha man is moved by MARA, is moved by selfish temptations, even as a weaktree is shaken by the wind.

But he who lives not for pleasures, and whose soul is in self-harmony, whoeats or fasts with moderation, and has faith and the power of virtue – thisman is not moved by temptations, as a great rock is not shaken by thewind.

If a man puts on the pure yellow robe with a soul which is impure, withoutself-harmony and truth, he is not worthy of the holy robe.

But he who is pure from sin and whose soul is strong in virtue, who has self-harmony and truth, he is worthy of the holy robe.



THE GOALS

Those who think the unreal is, and think the Real is not, they shall neverreach the Truth, lost in the path of wrong thought.

But those who know the Real is, and know the unreal is not, they shallindeed reach the Truth, safe on the path of right thought.

Even as rain breaks through an ill-thatched house, passions will breakthrough an ill-guarded mind.

But even as rain breaks not through a well-thatched house, passions will notbreak through a well-guarded mind.


Buddhists believe that our consciously chosen actions haveconsequences. If you behave in a certain way with certain intentionsthen results will follow. If you behave in a compassionate and beneficialway driven by positive motivations or intentions then the results will bepositive too. If you behave in the opposite manner, then your resultswill be negative. Every intentional deed is like a seed waiting to develop.

The consequences of kamma do not necessarily follow straight away.The results may occur later in your life or indeed in a future life.Therefore the intentions which drive your actions are very important.Like throwing a stone into a pond, this will create ripples. The ripplescontinue until the effects of the impact of throwing the stone into thepond stop. Similarly, the effects created by our intentionally chosenactions will continue until they are exhausted.

The Buddha stressed that we are agents of our own experience. Goodactions, which are often described as skilful actions, will lead to goodconsequences or results. Bad actions, which are often described asunskilful actions, will lead to bad consequences or results.

A skilful action is sometimes called punna which means fortunate –something that will bring merit and therefore accumulate positivekamma. Three kinds of action which will bring merit are:

• moral conduct (sila)• meditation (bhavana)• charity (dana).



THE GOALS

Again the effects may be experienced in this birth, or maybe in a futureone.

Births and deaths are but moments in an endless cycle. All living beingsare links in this chain, not just human beings. However, humans aremore fortunate in having the intelligence to reach the spiritualunderstanding – nibbana – which ends kamma forever. Buddha tried tomake the difficult concept of rebecoming without a permanent identityeasier to understand by using everyday things as examples. For example,a drop of water taken from a river may seem to have a separate existenceor life. If it is returned to the river and another drop taken out – is thisthe same drop? We know that it is not even although it is made up ofidentical ingredients. The idea of rebecoming follows the same pattern –it is not the same identity that is ‘reborn’. It may seem identical but it isnot.

Past experiences significantly affect how you experience your present.However, they are not the only factor. Buddha taught that you would bewrong to think that the causes of your present happiness or sufferingwere:

• entirely related to past kamma• the will of the gods• uncontrollable, determined by luck or fate.

The present effects of negative kamma will depend on the qualities ofthe individual. Remember everything is subject to an ongoing process ofchange. Human beings have free will to act in the way that they choose.Buddhists do not believe that life is just a matter of fate.

Why do Buddhists generally refer to actions as either skilful or unskilful,rather than as good or bad? There are several reasons for this. Firstly,actions are related to the person who is performing them. What mightbe right for one person, might be wrong for another. Secondly, theintention of a person’s action must be taken into account. Did theymean to speak, act or think in that manner? Thirdly, all actions haveconsequences and therefore can be judged to see whether they willproduce positive or negative kamma.

Unskilful actions would spring from greed, hatred or ignorance, thethree mental poisons. These fuel the samsaric cycle. Whereas skilfulactions will come from love, generosity and wisdom. Skilful actions aredeveloped by following the Noble Eightfold Path.



THE GOALS

Using skilful means (upaya kausala) is about knowing what is the bestthing to do in a particular situation. This may mean setting aside theprecepts, which we will be looking at later on in the unit, in order toachieve a better goal or result, and by acting for the greater good.

No two people are the same so guidelines will be interpreted differentlyaccording to each situation. Remember: Buddhists do not follow rules.The guidelines which they choose to adhere to are pointers to a way oflife that removes suffering.

If people use their skill they will be guided rather than just blindlyfollowing rules. For a Buddhist the intention behind an action isimportant. This is called skill-in-means. An example of skill-in-meanscomes from the Lotus Sutra – The Parable of the Burning House:

A father owns an old house which catches fire while he is out. He can hearhis children inside the house playing and unaware that the house is on fire.The children do not hear their father calling them, alerting them to thedanger and telling them to get out of the house. They are too busy andcaught up in playing. The father then shouts to the children that he hasspecial carts of different kinds for each of them and if they want them thenthey have to come out of the house to get them.

The children run out of the burning house and find the carts. However, thecarts are all the same, but far better than they expected.

The burning house can be likened to the samsaric world which we areignorantly tied to, like the children. The father is like the Buddha who,by using skilful means, finds a way to get the children out of a dangeroussituation. The Buddha’s skill-in-means is shown in the ability to adapt histeachings to his particular audience.



THE GOALS

Student activities

1. What do Buddhists believe about our consciously chosen actions?Highlight your answer with examples of actions and consequences.

2. Why do you think that the consequences of kamma do not alwaysfollow immediately? Give an example which would show this.

3. Explain what a Buddhist understands by ‘skilful means’. Give asdetailed an answer as possible.

4. How significant is past kamma on a Buddhist’s present life? Givereasons for your answer.

5. Make a list of all actions that you have performed today. List themin the table below and decide whether these actions haveproduced positive, negative or neutral results/kamma.

Action Positive Negative Neutral



THE GOALS

6. Choose six actions from your list and explain why they haveproduced positive, negative or neutral results/kamma. Also,consider how you could have done things differently.

7. Do you think a Buddhist would buy a ticket for the NationalLottery? Give reasons for your answer.

Further research

• The laws of conservation of matter / energy• Kamma• The Lotus Sutra• Skilful means.

Further reading

Buddhist Scriptures, by E Conze:pages 146–162 – The questions of King Milinda



THE GOALS

Nibbana

Buddha taught that the only way to get rid of unsatisfactoriness is to getrid of craving. We must remove the craving which causes us to think andact in a way that accumulates negative kamma. The only way to removethis and end suffering is to achieve a state of enlightenment – nibbana.This is the third noble truth.

Then, as the third watch of that night drew on, the supreme master of tranceturned his meditation to the real and essential nature of this world: ‘Alas,living beings wear themselves out in vain! Over and over again they areborn, they age, die, pass on to a new life, and are reborn! What is more,greed and dark delusion obscure their sight, and they are blind from birth.Greatly apprehensive, they yet do not know how to get out of this greatmass of ill.’ He then surveyed the twelve links of conditioned co-production,and saw that, beginning with ignorance, they lead to old age and death,and, beginning with the cessation of ignorance, they lead to the cessation ofbirth, old age, death, and all kinds of ill.

When the great seer had comprehended that where there is no ignorancewhatever, there also the karma-formations are stopped – then he hadachieved a correct knowledge of all there is to be known, and he stood outin the world as a Buddha. He passed through the eight stages of Transicinsight, and quickly reached their highest point. From the summit of theworld downwards he could detect no self anywhere. Like the fire, when itsfuel is burnt up, he became tranquil. He had reached perfection, and hethought to himself:’This is the authentic Way on which in the past so manygreat seers, who also knew all higher and all lower things, have travelled onto ultimate and real truth. And now I have obtained it!’

Source: The Legend of the Buddha Shakyamuni, 12.3 Buddhist Scriptures

Nibbana is the term that describes the goal of Buddhists. It is the end ofcraving and the unsatisfactoriness it causes. The state of Nibbanaextinguishes the flames of greed, hatred and ignorance. Nibbana is hardto describe because it is an experience beyond the impermanent natureof words. It does not depend on anything and therefore has nobeginning or end. It is not a place but a state of mind. The Buddhistfable where the turtle tries to explain to the fish what dry land is like isused to show how Nibbana must be experienced to be fully understood.The fish asks if dry land is like anything he has experienced and whenthe turtle tells him that it is not, the fish doubts if dry land exists.



THE GOALS

The concept of Nibbana is often referred to in the Dhamma by anexplanation of what it is not, rather than what it is.

In the Buddhist Scriptures, in the Questions of King Milinda (the Greekking of the second century), Nagasena explains to the King that Nibbanacan only be fully understood by experiencing the state yourself.Nagasena compares Nibbana to the wind. It cannot be seen or touchedbut it can be experienced and you can see the effects that it has on thosewho experience it. Nibbana is not made or produced or subject toconditions. It is something that can only be experienced by someonethrough his or her own personal effort, once that person has purifiedhis or her mind and has become an enlightened person.

Within the Theravada tradition, Buddhists believe that Nibbana isachievable by following the Dhamma (Buddhist teachings) and throughindividual effort.

For Theravada Buddhists, the path to enlightenment is the one of thearhat. Arhat means ‘worthy of respect’. By following the Middle Path anindividual can learn how to get rid of the craving that leads tounsatisfactoriness and become enlightened.

Theravada Buddhists believe that the path to nibbana is one that takesmany lifetimes to achieve. This is because kamma that increasesattachment to Samsara is accumulated gradually. Similarly getting rid ofattachment can only be achieved gradually; therefore it will take manylifetimes to achieve Nibbana.

There are four stages on a person’s road to enlightenment andbecoming an arhat during which Nibbana can gradually becomeunderstood and experienced. In the first stages of enlightenment(sotapanna), the person attains right understanding but is still boundby cravings of permanence and may still live as a lay person. Sometimespeople in the early stages are referred to as ‘stream entrants’, as theyhave entered the stream carrying them to enlightenment.

The second stage is known as the stage of ‘once return’ (sakadagami).At this stage attachment and dislike still exist and have to be overcome.

Once the stage of non-returner (anagami) has been reached there islittle inclination to be a lay person. A non-returner has lost attachmentto things experienced by the five senses but is still clinging to rebirthand has a sense of self. Non-returners may still think of themselves asbetter or worse than others.



THE GOALS

The final stage of enlightenment is that of the arhat. At this stage allattachment to self has gone and Nibbana has been achieved. At the endof this life there is no rebirth.

Theravada Buddhists believe that Nibbana can only be achieved byfollowing the Noble Eightfold Path. This can be quite challenging, sinceeveryday life makes reality difficult for a person to accept.

Therefore for lay people Nibbana is a distant goal that is only achievablethrough gaining good kamma over many lifetimes. Their practice istherefore to gain good kamma in everything they do as this will bringNibbana closer. Monks and nuns are more likely to gain enlightenmentbecause they are less affected by the craving of the world. The laycommunity support the monastery by providing food, clothes and doingmenial work, so that the monks do not have to be concerned with thesethings. They are able therefore to spend most of their time inmeditation and study.

For Mahayana Buddhists the path of the arhat is seen to be too narrowand individualistic. Instead, the path for them is the path of theBodhisattva, which means ‘being of enlightenment’. A Bodhisattva is abeing who dedicates himself or herself to helping others obtainenlightenment. They actively put off their own enlightenment. InMahayana Buddhism the view of Nibbana is less personal as it isconnected to the concept of the Bodhisattva – enlightened beings whohave so much compassion that they want all thinking beings to achieveenlightenment. So most Mahayana Buddhists believe that Nibbana issomething that everyone should achieve. The way in which this can bedone varies from tradition to tradition.

Pure Land Buddhism began because of Amithaba’s belief that mostpeople have too great an attachment to this world and therefore cannotachieve Nibbana without assistance. Amithaba created a Pure Land intowhich everyone who calls upon his name can be reborn. From thisposition of reduced suffering it is easy to achieve Nibbana.

The belief in Bodhisattvas as saviours who help people towards Nibbanameans that their focus for meditation is often centred towards aBodhisattva or Buddha. Pure Land Buddhists chant the name of AmidaBuddha in their daily meditations. They intone ‘Nanu – Amida – Butsu’while visualising the Buddha’s image in the hope that he will transfermerit to them and they will be reborn in the Pure Land.



THE GOALS

Philosophical schools like Madymika and Yoga Cara teach that sinceeverything has to have a cause and is impermanent then Nibbana has tohave a cause. If it has a cause and is impermanent then it is no differentfrom Samsara. So Nibbana is Samsara and Samsara is Nibbana. The YogaCara school teaches that everything is a product of mind and thedifference between Nibbana and Samsara is the thought that one iseternal and perfect whilst the other is impermanent and full of suffering.If everything is impermanent then impermanence is permanent!

Tibetan Buddhism teaches that everyone has a Buddha nature. EachBuddhist has gained the perfect human rebirth which is believed to beas rare as a blind turtle swimming in a vast ocean, only surfacing once ina century and putting its head through a small ring which is floatingsomewhere on the surface of the water. Therefore all Buddhists shouldtry to make spiritual progress during this lifetime and if possible achieveNibbana.

Nibbana is the stopping of the cycle of Samsara and putting an end tosuffering. When a person achieves Nibbana they still lead a human life.They experience physical pain just like everyone else. They are howeverfree from mental pain and confusion. They see reality, the world, theway it really is, as impermanent, and therefore they can cope better withphysical pain.

The Buddha gained enlightenment after forty-nine days of concentratedmeditation. After his enlightenment he began to teach others so thatthey too could achieve enlightenment.

Buddha continued to live an enlightened human life, teaching othersuntil his death at the age of eighty.



THE GOALS

Student activities

1. What does Buddha mean by unsatisfactoriness?

2. Why do you think Nibbana is difficult to describe?

3. Why is Nibbana not subject to conditions?

4. What analogies are used to describe Nibbana? Do you think theyare effective? Can you think of a suitable analogy to describeNibbana?

5. Why do Theravada Buddhists believe that Nibbana takes manylifetimes to achieve?

6. Describe the four stages of the arhat.

7. Some would argue that the arhat is displaying selfish actions andencouraging a belief in a self. Do you agree or disagree with this?Give reasons for your answer.

8. Do you think an arhat would contemplate committing suicide oncehe/she had reached the fourth stage? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Show how the belief that Nibbana can be attained by anyone isexpressed within the variety of Mahayana schools.

10. Which tradition/school’s approach do you find more favourableand why?

11. What practices do you think a Buddhist would have to adopt inorder to achieve the goal of Nibbana?

12. Do you think these practices would differ from tradition totradition?

13. What qualities do you think an arhat (Theravada) and a bodhisattva(Mahayana) would display and why?



THE GOALS

Further research

• Arhatship• Pure Land Buddhism• Madymika• Yoga Cara• Parinirvana• The five Cosmic Buddhas: Vairocanna, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha,

Amoga Siddhi and Askshobhya.

Further reading

Buddhist Scripture, by E Conze:pages 62–4 – Parinirvana;pages 155–62 – The Questions of King Milinda



THE MEANS

SECTION 4

The Three Jewels (or treasures)

Within Buddhism there are various traditions. However, there are alwaysthe same three cornerstones, which are called the Three Jewels. Theseare the Buddha, the Dhamma (which is the teaching of the Buddha),and the Sangha (which is the community who follow the teaching).

The Dhamma could not have been taught without the Buddha and couldnot have been followed without the Sangha. Therefore the Buddha, theDhamma and the Sangha are inseparable: each depends on the othertwo. Together the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha are called theTiratana. These three things are so special and valuable to a Buddhistthat they are often referred to as the Three Jewels, or the threetreasures, or the triple gems.

Every day a Buddhist makes a declaration to take refuge in the ThreeJewels.

I take refuge in the Buddha,I take refuge in the Dhamma,I take refuge in the Sangha.

By making this declaration Buddhists are showing that they arededicated to the Buddha and his teachings. They are taking refuge here.They are not taking or trying to find refuge in money, or a career or tofind security in a relationship. Nor are Buddhists simply putting blindfaith in the Buddha and his teachings. Buddha taught that his teachingsshould never be accepted on faith but should be examined, questionedand put to the test.

When Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and theSangha, they are saying that they are beginning the pursuit ofenlightenment.



THE MEANS

Look upon the man who tells thee thy faults as if he told thee of a hiddentreasure, the wise man who shows thee the dangers of life. Follow that man:he who follows him will see good and not evil.

Let him admonish and let him instruct, and let him restrain what is wrong. Hewill be loved by those who are good and hated by those who are not.

Have not for friends those whose soul is ugly; go not with men who have anevil soul. Have for friends those whose soul is beautiful; go with men whosesoul is good.

He who drinks of the waters of Truth, he rests in joy with mind serene. Thewise find their delight in the DHAMMA, in the truth revealed by the great.

Those who make channels for water control the waters; makers of arrowsmake the arrows straight; carpenters control their timber; and the wisecontrol their minds.

Even as a great rock is not shaken by the wind, the wise man is not shakenby praise or blame.

Even as a lake that is pure and peaceful and deep, so becomes the soul ofthe wise man when he hears the words of the DHAMMA.

For whose mind is well trained in the ways that lead to light, who surrendersthe bondage of attachments and finds joy in his freedom from bondage, whofree from the darkness of passions shines pure in a radiance of light, even inthis mortal life he enjoys the immortal NIRVANA.

Source: Dhammapada 76–82, 89

The Buddha

Buddhism is named after the title given to its founder SiddhattaGautama – the Buddha. He was born into a wealthy family in Kapilavastuin Northern India, in about 563 BCE.

Siddhatta grew up in a royal palace surrounded by luxury. He wantedfor nothing. However, he was confined to a life within the palace as hisfather tried to shield him from the world outside.

At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhatta grew dissatisfied and began to thinkseriously about his life and what it meant.



THE MEANS

On excursions from the palace with his charioteer Channa, Siddhattasaw four sights which changed his life. He saw an old man, a sick person,a corpse and a holy man. These four sights led to Siddhatta’s decision toleave the palace and become a wandering holy man.

There were many teachers at this time claiming to have the answers toquestions in life and methods for achieving peace of mind.

At first Siddhatta trained in meditation, but he became dissatisfied withthis: it did not offer the complete release he was looking for.

He then began to follow an extremely ascetic life. He spent long periodsof time standing or sitting in the same position, in solitude, withoutfood and without washing.

While all of these things helped him to develop greater self-control, toconquer feelings of fear, desire and disgust, and to have greater mentalcontrol, they still however did not answer his questions about life.

Siddhatta almost starved himself to death in this quest. But in the endhe gave up this austere way of life. He rejected the idea of a strictlyascetic life just as he had rejected the rich, luxurious and indulgent one.

By the age of thirty-five Siddhatta had experienced two extremes oflifestyle and had still not found satisfaction in his quest. Determined tofulfil this he sat down under a bo tree and vowed to meditate until heachieved enlightenment.

After Buddha became enlightened he was able to help others towardsenlightenment by teaching the Dhamma. He decided he would do thisfor the five ascetics that he had lived with in the years before. His firstsermon is known as the Sermon of Benares. It was given at the deerpark at Sarnath by the Varanasi (once called Benares).

His first sermon is also known as the Deer Park Sermon or the Setting inMotion of the Wheel of the Law, in which he explained the Four NobleTruths.

For the next forty-five years, or the remainder of his life, the Buddhatravelled around India teaching people from all walks of life.

Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha to recognise not only that he was ahistorical person but also to recognise the possibility of their ownenlightenment.



THE MEANS

The Dhamma

Dhamma can mean many things. It can mean the ultimate truth or realityof life. It can also mean the teachings of the Buddha. Some Buddhiststalk of practising the dhamma. Some have said it is the Buddhist wordfor Buddhism.

Buddha’s teaching pointed to the truth and it said that by practising histeaching people are living a truthful life. The dhamma is open toeveryone.

The Dhamma is the Fourth Noble Truth. It is not the source ofenlightenment but rather indicates the way. Buddha refused to answerquestions of a metaphysical nature – questions about the universe, lifeand life after death. He did this because he felt that there are nostraightforward answers to these questions. Humans only have thecapacity to ask limited questions because they have limited knowledge.

Buddha said that asking these questions and searching for answers areirrelevant in trying to overcome and remove suffering.

Dhamma is the term given to Buddhist teaching. The term can refer to aparticular teaching such as the Four Noble Truths, a collection ofscripture like the Pali Canon, or to the whole of Buddhist teaching.Dhamma is sometimes translated as ‘The Way’, as it shows whatBuddhists should do in order to gain enlightenment.

The main purpose of Buddha’s teaching was to help people overcomesuffering and achieve happiness, not to teach about ‘everything’. Apopular image which demonstrates the practical nature of Buddha’steaching is: If a man has been shot by a poisoned arrow he does not sitaround discussing the make, type and quality of the arrow he has beenshot with. Nor does he then discuss who shot the arrow and why. Ratherthe first thing that the man does is to try to remove the arrow!

The Dhamma has also been likened to a raft. A person may use a raft tocross a river. The person guides and steers the raft as best as he can toreach his chosen destination. A raft is also something that you set asideonce you have reached your destination.

After Buddha’s death a gathering of arhats agreed on one version of theDhamma. Ananda, as one of Buddha’s closest disciples, recited everyteaching the Buddha had taught. These sayings of the Buddha wereeventually written down and became the Sutta Pitaka section of the Palicanon.



THE MEANS

The earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures is known as the PaliCanon, a compilation of the teachings of Buddha made after his death.There are three sections:

• Vinaya Pitaka – Rules of the Sangha, or discipline section• Sutta Pitaka – Buddha’s sermons• Abhidhamma Pitaka – Higher or philosophical teaching.

The three sections are referred to as baskets – pitaka. So the Pali Canonis also known as the Tipitaka (three baskets).

In addition to doctrines, the Dhamma also contains rules for conduct.These differ for monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen but all are based onthe acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the practice of the NobleEightfold Path.

All schools of Buddhism see these teachings as central to the Dhammabut their interpretation of how the Dhamma should be understoodvaries. Theravada Buddhism means the ‘teachings of the elders’ andtherefore concentrates on the Dhamma first taught by Buddha and thenpassed on to the Sangha. It is important for them that the Dhamma iswhat the Buddha actually taught his disciples. The Pali Canon (Tipitaka)contains Buddha’s philosophy and ethics and it is this that theTheravada must follow to the letter if they wish to gain enlightenment.

Mahayana Buddhism includes additional references to later scripturesthat were inspired by Buddha’s teaching but are not his actual words.Examples of this are the Lotus and Diamond Sutras. These laterteachings are written in many of the native languages of the countrieswhere Mahayana Buddhism spread, e.g. Japanese, Tibetan.

The Lotus Sutra emphasises the point that Buddha wanted everyone tounderstand the Dhamma; and so later versions of this were written toenable more people to understand.

The importance of the Dhamma in Buddhists’ lives cannot be over-emphasised. The religion is based around the development ofunderstanding and most schools of Buddhism concentrate ondeveloping understanding through hearing the Dhamma.

Theravada Buddhists still use recitation of the Dhamma as an importantway to gain knowledge and insight into its meaning. The monks recitethe 227 rules of the Vinaya Pitaka every fortnight and many of thesayings of the Buddha are told again and again to emphasise a point. It is



THE MEANS

regarded as good kamma to learn sections by heart, and sections arechanted both morning and evening.

Through the Dhamma the Buddhist can gain wisdom. At first, theteachings of the Buddha are accepted through faith but it is necessaryfor each of the teachings to be analysed and meditated upon so thatbelief is replaced by knowledge. The Questions of King Milinda is a textwhich helps Theravadins to explore the concepts of the humancondition and the goals of Buddhism. Nagasena is believed byTheravadins to have lived Buddhism, teaching the Dhamma by example.

The Dhamma of Mahayana Buddhism develops the teachings within thePali Canon and emphasises that the way to Nibbana is possible foreveryone. Different schools within Mahayana use the Dhamma in avariety of ways. Collecting scriptures is important in many Mahayanatraditions and the written texts are often wrapped and stored in placesof honour around a shrine. The number of scriptures that exists makes itunlikely that many Buddhists could learn them all, so the emphasis onmemorisation and reciting the scriptures is seen to be less important.Most Mahayana schools concentrate on teachers explaining themeanings of the Dhamma to their students.

The school started by Nichiren focuses on the teachings of the LotusSutra and followers chant its name in daily mantras – ‘nammyoho rengyekyp’, which means ‘hail to the Lotus of the true Law’. The Japanesecharacters that make up this phrase are sometimes drawn into a mandalafor meditation purposes.

The Tibetan Book of the Dead describes the changing states betweendeath and rebirth known by Tibetans as Bardo. This is read in front of adying person to help the departing spirit understand what is happeningand to encourage detachment which may lead to Nibbana or, if not, thento a better rebirth.

Ch’an and Zen Buddhists place little emphasis on written scripture andconcentrate on transmitting the Dhamma from teacher to student.

Zen teaches that scriptures are only a tool rather than the Dhammaitself. Zen teaching seems like nonsense to non-Buddhists, becauseriddles are used to try to awaken the understanding of theimpermanence of existence. These riddles are known as koans and gobeyond the normal meaning of the words being used, because wordsthemselves are mistakenly seen as permanent.



THE MEANS

The Zen Buddhist is given a koan by his master and has to work out aresponse. As there is no intelligent answer to a koan, enlightenment canbe found by using intuition only. Other ways of gaining enlightenmentcan come through experiences such as flower arranging, archery or theJapanese tea ceremony. These appear not to be connected to theDhamma but they are practices that relate to the teaching ofMindfulness, which is an important part of the Noble Eightfold Path andtherefore central to the Dhamma.

The Sangha

At the beginning of his teachings, Buddha and his followers of monkstravelled around meeting wherever they could. Gradually, as theycontinued to meet, temporary buildings were erected for use during therainy season, but which eventually became permanent monasterieswhere Buddha’s followers could live all year. These were called viharas(resting places).

The Sangha is the term used for those who are followers of Buddha.Sometimes it is the term used for all those who are ordained monks. Inits broader sense, it is the term used for all followers of Buddha whetherthey are laity or live a monastic life.

Buddhist monks and nuns are called bhikkus (male) and bhikkunis(female). A person can choose to become a bhikku or a bhikkuni andenter the vihara to live a monastic life, removed from society, in orderto follow the path to enlightenment.

Some enter for a short time to experience the disciplined life. Otherscommit for a lifetime.

When first admitted to the Sangha a man is known as a samenera ornovice. He will shave his head and face and put on the robes of thevihara. At this point he will take on an additional five precepts which aremore difficult outwith a monastic environment, making ten in total. Thevihara is supposed to create the best opportunities for gainingenlightenment through a life of work, study and meditation.

• Avoid food after midday• Avoid a high or luxurious bed• Avoid public amusements, e.g. music, dancing• Avoid jewellery and perfume• Avoid handling gold and silver.



THE MEANS

After a period of study the samenera will be ordained as a bhikku. Thosewho have been ordained for ten years are given the title thera (elder).Those who have been ordained for twenty years are given the titlemahathera (senior elder).

Monks are given more detailed rules so that they concentrate ondetachment from craving and set a good example for lay people. Byfollowing the rules the monk can get rid of craving and reach Nibbana.The Vinaya Pitaka explains the way that Buddhists should live their lives.This involves following 227 rules which start with the rules that must befollowed in order to remain in the monastic sangha. For lay Buddhiststhis involves following the five precepts but also trying to developpositive virtues – self-discipline, tolerance, contentment, compassionand detachment.

Monks are not allowed to work for money and therefore they rely onthe lay community for support. This is often seen in the daily almsround where the monastic sangha travel through the villages with theiralms bowls into which lay people donate food. Lay people may go to thevihara to provide and cook meals for the monks, or they may invitemonks to their homes for meals.

The monks usually get up early and spend their days meditating,studying scriptures, performing ceremonies and preaching sermons tolay people. During the rainy season retreat (vassa) they spend most oftheir time in meditation and at the end of the retreat they celebrateKathina day where the lay people provide them with new robes.

Monks and nuns in the past only had bare essentials to live on. They didnot take personal possessions with them into the monasteries. Todaymonks and nuns are allowed a few possessions, such as an umbrella oran anorak. But these would not be personal possessions so much asbasic essentials.

Some may see lay people as inferior in religious status to monks becausethey cannot devote all their lives to the Dhamma and have to beconcerned with more worldly attachments.

However, the relationship between the monastic and lay community isessentially interdependent – the monks rely on the lay community fortheir material needs and the lay people rely on the monks for theirspiritual needs.



THE MEANS

The laity provide an important role within the Sangha. They provideitems such as food for the monks and nuns. The monks and nunsprovide the service of passing on the Dhamma, keeping ancient textsalive and administering at ceremonies such as funerals and festivals.Both accumulate good kamma with their selfless deeds.

Remember that the goal for most lay people within Theravada Buddhismis to gain good kamma for a better rebirth (Samsara). Merit can begained through moral behaviour, by taking part in religious ceremoniesand by supporting the monastic Sangha.

Some lay Buddhists take additional precepts when they visit the temple.They dress in white robes with no jewellery, perfume or amusements.They do not eat after midday and do not use comfortable chairs or beds.

Many lay Buddhist families encourage their sons to join the monasticcommunity for a period of time in order to gain good kamma forthemselves and the whole family. Temporary admission to the monasticSangha is not seen as failure, since everything is impermanent; and insome countries it gives boys the additional material advantage of a goodeducation.

As well as religious purposes the vihara serves the community in otherways: as a school, a secure place for important items, and a hotel or inn.

In the Mahayana schools the difference between the monastic and laycommunity may in some schools seem less distinct whilst in others thereare greater divisions.

Mahayana belief in Nibbana for everyone affects their practice of religion.There is less of a difference between lay people and monks and nuns,and in some schools the monks are more like priests and are able tomarry.

Pure Land Buddhism, with its emphasis on faith in Amida Buddha,encourages lay people to believe that enlightenment is possible foranyone who calls upon his name. The Shin sect of Pure Land does nothave a celibate monastic order but is organised by a married priesthoodwho perform the basic ceremonies. This role is passed down from fatherto son. It attracts followers who have found traditional forms ofBuddhism difficult to fit in with their busy lives. This form of Buddhistpractice can be described as ‘skilful means’.



THE MEANS

In contrast Tibetan Buddhism has very obvious divisions between themonastic and lay Sangha. Buddhism was the foundation stone of Tibetansociety with one in six men being monks at one time. Joining themonastic Sangha is a lifetime commitment and for some this begins at avery early age. Each of the different sects within the Tibetan school has alineage of leadership. In some cases, when an important teacher or lamadies the monastery searches for his reincarnation. These lamas arebelieved to be bodhisattvas who take human form in order to helpothers towards Nibbana. When the incarnation is found the small boy istaken to the monastery and brought up as a monk. His parents seegiving birth to a lama as being a special honour which produces goodkamma and so they will not be as reluctant to give up their son as awestern family might be. The Dalai Lama, head of Tibetan Buddhism, isthe fourteenth incarnation, and he is believed to be the bodhisattvaAvalokiteshvara or Cheenrezig.

Some of the sects have married clergy rather than celibate monks.Whatever the sect, there are definite roles for the lay people. It is the laypeople who give the viharas material support in return for religiousrituals, education and supernatural protection. Lay people spend moretime on ritual worship rather than meditation – giving offerings,chanting prayers, spinning prayer wheels and going on pilgrimage.

The Arya Sangha is the noble or the ideal sangha. This is for arhatswithin the Theravada tradition and bodhisattvas within the Mahayanatradition. They are seen as the spiritual elite, and others look to themfor inspiration.

FWBO

There are various traditions of Buddhism in Britain today. One group,called the Western Buddhist Order, and their supporters called Friendsof the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO), are trying to work out adistinctively British form of Buddhism.

FWBO was founded by Dennis Lingwood in 1968. He was given theBuddhist name Sangharakshita, which means ‘One who builds up thesangha’. FWBO combines the practices of Theravada, Tibetan and Zenalong with a strong sense of right livelihood. They do not take onspecial monastic vows. The common feature is commitment to the threejewels. The emphasis within FWBO is on commitment first and life-stylesecond. As a result there are some single-sex communities and somecommunities with family units. Members wear ordinary clothes but havea special stole called a kesa which is worn during worship.



THE MEANS

Student activities

1. What are the Three Jewels and how are they connected?

2. What is the daily declaration made by a Buddhist? Why is it made?

3. Give a brief account of Buddha’s life including the four sights,going forth and enlightenment. You may highlight your answerwith drawings and diagrams.

4. What is the Dhamma? Give as detailed an answer as possible.

5. What is the main purpose of the Dhamma?

6. Explain why the Dhamma is seen as being practical.

7. Explain how Therevada and Mahayana Buddhists view theDhamma. List any differences which you find.

8. What is the Sangha and how did it come about?

9. What is the Arya Sangha?

10. Describe the roles of the monks, nuns and the laity within theSangha.

11. Why would the variety of different practices within the Mahayanaschools of Buddhism be classed as skilful actions? Give reasons foryour answer.

12. Monks are allowed eight items (this can vary from tradition totradition): alms bowl; water strainer; razor; needle; toothpick;three robes given by laity or made from rags collected by themonk. Give reasons why you think these items would be classed asessential.

13. Shoes for monks are considered a luxury, but are permitted. Whydo you think this is so?

14. Why do you think some monks would not fast, not be vegetarianand perhaps even have access to the use of a credit card? Givereasons for your answer.



THE MEANS

15. Do you think the FWBO offers a diluted form of the Dhamma forpeople living in the West and wanting to practise Buddhism? Givereasons for your answer.

Further research

• Buddha’s birth story• The Pali Canon• Theravada nuns• The Trikaya doctrine• Nichiren• The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and the role of the Dalai Lama in

Tibetan Buddhism• The Monastic Sangha• Research the colour of robes worn by Therevadan, Tibetan and Zen

monks, and find out the reasons for the different colours.

Further reading

The Buddhist Scriptures, by E Conze:pages 34–66 – The legend of Buddha Shakyamuni;pages 73–7 – Rules of monastic restraint;pages 182–3 – Doctrinal formulas



THE MEANS

Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path is a set of recommendations on how to live. Itis the last of the Four Noble Truths. By following it Buddhists believethat they are on a path which will remove suffering and set them on theroad to enlightenment. It is a middle path between a life of self-indulgence and a life of self-denial. It is a practical path and Buddhistsfollow it as a whole way of life. It comprises:

• Right view• Right intention• Right speech• Right conduct• Right livelihood• Right effort• Right mindfulness• Right concentration.

These eight steps may be further sub-divided into three sections:

Right viewRight intention

Right speechRight conductRight livelihood

Right effortRight mindfulnessRight concentration

The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are designed to be taken together,not as a sequential ladder.

The three-fold division of the Noble Eightfold Path – wisdom, moralityand meditation – is often referred to as the Triple Way. Right view andright intention encourage the development of wisdom. Wisdom comeswith seeing things as they really are – impermanent. Nevertheless thingscannot be disregarded or seen as unimportant.

Morality is activated through right speech, right conduct and rightlivelihood – the belief that everything is interconnected.

WISDOM (prajna)

MORALITY (sila)

MEDITATION (samadhi)



THE MEANS

Finally meditation is developed through right effort, right mindfulnessand right concentration. All of these outline the essential features ofBuddhist practice.

The best of the paths is the path of eight. The best of the truths, the foursayings. The best of states, freedom from passions. The best of men, theone who sees.

This is the path. There is no other that leads to vision. Go on this path, andyou will confuse MARA, the devil of confusion.

Whoever goes on this path travels to the end of his sorrow. I showed thispath to the world when I found the roots of sorrow.

It is you who must make the effort. The Great of the past only show the way.Those who think and follow the path become free from the bondage ofMARA.

‘All is transient.’ When one sees this, he is above sorrow. This is the clearpath.

‘All is sorrow.’ When one sees this, he is above sorrow. This is the clearpath.

‘All is unreal.’ When one sees this, he is above sorrow. This is the clear path.

If a man when young and strong does not arise and strive, and thus sinksinto laziness and lack of determination, he will never find the path of wis-dom.

A man should control his words and mind and should not do any harm withhis body. If these ways of action are pure he can make progress on the pathof the wise.

Spiritual Yoga leads to light: lack of Yoga to darkness. Considering twopaths, let the wise man walk on the path that leads to light.

Cut down the forest of desires, not only a tree; for danger is in the forest. Ifyou cut down the forest and its undergrowth, then, Bhikkus, you will be freeon the path of freedom.

As long as lustful desire, however small, of man for woman is not controlled,so long the mind of man is not free, but is bound like a calf tied to a cow.



THE MEANS

Pluck out your self-love as you would pull off a faded lotus in autumn. Striveon the path of peace, the path of NIRVANA shown by Buddha.

‘Here shall I dwell in the season of rains, and here in winter and summer’;thus thinks the fool, but he does not think of death.

For death carries away the man whose mind is self-satisfied with his childrenand his flocks, even as a torrent carries away a sleeping village.

Neither father, sons nor one’s relations can stop the King of Death. When hecomes with all his power, a man’s relations cannot save him.

A man who is virtuous and wise understands the meaning of this, and swiftlystrives with all his might to a clear path to NIRVANA.


Ethics

As we already know Buddhism promotes the idea of having a ‘skilled’mind and using skilful actions in life. Skilful actions are ones that willavoid the likelihood of causing suffering; the need for guilt and remorse;the accumulation of negative kamma. When a person becomes aBuddhist not only do they take on the three refuges but they alsoembark on a lifestyle that cultivates good conduct. This is done bytraining in the five precepts:

I undertake to abstain from taking life.I undertake to abstain from taking what is not freely given.I undertake to abstain from the misuse of the senses.I undertake to abstain from wrong speech.I undertake to abstain from taking drugs and alcohol which cloud

the mind.

The five precepts are areas which Buddhists feel should be avoidedwhen on the path to enlightenment – Nibbana. If they were not avoidedthen this would result in the accumulation of negative kamma. Byembracing the five precepts as a way of life this will help a person todevelop positive qualities and as a result he or she will accumulatepositive kamma. On special holy days Buddhists also take on the first ofthe next three undertakings listed below, but if you are a monk andhave chosen to adopt a monastic lifestyle, all of the next five arecompulsory:



THE MEANS

I undertake to observe the precept to abstain from taking untimelymeals.

I undertake to abstain from dancing, music, singing and watchinggrotesque mime.

I undertake to abstain from the use of garlands, perfumes andpersonal adornment.

I undertake to abstain from the use of high seats.I undertake to abstain from accepting gold or silver.

Ahimsa

The principle of ahimsa is of non-violence and abstention from harmingliving things. This derives from the first Buddhist precept to abstainfrom taking life. This principle involves all living creatures. RememberBuddhists believe that everything is interconnected; if they do not wantto suffer and experience pain then it is only good sense to assume thatneither does anything else. A Buddhist would not believe it was right toimpose pain and suffering on any living creature. As a result manyBuddhists are vegetarian. Behaving in this manner nurtures the positivequality of loving kindness to all living creatures.

Buddhists should also apply the principle of ahimsa to themselves. Theyshould not put themselves through undue pain and suffering whilst onthe path to enlightenment. Extreme actions like this would not be theMiddle Way.

Within Mahayana Buddhism ethical practice takes on a further strandwith the role of the bodhisattva.

Bodhisattva

Bodhisattva means ‘enlightenment being’. In the earliest tradition it isused to describe a person who is on their way to becoming a Buddha.Siddhatta Gautama was is called a bodhisattva before his enlightenment.

The term bodhisattva became broader within Mahayana Buddhism. Abodhisattva within the Mahayana tradition is one who actively puts offtheir own enlightenment in order to help others achieve it. He, or she,would demonstrate true altruism, which as a principle of action is aregard for others, an unselfish concern for other people.



THE MEANS

Various Mahayana writings have shown the career of the bodhisattva instages. They all include the six paramitas or perfections. Here is onewhich shows the path of the bodhisattva in four stages:

1. Intention2. Vow3. The course of the bodhisattva which involves the development of

the six perfections or paramitas: charity (dana), morality (sila),patience (kshanti), energy (virya), meditation (dhyana) andwisdom (prajna)

4. Buddhahood.

The role of the bodhisattva works on two levels within MahayanaBuddhism. Firstly it represents a goal to work towards, and secondly itprovides people to help those on the path to enlightenment.

Bodhisattva’s vow (Buddhist scriptures)

However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them all.However inexhaustible the defilements are, I vow to extinguish

them.However immeasurable the dharmas are, I vow to master them.However incomparable the enlightenment is, I vow to attain it.

Meditation

Meditation is often seen as central to Buddhism because only throughthe training of the mind can you begin to see the world and yourself asthey really are; only then can you stop craving and follow the path thatleads to enlightenment – Nibbana. Remember that it was as a directresult of meditation that Buddha gained enlightenment.

Meditation also forms one-third of the Noble Eightfold Path – righteffort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

Meditation allows the person to get rid of thoughts and feelings that aremotivated by the three poisons of greed, hatred and ignorance and toreplace them with calm, peaceful and loving thoughts and feelings.

Meditation is a practice within the Noble Eightfold Path that directlydraws upon the concept of Anatta in a number of ways.

Samatha meditation is suitable for everyone and begins with thedevelopment of mindfulness where the meditator becomes mindful of



THE MEANS

the current state of the skandhas. For example, in mindful breathing themeditator concentrates on the action of breathing in and out so thatthey are able to detach themselves from the everyday concerns of theworld and concentrate on the impermanence of existence. The Lotusposition is the most common position for many types of meditation; inthis position as your body is relaxed but upright and alert. However,Samatha meditation can also be performed whilst walking.

Although Buddhism is concerned with personal transformation, this istoo narrow a description of meditation. Personal transformation isnecessary and you will see it in the person’s relationship with others.Buddhists meditate on the Brahma Viharas to cultivate a positiveattitude towards others and to allow them to be more understanding,accepting and forgiving.

The four Brahma Viharas are the qualities that Buddhists displaytowards life and others:

• Metta, loving kindness• Karuna, compassion• Mudita, sympathetic joy• Upekkha, equanimity.

Metta is the first of the Brahma Viharas. Meditation on loving kindnessencourages the meditator to think of others and feel loving kindnessfirst for themselves, then for a friend of the same sex, for people ingeneral, and finally for an enemy, before being able to feel lovingkindness for the universe itself. Metta enables the Buddhist to developselflessness gradually as he or she becomes gradually less and lessselfish.

From meditation on loving kindness the Buddhist can go on to developmeditation on compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. Thesestages are developed gradually until the Buddhist can show love for allbeings equally without becoming attached.

Samatha meditation is often seen as necessary prior to Vipassanameditation, which requires analytical thinking. Vipassana means insightand is about meditating in order to see the world as it really is –impermanent and without a permanent self. It requires a teacher.

Zen Buddhists believe that enlightenment is within all of us – as part ofour basic nature. We find it difficult to see this, because our thoughts areso often clouded by our lifestyles, worries and opinions. Zen means



THE MEANS

meditation. Zen also says that it is useless to rely on vows, scriptures andrituals as methods to achieve enlightenment. Freeing and uncloudingthe mind is best done through meditation. The meditation practice ofZen is called Zazen, or sitting Zen. This allows the person to sit still anddo nothing except escape the hustle and bustle of busy modern life. ZenBuddhists generally sit in the lotus position breathing slowly with theireyes open. Although meditation is about clearing the mind it is alsoabout being aware or mindful.

There are two forms of Zen – Soto zen and Rinzai zen. Soto zen offers aslower approach and therefore Zazen is emphasised. During this seatedmeditation Buddhists face a wall to minimise distraction. This is calledthe Zendo wall. They would also use koans, the riddles or questionsthat are supposed to help them free the mind from traditional forms ofthinking.

Rinzai zen is a form of meditation that emphasises the immediatepossibility of enlightenment. Rinzai meditators believe that whenenlightenment comes it can come very quickly, like remembering aforgotten name. This is called Satori. It involves meditation, koans, andmondo, which is a series of rapid questions and answers.

Worship

The belief in a continuous samsaric cycle has a daily effect on howBuddhists live their lives. The importance of following the Dhamma inorder to gain good kamma is an important part of daily life for mostBuddhists.

In Theravada Buddhism the differences between the monastic lives andthe lives of the lay community are clearly spelled out. It is not thoughtimpossible for a lay person to achieve Nibbana but it is seen as highlyunlikely, because their attachment to the material world is great.Therefore the actions of the lay people are primarily undertaken withthe goal of achieving good kamma for a better rebirth/rebecoming.

Good kamma can be gained by taking part in Buddhist worship whetherit be festivals and pilgrimage or daily puja. Performing puja (worship) isseen as an important way for lay people to gain good kamma. LayBuddhists recite the three refuges and renew their taking of the fiveprecepts either in daily puja at a shrine, at home or more formally at thetemple. Buddhist worship involves the use of body, speech and mind.Buddhists will prostrate themselves and make offerings. They chant,especially the three refuges. Teaching will also take place. Time is alsospent in silent meditation.



THE MEANS

In Buddhist worship shrines are used. The layout of the shrine can varyfrom tradition to tradition. Generally you will find the following items: astatue or picture of the Buddha, flowers, water, candles, incense, a bell,food, books and photographs. Worshippers make offerings before thestatue of the Buddha as a symbolic reminder of the truth of Buddha’sdhamma. For example, flowers represent impermanence, candlesrepresent enlightenment.

Rites of passage are seen as less important aspects of worship, becausethey focus on the self. Initiation and death are the only religiousceremonies focussing on the concepts of Anicca and Samsara. In theinitiation or ordination ceremony the novice gives up his life ofattachments to become a monk, which itself produces good kamma. Inthe funeral service, the body has the three refuges and five preceptsrecited over it and then water is poured to symbolise the transfer of thisgood kamma. After the cremation the bereaved offer monks meals andthe monks in their turn repeat the water-pouring ceremony to transferthe merit. This sharing of merit is done in the hope of a better rebirth.Here the concept of Anatta and Samsara can be seen together. If there isno self, then the living can transfer merit to the dead, because there isno real division between the two.

Festivals enable lay Buddhists to concentrate on the important aspectsof Buddha’s life and on the life of the sangha. These community eventshelp to encourage a sense of community and selflessness. Wesak andVassa are two popular Buddhist festivals.



THE MEANS

Student activities

1. What do Buddhists mean when they describe the Noble EightfoldPath as a middle path?

2. What is the triple way?

3. Wisdom, morality and meditation are interconnected. Explain whyeach cannot exist without the other two. Give examples toillustrate your answer.

4. List the Noble Eightfold Path in the table below. Give examples ofhow each step would be practised by a Buddhist.

Stages of the Noble Examples in Buddhist practiceEightfold Path

1. Right view

2. Right intention

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

5. Do you think the Noble Eightfold Path is a practical one? Givereasons for your answer.

6. Think of your present circumstances. Is the Noble Eightfold Path apractical one for you? Give reasons for your answer.

7. Explain why the Noble Eightfold Path should be followed as acomplete ‘package’ and not as a sequential ladder. Show how thesteps are interconnected and cannot be followed in isolation.

8. What are the five precepts and why are they not regarded as rules?



THE MEANS

9. (a) In what ways do the five precepts encourage Buddhists to actselflessly?

(b) What positive qualities do you think Buddhists are hoping todevelop by keeping the five precepts?

10. Why do you think monks/nuns add a further five precepts? What dotheir extra precepts encourage?

11. Explain the principle of ahimsa.

12. In what circumstances might the principle of ahimsa not apply?Give reasons for your answer.

13. What is altruism? Why is the Bodhisattva seen as someone who actsin an altruistic manner? Give reasons for your answer.

14. Is there such a thing as a truly altruistic action? Give reasons foryour answer.

15. ‘Meditation is so crucial to Buddhism that without it there wouldbe no Buddhism’. Discuss this statement with a partner and makenotes of your findings.

16. Why is samatha meditation described as suitable for everyone?

17. By meditating on the Brahma Viharas what qualities do Buddhistshope to develop?

18. Describe the Zen view of meditation. Why is there a variety ofapproach?

19. Why do you think Buddhists gather together for worship and makeofferings when they do not believe in a ‘God’? Give reasons foryour answer.

20. Why do you think Buddhists use images of the Buddha in worship?

21. Make a list of the items you will find at a shrine during Buddhistworship. Discuss and make notes on the symbolism of each item.



THE MEANS

Further research

• Noble Eightfold Path• Magga• Vipassana meditation• Bodhisattva• Worship• Ch’an Buddhism• Zen Buddhism

Further reading

Buddhist Scriptures, by E Conze:pages 70–3 – The Five Precepts;pages 93–7 – Laymen and Monks;pages 98–144 – Meditation;pages 164–8 – From the ‘Diamond Sutra’



Scriptures

Conze, Edward, Buddhist Scriptures, Penguin, 1959Mascaro, Jiam, The Dhammapada: the Path of Perfection, Penguin, 1973Rahula, Walpola, What the Buddha Taught, Oxford: One World, 1959

Sources for teachers and students

Cole, W Owen (ed), Six World Faiths, London: Continuum, 1996Cole, W Owen, Moral Issues in Six Religions, Oxford: Heinemann

Educational Books, 1991Erricker, Clive, Teach Yourself Buddhism, London: Hodder Headline,

1995Gombrich, R, Theravada Buddhism, London: Routledge, 1988Gough, L, Enlightenment: A Beginner’s Guide, London: Hodder &

Stoughton Educational, 1997Lowenstein, T, The Vision of the Buddha, London: Duncan Baird

Publishers, 1996Markham, I S, A World Religions Reader, Oxford: Blackwell, 1996van Gorkom, Nina, Buddhism in Daily Life, Ilford: Zolag (Triple Gem

Press), 1969

Sources for students

Cush, Denise, Buddhism, Hodder & Stoughton Educational, 1993Clark, Steve and Thomson, Mel, Buddhism: a New Approach, Hodder &

Stoughton Educational, 1995Thomson, Mel, Buddhists in Britain, Hodder & Stoughton Educational,

1992

BIBLIOGRAPHY



BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources on the Internet

www.buddhanet.netwww.buddhism.about.comwww.serve.com/cmtan/buddhismwww.edepot.com/buddha.htmlwww.bbc.co.uk/religionwww.glasgowbuddhistcentre.comwww.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Buddhismwww.chezpaul.org.uk/buddhismre-xs.ucsm.ac.uk/re/religion/buddhismwww.fwbo.org/buddhism.htmlwww.clear-vision.org/

www.buddhanet.net

www.buddhism.about.com

www.serve.com/cmtan/buddhism

www.edepot.com/buddha.html

www.bbc.co.uk/religion

www.glasgowbuddhistcentre.com

www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Buddhism

www.chezpaul.org.uk/buddhism/

re-xs.ucsm.ac.uk/re/religion/buddhism

www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html

www.clear-vision.org/


Abidhamma Pitaka: basket of commentaries

Ahimsa: the principle of non-violence and abstention from harmingliving things

Anatta: the concept that nothing is separate or individual, thateverything is interconnected

Amithaba (Amida): Buddha of infinite light to whom many MahayanaBuddhists of the Pure Land schools pay devotion. This is a Sanskritword. The Chinese translation is Amito and the Japanese is Amida

Anicca: impermanence

Arhat (Arahat): an enlightened being

Arhatship (Arahatship): the state of an Arhat

Asceticism: living with only the bare minimum needed for existence

Asuras: jealous gods. One of the six samsaric realms

Avalokiteshvara: the bodhisattva of compassion

Avidya: ignorance

Bodhisattva: a person with the potential to gain enlightenment orsomeone who chooses to help others gain enlightenment

Devas: a god. One of the six samsaric realms

Dhamma (Dharma): Buddhist teachings, ‘the Way of Buddhism’

Dukkha: suffering

Hinayana: the Lesser Vehicle (Mahayana term for Theravada Buddhism)

Kamma (Karma): an action that produces good or bad results

Koan: a riddle used by Zen Buddhists as a way to help them gainNibbana

GLOSSARY



GLOSSARY

Magga: the Noble Eightfold Path

Mahayana: the Greater Vehicle

Mandala: a graphic symbol or drawing of the universe; often a circlewith a symbolic pattern

Mara: selfish temptation

Nibbana (Nirvana): enlightenment

Nidanas: the run of the wheel of samsara is divided into twelvesegments and scenes depicting Buddhist teaching on dependentorigination. These show how beings pass from one realm to anotherand are called the nidanas

Pali canon: Buddhist scriptures

Pretas: hungry ghosts. One of the six samsaric realms

Puja: worship

Sakyamuni: a title of the Buddha (Mahayana)

Samsara: the cycle of rebecoming

Sangha: the community who follow the teaching of the Buddha

Siddhatta Gautama (Siddhartha Gotama): the Buddha’s name beforeenlightenment

Skandhas: the five bundles that make up a person: ‘body’, feelings,perceptions, impulses, consciousness

Sutta Pitaka: basket of teachings

Sutra: a text which records the teachings of Buddha

Tanha: craving; hatred

Tathagata: a title of the Buddha (Theravada)

Theravada: teachings of the Elders



GLOSSARY

Tipitaka (Tripitaka): the three baskets or sections of Buddhistscriptures

Vajrayana: the Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle

Vihara: means ‘abode’, both in the sense of a state of mind as in the fourbrahma – viharas, or a place used by the early followers of Buddhaduring the rainy season

Vinaya Pitaka: basket of discipline

Yama: the Lord of Death

Yana: means vehicle – something which helps you make progress alongyour path. The three different forms of Buddhism which havedeveloped are called the three yanas


Religious, Moral and Philosophical Studies...Buddhism is based on human experience and potential....

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Transcript of Religious, Moral and Philosophical Studies...Buddhism is based on human experience and potential....