Religions 19: Roman Religious Religions 19: Roman Religious PolicyPolicy

Was there a Roman policy?Was there a Roman policy? NO! Not in sense of a systematic, deliberate policy NO! Not in sense of a systematic, deliberate policy

(this could not be since the Empire did not have a (this could not be since the Empire did not have a central religious institution to enforce measures)central religious institution to enforce measures)

Roman measures only in response to stimuli from Roman measures only in response to stimuli from within Empire (cf. e.g. letter of Pliny!), so was rather within Empire (cf. e.g. letter of Pliny!), so was rather indirect and incidental, and only when public order indirect and incidental, and only when public order was at stakewas at stake

2 effects of Roman policy:2 effects of Roman policy:- positive: promotion of religious practices from Rome positive: promotion of religious practices from Rome

(applied by local elite): imperial cult + ‘Romanisation’(applied by local elite): imperial cult + ‘Romanisation’- Negative: repression of certain religious ideas and Negative: repression of certain religious ideas and

practicespractices

Terminology for religious Terminology for religious ‘awkwardness’‘awkwardness’

Atheos = Atheos = ‘distanced from gods’ (V BCE) > ‘distanced from gods’ (V BCE) > ‘rejecting or neglecting traditional practices’ (cf. ‘rejecting or neglecting traditional practices’ (cf. asebesasebes). Latin equivalents are ). Latin equivalents are sacrilegus sacrilegus and and impiusimpius

Superstitio Superstitio (Greek (Greek deisidaimoniadeisidaimonia): ‘being deviant’, ): ‘being deviant’, but more defined as the antonym of but more defined as the antonym of religioreligio

Plutarch: regards Plutarch: regards deisidaimonia deisidaimonia as even worse as even worse than than atheosatheos, as the latter is simply rejecting the , as the latter is simply rejecting the gods, whereas in the former people hate the gods gods, whereas in the former people hate the gods and blame them for everything; end result: and blame them for everything; end result: atheismatheism

How did religious authority How did religious authority handle these cases?handle these cases?

Religious authority (together with other powers) in hands of Religious authority (together with other powers) in hands of elite: any other claims to religious authority were thus elite: any other claims to religious authority were thus subversive > potential action (mostly indirectsubversive > potential action (mostly indirect/laissez faire/laissez faire))::

- priestly castes (Egypt, Judaea: under close scrutiny; Gaul: - priestly castes (Egypt, Judaea: under close scrutiny; Gaul: Druids abolished)Druids abolished)

- Claims to authority by individuals: always problem, cf. e.g. Claims to authority by individuals: always problem, cf. e.g. execution of Jesusexecution of Jesus

- Esoteric wisdom: burning of prophetic texts under Augustus Esoteric wisdom: burning of prophetic texts under Augustus (12 BCE)(12 BCE)

* However, these measures were ambivalent or even * However, these measures were ambivalent or even contradictory: one hand, regarded as ‘superstition’, other contradictory: one hand, regarded as ‘superstition’, other hand, divination was major part of civic cults (might end up hand, divination was major part of civic cults (might end up in wrong hands)in wrong hands)

Religious policy was thus mainly reactive Religious policy was thus mainly reactive and only in response to disturbance of public and only in response to disturbance of public orderorder

We can thus speak of ‘religious policy’ as the We can thus speak of ‘religious policy’ as the whole group of ad-hoc measures pertaining whole group of ad-hoc measures pertaining to religion taken by the Roman governmentto religion taken by the Roman government

Still we can study:Still we can study:

a.a. Patterns in these ad-hoc measuresPatterns in these ad-hoc measures

b.b.Exceptional cases where government did Exceptional cases where government did impose measures (i.e. was not reactive)impose measures (i.e. was not reactive)

Three CasesThree Cases

1. magic: see class on Religious Options 1. magic: see class on Religious Options and Apuleius’ and Apuleius’ ApologyApology

2. Judaism: ancient, certain tendencies in 2. Judaism: ancient, certain tendencies in philosophy agree on description of God.philosophy agree on description of God.

However, ‘strange’ aspects: circumcision, However, ‘strange’ aspects: circumcision, abstention from meat, Sabbath, worship abstention from meat, Sabbath, worship of exclusive God in Jerusalemof exclusive God in Jerusalem

More serious: Judaeans set themselves More serious: Judaeans set themselves apart from public worship > tensionapart from public worship > tension

1 BCE edict of Augustus (READ)1 BCE edict of Augustus (READ) 41 CE: Claudius on Alexandrian riots41 CE: Claudius on Alexandrian riots Ca. 49 CE: Judaeans banned from RomeCa. 49 CE: Judaeans banned from Rome Few years later: incident of Paul in Ephesus Few years later: incident of Paul in Ephesus

(Judaean community distances itself from Paul)(Judaean community distances itself from Paul) 66-73 CE: Judaean War (temple destroyed 70)66-73 CE: Judaean War (temple destroyed 70) 115-7: Judaean revolt in Egypt115-7: Judaean revolt in Egypt 132-5: Bar Kochba revolt (Jerusalem refounded 132-5: Bar Kochba revolt (Jerusalem refounded

as Roman colony)as Roman colony)

Consequence of destruction of Consequence of destruction of Temple in 70: Romans took away Temple in 70: Romans took away Judaean sacrificial cult and Judaean sacrificial cult and priesthood > without central focus of priesthood > without central focus of cult, ethnic identity Judaeans was cult, ethnic identity Judaeans was severely damaged and transformed severely damaged and transformed > rabbis, writing down of oral > rabbis, writing down of oral traditions = normative Judaism of traditions = normative Judaism of later timeslater times

3. Christianity3. Christianity

‘‘Strange’ aspects: follow convicted Strange’ aspects: follow convicted criminal, whom they worship as ‘God’; criminal, whom they worship as ‘God’; strange habits like eating his body and strange habits like eating his body and drinking his blood (cannibalism); ‘secret’ drinking his blood (cannibalism); ‘secret’ meetingsmeetings

As with Judaeans, main problem, As with Judaeans, main problem, however, was absence in public cults however, was absence in public cults and, in contrast to Judaeans, they did not and, in contrast to Judaeans, they did not have old tradition > ‘depraved have old tradition > ‘depraved superstitio’superstitio’

Before mid-II CE: Roman measures Before mid-II CE: Roman measures sporadic and sporadic and ad hocad hoc

- 64 CE: fire of Rome, Christians 64 CE: fire of Rome, Christians scapegoats (Tacitus)scapegoats (Tacitus)

- Ca. 110 CE: Pliny on ChristiansCa. 110 CE: Pliny on Christians

* Imperial policy against Christians: * Imperial policy against Christians: ‘persecutions’ (though it only concerns ‘persecutions’ (though it only concerns measures by 3 emperors, so no measures by 3 emperors, so no systematic policy)systematic policy)

249: edict of Decius > everyone has to sacrifice 249: edict of Decius > everyone has to sacrifice (not anti-Christian, but would have had effect on (not anti-Christian, but would have had effect on Christian communities)Christian communities)

257-60: Valerian: clergy should ‘acknowledge’ 257-60: Valerian: clergy should ‘acknowledge’ traditional practices; no Christian meetings, traditional practices; no Christian meetings, Christian elite should renounce; punishment of Christian elite should renounce; punishment of clergy > aimed at organization of Churchclergy > aimed at organization of Church

303-11: ‘Great Persecutions’: destructions of 303-11: ‘Great Persecutions’: destructions of sacred texts and meeting places, confiscation of sacred texts and meeting places, confiscation of Church property, restrictions on legal + social Church property, restrictions on legal + social privileges of Christians; later: sacrifice for clergy, privileges of Christians; later: sacrifice for clergy, then all Christians then all Christians

249 set precedent for seeing Roman religion 249 set precedent for seeing Roman religion as a unified system (sole thing that connected as a unified system (sole thing that connected everything: sacrifice) > Empire wide measureseverything: sacrifice) > Empire wide measures

311: Galerius: ‘edict of toleration’311: Galerius: ‘edict of toleration’ 313: edict of Milan (Constantine + Licinius): 313: edict of Milan (Constantine + Licinius):

Church property given back, Christianity Church property given back, Christianity regarded as on equal footing with traditional regarded as on equal footing with traditional cults and practicescults and practices

From Constantine, Christianity gradually From Constantine, Christianity gradually becomes state-favoured religionbecomes state-favoured religion