Reimagining and Reconfiguring New York City’s...

ThiscasewaswrittenbyDavidLuberoff,LectureronSociologyatHarvardUniversity,fortheprojecton“TransformingUrbanTransport–theRoleofPoliticalLeadership,”atHarvard’sGraduateSchoolofDesign(GSD),withfinancingfromtheVolvoEducationalandResearchFoundations(VREF).AlanAltshuler,DistinguishedServiceProfessoratHarvardemeritus,providedcounselandeditingassistance.Theauthorisresponsibleforthefactsandtheaccuracyoftheinformationinthecase,whichdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofVREForGSD.

©2016byThePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege

ReimaginingandReconfiguringNewYorkCity’sStreetsByDavidLuberoff

HeraldSquareaftertheintroductionofpedestrianplazasandbikelanes(PhotofromNYCDOT)

TableofContentsOverview:FromSaltPiletoVisionZero.................................................................1Background:PlaNYCandtheTransformationofNewYork.....................................4

MayorBloomberg’sGrowthStrategy......................................................................5NYCDOTBeforePlaNYC...........................................................................................6RedefiningNYCDOT’sMission.................................................................................7

Implementing(andExpanding)thePlan..............................................................12Sadik-KhanHitstheGroundRunning.....................................................................13TappingthePowerofInterimProjects..................................................................19LeveragingtheBenefitsofPartnerships................................................................20UsingDatatoTransformTimesSquare..................................................................23DevelopingNationalGuidelines.............................................................................29

BikelashandtheRedefinitionofNewYork’sTransportationAgenda................31TheBattleofProspectParkWest...........................................................................31MayordeBlasioandtheCampaignforVisionZero...............................................35ImplementingVisionZero......................................................................................38

Endnotes.............................................................................................................42Bibliography........................................................................................................51

Version:January21,2016

FiguresFigure1:WilloughbyPlaza.....................................................................................10

Figure2:NinthAvenueBeforeandAfterChanges................................................15

Figure3:CitiBikeServiceAreas.............................................................................23

Figure4:TimesSquareBeforeandAfterChanges................................................24

Figure5:TrafficFatalitiesinNewYorkCity,2001-2014........................................28

Figure6:ProspectParkWestBeforeandAfterChanges.......................................32

Figure7:CitiBikeStation.......................................................................................35

Figure8:RallyforPoliciesRelatedtoVisionZero..................................................40

MadisonSquareaftertheintroductionofpedestrianplazasandbicyclelanes*

*Unlessotherwisenoted,allphotographsarefromtheNYCDepartmentofTransportationandarereprintedwithpermission.


Overview:FromSaltPiletoVisionZeroBysomeaccounts,effortstorelocateacitysaltpileinNewYork’sEastHarlem

neighborhoodinthemid2000striggeredtheprocessthatoverthelastdecadehasfundamentallychangedNewYorkCity’sstreets.

Until2007,whenthecityreleasedPlaNYC,itscomprehensivelong-rangeplan,itsDepartmentofTransportation(DOT)generallyfocusedonoptimizingtheflowofmotorvehiclesonthecity’sstreetswhilealsoaccommodatingthepedestriansonadjacentsidewalksandcyclistsusingthestreets.ThisfocushadbeguntoshiftduringtheprocessofpreparingPlaNYC,andDOTnowismuchmoreconcernedwithmakingNewYork’sstreetsandsidewalkssaferandmoreappealingforbothpedestriansandbicyclistswhilealsoaccommodatingmotorvehicles.

Illustratively,since2007NewYorkCityhasconverted(orisintheprocessofconverting)morethan40acresofroadwayintomorethan70newpedestrianplazasinlocationsthatincludetheworld-famousTimesSquare,busyregionalcommercialcenterssuchasJacksonHeightsinQueens,andsmallerlocalcommercialareassuchasFultonStreetinBrooklyn’sClintonHillneighborhood.Thecityhasalsobuiltmorethan400milesofinterconnectedbicyclelanesandlaunchedCitiBike,whichisboththenation’slargestandmostheavilyusedbike-sharingsystemandtheworld’sfirstlarge-scale,unsubsidizedbike-sharesystem.Aswell,NewYorkCityhaslowereditsspeedlimits,redesignednumerousstreetsandintersectionstomakethemsaferforpedestrians,cyclists,andmotorists,and,inseveralheavilytravelledcorridors,launched“SelectBusService,”whichincludesmanyelementsassociatedwithfull-scaleBusRapidTransit(BRT)systems.

WhiletheseeffortsdrewonapproachespioneeredinEuropeancities,thespeedandscopeofNewYork’seffortshasdrawninternationalacclaimandhelpedinspirepolicymakersinotherAmericancities.Forexample,in2012thesecondLeeKuanYewWorldCityPrizehonoredthen-NYCMayorMichaelBloombergandkeycitydepartmentsfor“strategicallyorchestratingtheremarkabletransformationofNewYorkCityoverthelastdecade”viaa“holisticandintegrated”seriesofinitiativesthatincludedthenewbikelanesandplazas.1

Howcouldallofthishaveoriginatedwithapileofroadsalt,whichhadbeenlocatedforover30yearsonaHarlemRiverwharfnear125thStreet?Inthemid2000s,thecitywantedtomovethepilesoitcouldusethesiteasastagingareaforthereconstructionofanearbybridgeandthenrepurposeitaspartofalong-discussedextensionofanexistingEastRiveresplanade.However,forseveralyears,thisplanhadbeenblockedbylocaloppositiontoeveryproposednewsiteforthepile.

Thecitydidultimatelyfindarelocationsite,butduringthiscontentiousprocessDanielDoctoroff,thecity’sDeputyMayorforEconomicDevelopmentandReconstructionfrom2002until2008,becameconvincedoftheneedtoexpandastrategicland-useplanningprocesshehadinitiatedin2005.Inparticular,theplanningneededtoincludeadetailedexaminationofthecity-ownedsitescurrentlyhousingunpopularbutnecessaryusesthatthecitymightwanttorelocateaspartof

ReimaginingandReconfiguringNewYorkCity’sStreets Page2


itsambitiouseffortstoredevelopformerindustrialareas.Asthisprocessgotunderway,Doctoroffandhisstaffconcludedthatthecity“reallyneededsomethingbigger,somethingbroader,[and]somethingmoreintegrated,”2anddevelopacoordinatedstrategytoaccommodatethemillionnewresidentsthatplannersprojectedwouldbelivinginNewYorkby2025.

WorkingwithhundredsofofficialsfromthekeycityagenciesandleadersofNewYork’scivicgroups–anddrawingonideasthatadvocatesandsomebusinessleadershadbeenpromotingforseveralyears–Doctoroff’sofficeultimatelydevelopedPlaNYC.ReleasedinApril2007,theplancontained127detailedproposalsintenkeyareas,amongthemtransportation,whereitcalledforimposingcongestionchargesinManhattan,withthenetrevenueallocatedtowardrenovationandexpansionoftheregion’srailtransitsystem,creatingahostofnewpedestrianplazasonstreetsandintersectionsownedbyDOT,expandingthecity’snascentnetworkofbicyclelanes,andrebuildingkeyintersectionsandstreetstomakethemsaferforpedestriansandcyclists.Incallingfortheseandotherpolicies,theplannoted:

Theworldisadifferentplacetodaythanitwashalfacenturyago.OurcompetitiontodayisnolongeronlycitieslikeChicagoandLosAngeles–it’salsoLondonandShanghai.Citiesaroundtheworldarepushingthemselvestobecomemoreconvenientandenjoyable,withoutsacrificingexcitementorenergy.Inordertocompeteinthe21stcenturyeconomy,wemustnotonlykeepupwiththeinnovationsofothers,butalsosurpassthem.3

DevelopingStrategiestoAdvancethePlan

ThetaskoftranslatingthetransportationrecommendationsintoactionfelltoJanetteSadik-Khan,whoBloomberg(withDoctoroff’senthusiasticsupport)appointedasNYCDOTcommissionerafewdaysafterPlaNYCwasreleased.Sadik-Khan,whohadpreviouslyworkedontransportationissuesforthecityandthefederalgovernment,andasaconsultantwithParsonsBrinckerhoff,embracedPlaNYC’scoreideaofconvertingasmallshareofthecity’sroadsintoplazasandbicyclelanes.Asshenotedin2010:

Idon’thatecars.It’samatterofbalance.Untilafewyearsago,ourstreetslookedthesameastheydid50yearsago.That’snotagoodbusiness,tonotupdatesomethingin50years.We’reupdatingourstreetstoreflectthewaysthatpeoplelivenow.Andwe’redesigningacityforpeople,notacityforvehicles.”4Thecongestion-pricingproposalappearedtoenjoybroadpopularsupportinthe

city,butitalsorequiredstateapproval,whichultimatelywasnotforthcoming.Inthewakeofthatdefeat,Sadik-KhanfocusedevenmoreintenselyonthepedestrianandbicyclingelementsofPlaNYC,whichdidnotrequirestateauthorizationorfunding.Indoingso,sheandthetalentedstaffsheassembleddrewonworkdoneinavarietyofEuropeancitiesandparticularlyontheideasofJanGehl,aDanisharchitectandurbandesignerbestknownforhisextensiveworkinCopenhagen.However,theyalsodevelopedandhonedfournewstrategiesofnote.



First,NYCDOTmovedquickly,usingpaintandeasilyavailablematerials,suchasbouldersandplanters,tocreatenewplazasandbikelanesas“interim”projectsthatcouldbeeasilyremovedorchanged.Thisapproachhelpedalleviatepotentialopponents’concernswhilealsodemonstratingthepent-updemandforsuchfacilitiesandprovidingimportantinsightsasmoredurableimprovementsweresubsequentlyundertaken.

Second,NewYorkreliedonpartnershipswithnon-governmentalentitiestofund,sponsor,andsupportkeyelementsofitsprogram.ManyoftheplazaswerebuiltinpartnershipwithpubliclyauthorizedbutprivatelycontrolledBusinessImprovementDistricts(BIDs),whichgenerallyprovideenhancedsanitationandsecurityservicesaswellasmarketingandprogrammingdesignedtobringpeopletotheareastheyserve.5Similarly,NewYork’sbike-sharingsystemwastheworld’sfirsttobebuiltandoperatedwithoutdirectorindirectpublicsubsidiesandfinancialguarantees.

Third,NYCDOTmadeextensiveuseofdata,includingdatafromnovelsources.ItusedrecentlyinstalledGPSdevicesinallofitstaxicabstoassesshowclosingBroadwayinTimesandHeraldSquaresaffectedtrafficinMidtownManhattan.Italsocreatedanextensivedatabaseoncrashestohelpdevelopandassessanambitiousefforttoreducethenumberandseverityofinjuriesandfatalitiesfromthosecrashesand,overtime,todocumentthesafetybenefitsofthepedestrianandcyclingimprovements.

Fourth,seekingtoreinforceNewYork’snationalleadershiprole,Sadik-KhanledeffortstorevitalizetheNationalAssociationofCityTransportationOfficials(NACTO)andtohavethegroupproducenewmanualsfocusedonre-designingurbanstreetstoenhancesafetyandamenityforpedestriansandbicyclists.ShealsohelpedgettheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)toapprovethesemanualsasacceptablesupplementstopreviouslyapprovedroaddesignmanualsthatfocusedoverwhelminglyonfacilitatingmotorvehicletrafficflow.

BeyondBikelash:ProtectingtheProgrambyReframingitsMission

DespitethesesuccessesandplauditsbythemiddleofBloomberg’sthird(andfinal)term,theplazaandbicycleprogramsseemedtobeintrouble.WithpollingshowingthatBloomberg’spopularityhadwaned,severalleadingcandidatesquestionedwhetherhisurbanstreetsinitiativestrulyreflectedNewYorkers’valuesandsomeindicatedthat,ifelected,theymightconsiderremovingsomebikelanesandplazas,includingthesignatureoneinTimesSquare.

LeadersofTransportationAlternatives(TA),anon-profitthathadbeenattheforefrontofeffortstoremakethecity’sstreets,respondedwithtwointerrelatedinitiativesthatsucceededinprotectingkeyelementsoftheprogram.First,theyreframedtheinitiativesaspartofabroadersafety-orientedagendathatpollingshowedwasparticularlypopularwithvoters.Inparticular,theyconvincedBilldeBlasio,whowaselectedinNovember2013,toembrace“VisionZero,”anapproachdevelopedinSwedenthatuseslowerspeedlimits,improvedroadwaydesigns,andeducationtogreatlyreduce(andhopefullyeliminate)deathsfromcrashes.



Second,TAhelpedfosterthedevelopmentof“FamiliesforSafeStreets,”agroupofpeoplewhohadbeeninjuredincrashesorlostlovedonestothemwhoactivelylobbiedfortheVisionZeroapproach.Byputtingahumanfaceonthestatisticsaboutcrashes,membersofthenewgroupplayedakeyroleinadvancingtheVisionZeroagenda,particularlyelementsthatrequiredchangesinstatelaws.

Whileitistooearlytotellifthenewfocusonsafetywilldramaticallyreducethecrashtoll,therearepromisingsignsthatthenumberofthosekilledorseriouslyinjuredisfalling.ThedeBlasioadministrationalsohaspledgedtomaintainexistingbicyclelanesandpedestrianplazasandtobuildnewones.ThoughthecommitmenttoexistingplazashaswaveredabitinTimesSquare,thebroadercampaigntomakethecity’sstreetsmorepedestrian-andcyclist-friendlyseemstobefirmlyontrack.

Background:PlaNYCandtheTransformationofNewYorkLongthenation’smostpopulouscity,NewYork,morethandoubledits

populationinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.By1950itwashometo7.9millionpeople,morethantwiceasmanyasChicago,thenthenation’ssecondlargestcity.Afterremainingroughlystableforthenexttwodecades,NewYorkCity’spopulationnotonlybecamesignificantlymorediverse,italsofellto7.1millionpeoplein1980adeclineofmorethan10percent.Theseshifts,whichmirroredevengreatertransformationsanddeclinesinthepopulationsofotherlargeNortheasternandMidwesterncities,suchasChicago,Philadelphia,andDetroit,6fueledahostofcivicproblems,whichtheopeningparagraphofPlaNYCsummedupbynoting:“Governmentflirtedwithbankruptcy.Businessespulledupstakes.Homeswereabandoned.Parkswereneglected.Neighborhoodscollapsed.Subwaysbrokedown.Crimespiraledoutofcontrol.NewYorkseemedunsafe,undesirable,ungovernable,[and]unsolvable.”7

Unlikemanyothercold-weathercities,NewYorkCitydidnotcontinuetolosepopulationinthelatterpartofthe20thcentury.Rather,itstartedtogrow–modestlyinthe1980sandmorerapidlyinthe1990s–sothatby2000itwashometo8millionpeople,morethaneverbeforeinitshistory(andmorethanthepopulationof38U.S.states).Moreover,thecitybecameevenmorediverseandbeganattractingandretainingmoremiddle-andupper-incomeresidents.

NewYork’sdeclinewasdriveninlargemeasurebyashiftinthecity’seconomyawayfrommanufacturingjobs,whereasitsresurgencewasdrivenbyphenomenalgrowth(after1980)initsfinance,management,andbusinessservicesectors.ItsmanufacturingemploymentfellfromnearlyonemillionintheimmediateaftermathofWorldWarIItojustover100,000in2007.Incontrast,itsemploymentinfinance,management,andprofessionalserviceswentfromlessthanonemillionpeoplein1960and1.2millionin1977tomorethan2.6millionin2008.8Asaresultoftheseshifts,theshareofjobsinNewYorkthatwereinFinance,InsuranceorRealEstate(FIRE),rosefromabout7percentinthe1950s,1960s,andearly1970s,toabout12percentbytheearly1980sandhasremainedataboutthisleveleversince.9



Followingthecity’snear-bankruptcyin1975,andmajorincreasesincrimeduringthe1970sand1980s,NewYorkunderwentaseriesofreformsthatplaceditonasoundfinancialfooting(duringtheearlyyearsofthisperiod)andsubsequentlyestablisheditasapioneerincrimecontrol.10Violentcrimedroppeddramatically,particularlyaftertheNewYorkPoliceDepartmentlauncheditsawardwinningCompStatprogramintheearly1990s.TherevivalofNewYorkCityalsoincludedanimportanttransportationcomponent.Withmajorinfusionsofstateandfederalfunding,theregion’srailandbussystems,whichthecitydoesnotcontrol,weremodernizedstartinginthe1980sandbythemid-2000s,transitpatronagehit50-yearhighs.11MajorpublicfacilitiessuchasCentralParkandBryantParkwerethoroughlyrevivedaswell,andinnumerouscasesarenowmanagedbyBIDsandothernon-profitentities.Finally,withenormousinfusionsofcityinvestment,tensofthousandsofonce-abandonedhousingunitswererenovatedorreplacedwhileseveralonce-workingclassneighborhoodshavegentrified.

MayorBloomberg’sGrowthStrategy

Bloomberg,whobeforerunningformayorhadfoundedandheadedBloombergL.P,amajorfinancialsoftware,data,andmediacompany,andwhowasreportedlytherichestpersoninNewYork,tookofficeinJanuary2002,justafewmonthsafterthe9/11attacksandinthemidstofadownturninthenationaleconomy.HewascommittednotonlytorebuildingLowerManhattan,butalsomoregenerallytothecity’seconomicrecoveryandgrowth.Ashesaidinhis2003StateoftheCityaddress:

NewYorkisinafierce,worldwidecompetition;ourstrategymustbetohoneourcompetitiveadvantages.Wemustofferthebestproduct–andsellit,forcefully.…Ouruniquevalueaddedisourdiverseeightmillioncitizensandworkforce.It’swhatmakesusthebestcitytoliveinanddobusiness.Tocapitalizeonthatstrength,we’llcontinuetotransformNewYorkphysically–givingitroomtogrowforthenextcentury–tomakeitevenmoreattractivetotheworld’smosttalentedpeople.12Inkeepingwithhisgeneralapproachtomanagement,BloomberggaveDoctoroff

greatleewaytodevelopandadvancethespecificsofthisbroadagenda,whileretaininghisauthoritytoquestionrecommendationsandtomakethemostconsequentialdecisions.Doctorofflaterrecalled:

Themayorprovidedahugeumbrellaforpeoplewhowereambitious,andwhowerewillingtotakerisks.…Youcan’tover-appreciatetheimportanceofhiscreatingthatkindofenvironment,andthenbeingwillingtobackitwithareallystaunchloyaltyandawillingnessto[publiclysupporteffortsby]repeat[ing]thestoryoverandoverandoveragain.Doctoroffandotherkeyofficialsbelievedthatwhilethecityhadbeenableto

accommodateitsgrowthsincethe1980sinexistingresidentialandcommercialareas,futuregrowthshouldbedirectedmainlytolocationssuchastheEastRiverwaterfrontinBrooklyn,where,inDoctoroff’swords,the“declineinmanufacturing[had]leftlargeswathsoflandessentiallyvacantorunderutilized.”13



Theadministrationlinkedthesedevelopmentgoalswiththecity’sultimatelyunsuccessfulbid,whichDoctoroffled,tohostthe2012Olympics.Aspartofthateffort,NYC2012,anonprofitthatDoctoroffhadfoundedbeforeenteringtheadministration,hiredAlexanderGarvin,oneofthenation’smosteminentarchitectsandurbanplanners(withextensiveNewYorkexperience)todevelopaplanshowinghowthecitycouldaccommodatetheOlympicfacilitiesinolderindustrialareas.Theexpectationwasthatthesefacilitieswouldsubsequentlyberepurposedforlong-termredevelopment.Intheend,London,notNewYork,wasselectedtohostthe2012Olympics.However,NewYorkcontinuedtobuildontheland-useagendathathadbeendevelopedinconnectionwithitsbid.Mostnotably,theBloombergAdministrationmovedforwardwithplanstoredevelopsuchareasasthefarWestSideinmidtownManhattanandtheEastRiverwaterfrontinBrooklynandtoextendthesubwaytothefarWestSideaswell.Aspartoftheseandotherefforts,theCityPlanningCommissionultimatelyrezoned37percentofthecity.14

NYCDOTBeforePlaNYC

TheOlympicplanincludedanextensionofthecity’ssubwaysystemtotheFarWestSideandnewferryservicesontheEastRiver.However,itdidnotcallformajorchangesatNYCDOT,whichoverseesmorethan6,000milesofstreets,morethan12,000milesofsidewalks,andover12,000signalizedintersections,aswellastheStatenIslandFerry.DOTCommissionerIrisWeinshall,arespectedpublicadministratorwhowasinitiallyappointedbyMayorRudolphGiulianiandreappointedbyBloomberg,hadfocusedonimprovingthebasicmanagementofthedepartment,whichhadbeenledbyfourcommissionersinsixyearspriortoherappointment.Therebuiltagency’sstaffprimarilyhadfocusedonbasicoperationsandimprovingtrafficflow.Thismeantthatforthemostpart,DOTresistedadvocates’callsforsubstantialexpansionofthecity’snascentnetworkofbicyclelanesandfornewpoliciesassigningmorestreetspacetopedestrians.Infact,MichaelPrimeggia,whowasthedepartment’slong-timedeputycommissioneroftrafficoperations,wasknowntomanyas“Dr.No”forhisoppositiontoavarietyofproposals,suchasacallbytheTimesSquareAlliance,abusiness-backednon-profit,towidensidewalkstobetteraccommodatethatarea’sgrowingnumberofpedestrians.15Toalargeextent,NYCDOT’sprioritiesseemedtoreflectthevaluesofthemayor,whoobservedin2006that:“weliketraffic[because]itmeanseconomicactivity[and]itmeanspeoplecominghere.”16

NYCDOT’sprioritiesfrustratedseveralofDOT’snewerstaffmembers,whoweremoresupportiveofeffortstoencouragebicyclingandimprovedpedestrianfacilities.InJuly2006,AndrewVesselinovitch,whohaddirectedNYCDOT’sbicycleprogramssince2001,announcedhisresignationviaawidelydistributedemail,whichlaterbecamethebasisforaNewYorkTimesop-ed.Intheemail,hechargedthatWeinshallandhertopaideshadstymiedimplementationofalong-standingcityplantoincreasethenumberofbikelanesonthecity’sstreets.“Iwaitedforalongtimeforthedirectionfromthecommissioner'sofficetochange,orforthecommissionertobechanged,”heconcluded.“Ihopethatyouwon'thavetowaitmuchlonger.”17



RedefiningNYCDOT’sMission

Bymid2005thecity’seconomywasdoingsowellthatitwasstrainingexistingfacilitiesandnetworks.TimTompkins,whohasbeenpresidentoftheTimesSquareAlliancesince2002,recentlycommented:“Theproblemusedtobethatyoucouldn’tgetthroughTimesSquarewithoutbeingkilledormugged.Bythemid2000s,youjustcouldn’tgetthroughTimesSquare.”18

Theemergenceofsuchproblems,alongwiththeexperienceoftryingtorelocatefacilitiesliketheEastHarlemsaltpileconvincedDoctoroffthattheadministrationshouldemphasizestrategicland-useplanninginthemayor’ssecondterm,withafocussubstantiallyon“thestrugglesthatagrowingpopulationactuallycreates,intermsofcrowds,noise,thedifficultyofgettingaround,etc.”19Doctoroffalsobelievedthatratherthanturningthisworkovertothecity’splanningcommissionanditscityplanningdepartment,thiseffortshoulddirectlymanagedbyhisoffice,whichoversawabout40unitsinvolvedinphysicaldevelopment–includingDOT,whichuntilrecentlyhadreportedtothedeputymayorforoperations.Helaterexplained:

Thereasonwhygovernment–oranybigbureaucracy–movesslowlyislargely[because]ofeitheragencycompetitionormisalignedagencypriorities.…Andgovernment…oranylargebureaucracy…worksbest…whenthereissomeonewhoisempoweredtomakedecisionsandmovethingsalong.Soif[theplanningprocess]hadbeenlefttothecityplanningcommission,wewouldnothavebeenabletogettherapidbuy-inthatIneededtomovethingsalong,becauseitwouldnothavebeentheDepartmentofTransportation'spriority.…Iwouldhavehadtorideherdoverthem,ratherthanjustgettingeveryonetocooperate,whichweweregettingprettygoodat.…Infact,virtuallyeverysingleoneofthemajorinitiativesdoneduringtheBloombergadministrationwhileIwastherewas…drivenoutofCityHall.Theremighthavebeenalead[lineagency],butreallyitwasmeandmyteam…gettingpeople[fromdifferentagencies]toworktogether.20Astheplanningprocessmovedforward,twotransportation-relatedissues

movedtothefore.Thefirstwastrafficcongestion.EventhoughNewYorkersweremuchmorelikelythanotherAmericanstousetransitorwalktowork,thecity’scongestionwasamongthenation’sworst,andlikelytobecomeevenmoresevereiftheprojectedgrowthinjobs,residents,andvisitorsactuallyoccurred.Aprimarystrategyfordoingsowastoprovidemorealternativestodriving,mostnotablyexpandingtheregion’srailtransitsystem(whichwouldrequiresubstantialnewfinancialresources)butalsoencouragingtravelbyalternativemodes,suchasbicyclesandwalking.Illustratively,inaMay2006reportcommissionedbyDoctoroff’sofficeaspartoftheplanningprocess,Garvinwarned:“Ifthecity’sinfrastructuredoesnotexpandtoaccommodatenewgrowth,thecitywillnotbeabletoprovidecitizenswiththehighlevelofservicethatpastresidentshaveenjoyedandthathasmadethecitysocompetitive.”21Thesecondwaslackofopenspaceinboththecity’smajorcommercialareasanditsgrowingneighborhoods.



Sincebuyinglandfornewparkswaslikelytobeprohibitivelyexpensive,theplannersbegantofocusonlandthecityalreadyowned,suchastheEastHarlempier,which–like80percentofthecity-ownedlandinNewYorkCity–wasownedbyNYCDOT.

LookingAbroadforIdeas

Internationally,ahostofcities,particularlyinWesternEurope,hadbeengrapplingwithsimilarissuesformanyyears.Copenhagen,forexample,hadspentdecadesconvertinglargeamountsofitsstreetspaceintopedestrianplazasandbicyclelanes.LondonandStockholmhadintroducedcongestionpricingschemesin2003and2006respectively.Parishadcreatedpopularsummer“beachesalongtheriverSeineandwaspreparingtolaunchVélib’,amassivebicycle-sharingsystem.Garvin’sMay2006reportcitedmanyoftheseinitiativesandapproachesinsupportofitscontentionthat:

Thecity’sstreets,sidewalks,parks,andplazascanbecomea“mixed-use”publicrealmthatbalancespedestriansandcyclistswithmotorvehiclesandmasstransit.Greeningboulevards,protectedbikelanes,Sundayclosings,andpedestrianreclamationsarefourstrategiestocreatethisbalanceonstreetsthroughoutthefiveboroughs.22

Thereport,whichalsolistedspecificareasripeforthesetreatments–includingTimesSquareinmid-ManhattanandtheGrandConcourseintheBronx–addedthat:

…afundamentalshiftneedstooccurinplanningandcapitalinvestmentforstreets.Currently,theDOTincludespublicrealmimprovementsasasubsidiaryoftrafficimprovementsbutonlywhenthepublicrealmimprovementdoesnotlimitprojectedtrafficflow.Vehiculartrafficisonecomponent,albeitanessentialone,ofthemixed-usepublicrealm.Itdoesnotalwaysdeservethehighestpriority.Sometimesamorepedestrian[friendly]environmentpromotesgreatereconomicdevelopment,trumpingtraditionaltrafficcapacityrequirements.23

AGrowingNetworkofLocalSupportforNewApproaches

WhileGarvinprovidedanimportantaffirmationofnewpolicyapproaches,PaulSteelyWhite,executivedirectorofTransportationAlternatives(TA),maintainsthat“themoresignificantstory…isthattherewasacommunityofNewYorkers–frombloggerstoadvocatestoplannerstophilanthropists”whobelievedthatifthecitycould“returnourstreetstothepeople,wecouldleave[behind]anenvironmentallegacyandasafetylegacy”andthat“thecitywasonthecuspofdoingsomethingamazing”inthisdomain.24

TAhadbeenfoundedinthe1970stoadvocateforbicycle-friendlypolicies.Nowitbegantofocusequallyonpedestrian-friendlypolicies.ItsexpandedeffortswerefacilitatedbylargecontributionsfromMarkGorton,ahedgefundmanager,entrepreneur,andavidcyclistwhogaveTAabout$5millionbetween2002and2012.25TAjoinedwithTheOpenPlanningProject(TOPP),anon-profitfoundedby



GortonfocusedontheuseoftechnologytoimprovestreetsandopenspacesinNewYork,andtheProjectforPublicSpaces(PPS),aninfluentialnon-profitlongfocusedonthecreativedesignandmanagementofpublicspaces,“todevelopanewcampaignmodelfortransportationreform.”Theeffortbeganformallyinearly2006withanexhibitionattheMunicipalArtsSocietythatexplored“theproblems,myths,andpotentialofNYC’strafficdominatedstreets,”andshowed“howcitiesaroundtheworldareaddressingsimilarissues.”Thecampaignalsoincludedaseriesofhigh-profileeventswithoutsideexperts,suchasGehl,andeffortscarriedoutinpartnershipwithinnovativeBIDsandothercommunitygroups.26

GortonalsoprovidedfundingtolaunchStreetfilms,whichproducedshort,onlinefilms“showinghowsmarttransportationdesignandpolicycanresultinbetterplacestoworkandplay,”aswellasStreetsblog,ablogontransportationissuesinNewYorkCity.Thesitesoondrew30,000-to-90,000uniquevisitorsamonth.FormerNYCDOTspokeswomanKaySarlintoldTheNewYorkTimesinJune2007:“BeforeStreetsbloglaunched,therewasnocentralizedforumforpeoplewhoarepassionateabouttransportation.Advocatesgainedapowerfulallywithitsinception,becausereportersandgovernmentofficialsstartedreadingthesite.”27AaronNaparstek,theblog’sfoundingeditor,adds:“Wehadthisaudienceofone:DanDoctoroff.WewantedhimtoknowthatNewYorkCitytransportationpolicywasreallyanembarrassmentandwewerebeinglappedbyLondonandParis.”28

Ataboutthistime,businessentitiesalsobegancallingonthecitytoexploreandadaptapproachestakenelsewhere.Forexample,thePartnershipfortheCityofNewYork,agroupof200CEOs,begansoundingavocalalarmaboutthedangersthatgrowingcongestioncreatedforthecity’seconomy.Toaddresstheproblem,theycalledonthecitytoexamineavarietyofstrategiesformanagingcongestion,includingcongestionpricing.29Bylate2006,congestionpricingalsowassupportedbyseveralotherentitiesfromacrosstheideologicalspectrum.30However,Bloombergwaswary.Whileheagreedthatcongestionwasagrowingprobleminthecity,henotedthatcongestionpricingneededtheapprovalofthestatelegislaturewhereitwaslikelytobestronglyopposedbymembersfromoutlyingboroughsandthecity’ssuburbs.“Wecouldnevergetitpassed,”heobservedinlate2006.“And…Iwantto…focusonthosethingsthatwecangetpassed.”31

Inaddition,bythemid-2000s,manybusinessesandbusinessleadershadalsobecomestrongsupportersofimprovedparksandplazas,whichtheyviewedasenhancingthevalueofnearbyproperties.Illustratively,inthemid2000s,theprivatelyfundedCentralParkConservancy,whichhadbeenfoundedin1980,hadraisedmorethan$325milliontorestoreandmaintainthepark,whichithashadacontracttomanagesince1997.Similarly,inthelate1980sandearly1990s,anon-profitcorporationandnearbyBusinessImprovementDistrictjoinedforcestorenovateandmanageBryantPark,acity-ownedparklocatedbehindintheNewYorkPublicLibraryinmidtownManhattan.Andintheearly2000s,theBloombergadministrationsupportedthecreationoftheHighLine,alinearparkbuiltanabandonedelevatedfreightrailroadonthefarWestSideoflowerandmidtown



Manhattanthatprimarilywasfundedbyandnowismaintainedandoperatedbyanon-profitentitybackedbymanyofthearea’smajorpropertyownersandfirms.32

PlaNYCandDOT’sChangeofCourse

InMarch2006NYCDOTsurprisedmanyofitscriticswhenitproposedtoconvertalittle-usedtwo-blockstretchofWilloughbyStreetindowntownBrooklynintoapedestrianplazathatwouldbemanagedbyalocalBID.(SeeFigure1)TheproposalsupposedlycameaboutbecausePrimeggia,whohadbeencalledforjurydutyindowntownBrooklyn,“lookedoutofthecourthousewindowandnoticedthatthejaggedareaformedbyWilloughbyStreetandtheeastofAdamsserviceroadwasfilledwithillegallyparkedcarsandlittletraffic.”33

Figure1:WilloughbyPlaza†

ThatsummerDOTandDoctoroff’sofficebegandevelopingabroaderprogramofpedestrianandcyclingimprovementstobecarriedoutbyDOT.SpeakingatanOctober2006conference,WeinshallsurprisedandpleasedmanyadvocateswhensheannouncedthatDOTwouldcreatefourmorepedestrianplazasinthenextyearandbuild200milesofbicyclelanesoverthenextthreeyears.Thecity’soverallplanningeffortwasalsobeingtransformedinthisperiodtohighlightenvironmentalissues.InSeptember2006BloombergannouncedthecreationofanewOfficeofLong-termPlanningandSustainabilitythatwouldreporttoDoctoroff.“TomakeNewYorkatrulysustainablecity,“themayoradded,“weneedaboldplantouseourlandinthesmartestwaypossible.”34Threemonthslater,hestatedinamajoraddressthatNewYorkCityhadtosimultaneouslyplanforgrowth,rebuilditsbasicinfrastructure,andimproveitsenvironment.Hethendetailedtenspecificgoalsthathisadministration’snewplan,tobecalledPlaNYC,wouldaddresswhenitwasreleasedafewmonthslater.Theseincludedcreating“enoughhousingforalmostamillionmorepeople”and“ensuringthatevenaslandbecomesmorescarce,everyNewYorkerliveswithina10-minutewalkofapark.”Further,hecalledforincreasingthecapacityoftheregion’smasstransitsystem“socongestiondoesn’t

†MapfromNewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation.PhotofromDowntownBrooklynInc.Reprintedwithpermission.



bringoureconomytoagrindinghalt”andforinvestmentthatwouldachieve“afullstateofgoodrepairforNewYorkCity'sroads,subways,andrailsforthefirsttimeinhistory.”Finally,themayorcalledfor“achievingthecleanestairqualityofanybigcityinAmerica.Hedidnot,itbearsnote,mentioncongestionpricinginthistalk,oridentifyrevenuesourcesforhisproposedtransitandroadwayinvestments.35

NewLeadershipforaNewAgenda

WhileWeinshallhadpubliclycommittedDOTtothemayor’snewagenda,shedidnottaketheleadinimplementingit.Rather,inJanuary2007,sheannouncedthatshewasresigningtobecomeavicechancellorattheCityUniversityofNewYork.Afterafewmonths,thesearchforherreplacementnarrowedtotwofinalists.OnewasSadik-Khan,whoatthetimewasaSeniorVicePresidentatParsonsBrinckerhoff,aninternationalengineeringfirm.ShehadpreviouslyservedasDeputyAdministratoroftheFederalTransitAdministrationintheClintonAdministrationandastransportationadvisortoNYCMayorDavidDinkins,whoservedfrom1990until1994.TheotherwasMichaelHorodniceanu,theCEOofaNewYork-basedengineeringfirmwhohadservedasthecity’strafficcommissionerunderDinkins.

AdvocatesoftheemergingnewagendaforNYCDOT,suchasSteelyWhite,pushedforSadik-Khan.“Webasicallydideverythingwecouldtogetherappointed,”hesaid,includingmakingthecaseforhertofriendlyjournalistsandgettingsomeofTA’ssupporterswhowereclosetoBloombergtoputinagoodwordforheraswell.“Andyouknow,itcouldhavehappenedanyway.Asadvocates,it’salwayssortofhardtotellwhetheryoumadeadifferenceornot.”36

However,Sadik-Khan’sinterviewwiththemayorandhissenioraidesdidnotgowell.AskedtodescribeNYCDOT’srecentaccomplishments,shesaid:“nothingofnotehadreallyhappened,”atNYCDOTduringBloomberg’sfirstfiveyearsinoffice.AndwhenBloombergaskedher,“WhydoyouwanttobeTrafficCommissioner?”shesaysshereplied,“’Idon’twanttobeTrafficCommissioner.IwanttobeTransportationCommissioner,”which,shelaterrecalled,“wentoverlikealeadballoon.”Sadik-KhanwentontolayoutavisionthatshethoughtwasconsistentwiththeforthcomingPlaNYC.Whenthemeetingended,sherecalled:

Ithought,well,youknow,Itried.Ihadlaidouttheseprioritiesaboutbusrapidtransitandbikes,congestionpricing,andpedestrianizationinitiatives.Andtherewasnotalotofresponse.SoIthought…theydidn’tliketheideas[eventhoughthey]hadbeensothoroughlyvetted.37Despitetheinterview,Bloomberg,inconsultationwithDoctoroff,decidedto

appointher.DoctoroffexplainedthattheydidsonotonlybecauseSadik-Khan“totallyboughtintothePlaNYCvision”butalsobecauseshewasthe“typeofpersonthatwelikedtohire”–someonewith“highenergy,lotsofideas,[and]sortoffearless.”38

ThemayorreleasedPlaNYConEarthDay(April22)2007,ahighlysymbolicdateforenvironmentalistssince1970.Inasurprisedevelopment,theplannowcalled



foraweekdaycongestion-pricingprograminManhattanbelow86thStreet.Enteringorexitingvehicleswouldbecharged$8aday.Netrevenuesfromthecharges–whichtheplanestimatedwouldrisefrom$380millionayeartoalmost$900millionin2030–wouldbeappliedtowardinvestmentsintheregion’stransitsystem,whichthecityprojectedwouldcost(withfederalandstateparticipation)about$30billionintotaloverthisperiod.39

PlaNYCalsoproposedavarietyofothertransportation-relatedinitiativesandchanges,virtuallyallofthemmeasuresthatthecitycouldcarryoutonitsown.Mostnotably,itcalledforthecreationorenhancementofatleastonepublicplaza(usuallyonDOT-ownedland)ineachofthecity’s59CommunityBoarddistricts,completionofthecity’s1,800-milebicyclemasterplan,andtheexplorationofopportunitiesforacitywidebicycle-sharingprogramaswellasenhancedbusservicesandnewferryservice.40

Implementing(andExpanding)thePlanFivedaysfollowingthereleaseofPlaNYCBloombergannouncedSadik-Khan’s

appointmentascommissioner.Pedestrianandcyclingadvocateshailedtheappointment.SteelyWhiteasserted:“Ms.Sadik-Khanhastwothingsgoingforher:solidexperienceinplanningfortransit-orientedstreets,andperhapsmoreimportantly,amayoralmandatetorelievecongestionandcreatesustainable,greenerstreets.”41

Sadik-Khanbelievedshebroughtathirdcriticallyimportantassettothetable.Unlikeseveralofherrecentpredecessors,shehadextensiveexperienceintransportation,bothnationallyandinNewYork.Thiswasimportant,shebelieved,becausewhenseniorofficials“arenot…subjectmatterexperts,theytendtobemuchmoreconservativeabouttheirapproaches.Theydon’twanttodoanythingtorocktheboat…[andinstead]stickwiththestatusquo…asthebestwaytogo.”42

PhilipDamashek,whoSadik-Khanretainedastheagency’sgeneralcounsel(andwhocontinuedinthatpostunderhersuccessor)addedthatwhileSadik-Khan“ismostknownfor…thequalityoflife,”initiativesveryfewpeopleappreciatethatshealso“understoodandwasreallycommittedto”theagency’sbasic“infrastructuremission”offillingpotholes,fixingbridges,andotherimportantbutseeminglymundanetasks.43

BelievingthatBloombergwouldleaveofficeinJanuary2010,attheendofhissecondterm,Sadik-KhanmovedquicklytocarryoutPlaNYC’sambitioustransportation-relatedagenda.BythetimehertenureendedinJanuary2014,whenBloomberg,whoservedthreeterms,leftoffice,sheandherteamhadoverseenaremarkabletransformationofthecity’sstreetsthat,asnotedearlier,sawtheconstructionofdozensofnewpedestrianplazas,severalhundredmilesofbicyclelanes,thelaunchofthenation’slargestandfirstprivately-fundedbicyclesharingprogram,andlaunchingtheSelectBusServicewhichprovidedsignificantlyimprovedserviceinsixheavilytravelledcorridors.44Whilemanyoftheseeffortsclearlydrewonsimilarinitiativescarriedoutbyothercities,Sadik-Khanandher



leadershipteamdevelopedandhonedseveralinnovativestrategiesthat,asdetailedbelow,helpedgettheprojectsdone.

Sadik-KhanHitstheGroundRunning

Thenewcommissionerstartedbyassemblingadiverseteamthatincludedseveralofthedepartment’smostnotablecritics.Commentingontheseappointments,Naparsteknoted:“Fileunder:Totallyunimaginablejustafewmonthsago.”45Atthesametime,shealsoretainedsomelong-timeseniorDOTofficials(suchasPrimeggiaandDamashek)andgavemoreresponsibilitytoyoungerDOTemployeeswhohadchafedatthedepartment’spreviouspolicies.InadditionSadik-KhanreachedouttoGehl,whometwithasmallteam(includingPrimeggia)thatSadik-KhanbroughttoCopenhageninJune2007.CityPlanningCommissionerAmandaBurden,whowasalsoonthattrip,laterrecalledthatwhensheheardthatPrimeggiahadbeen“onhiskneesmeasuringthewidthofabikelane…Isaid,‘Ihavediedandgonetoheaven!’Thisagencyistransformed!”46

Sadik-Khanalso“renegotiated”NYCDOT’srelationshipwithadvocacygroups,whichshefeltneededtoshiftawayfromtheirlongstandingpracticeofmainlycriticizingthedepartmentandinsteadbecomemore“supportive,”which“theywerenotusedtodoing.”Sheadded:“Overtime,wecertainlygotthere.Butitwassometimesdifficult.”47

Describingthisrelationship,ThomasWright,executivedirectoroftheRegionalPlanAssociation,recalledthatSadik-Khan“wasnotshyaboutcallingusupandsaying‘Ineedyouguystobeouttherepushingthisstuff.’48Illustratively,atherrequest,TAtappeditsnetworktoraisemoneyforthenon-profitMayor’sFundtoAdvanceNewYorkCity,whichusedthemoneytohireGehlasaconsultanttoworkwithDOT.SteelyWhite,whosaidTAultimatelyraisedabout$2milliontosupportthisandotherDOT-relatedinitiativesfundedbythemayor’sfund,addedthatiftheagencyhadreliedonitsstandardprocedurestohireGehl,“itprobablywouldhavetakenseveralyearstoletthecontracts.49

MovingForwardwithSignatureProjects

Evenastheteamwasbeingformed,NYCDOTactivelypressedforwardwithprojectsandapproachesbegunduringthedevelopmentofPlaNYCbecause,Sadik-Khansaid,“Ifeltreallystronglythatweneededtoshowsomevisiblechangeinthestreet,andweneededtodothatquicklyinordertogetsomebuy-in.”50

Duringherveryfirstmonthinoffice,May2007,thedepartmentunveiledplanstoquicklycreateapedestrianplazaattheintersectionofthreestreetsnexttotheanchorageoftheManhattanBridgeinBrooklyn’sDUMBOneighborhood.51TheproposalbuiltonworkdonebyanarchitecturestudentfromthenearbyPrattInstitutewhowasinterningatthelocalBID.TuckerReed,whoheadedtheBIDatthetimerecalled:“Ourrationaleatthetimewas:let’sjusttrythisandseewhathappens,”particularlygiventhefactthattheprojectrequiredeliminatingafewparkingspaces,whichinNewYork[Citygovernment]wassomethingthatwas“in



theholytrinityofthingsyoudon’ttouch.”(Theotherswerepensionfundsandunioncontracts).52

ThanksinlargemeasuretosupportorganizedbytheDUMBOBID,thelocalCommunityBoardoverwhelminglysupportedtheproject.Createdquicklyusingpaint,graniteblocksfromDOT’sbridgedivision,plantersandtemporarystreetfurniture(someofitprovidedbylocalmerchants),theplazawasheavilyusedassoonasitwasbuilt.AccordingtoAndyWiley-Schwartz,whoSadik-KhanhadhiredawayfromtheProjectforPublicSpacestodevelopandoverseetheplazas’initiative,theproject’sdevelopmentprovidedamodelforthecreationoffutureplazas.InterviewedbyStreetsblogattheplaza’sopening,heexplained:

WewanttofindplacesineveryCommunityBoarddistrictwheretherearecommunitypartnerswhocanhelpmaintainandrunaplacelikethis.ThisDUMBOprojectistheperfectexample.WehadaBIDthatwantedtomakeithappen[and]adjacentlandusesthatsupportit.…ThekeyistohaveaBIDorsome[other]communitypartnerwillingtotakecareofthespace.”53DOTcarriedoutanotherimportantearlyprojectintheMeatpackingDistrict,

whichhadbeenthefocusofworkshopsrunaspartoftheNewYorkStreetsRenaissanceCampaign.Pickinguponkeyideasdevelopedinthatprocess,inJune2007thedepartmentproposedtoquicklycreateapublicplazaattheintersectionof9thAvenue,14thStreet,andHudsonStreet.Thedepartment’splanalsotookadvantageofascheduledrepavingof9thAvenuetoextendsidewalksatintersections,shortenpedestriancrossingdistances,andconvertonetrafficlaneintoabicyclelane.(SeeFigure2)

Designingthelanerequireddevelopingnewapproaches,accordingtoRyanRusso,ayoungplannerwhohadbecomeheadofDOT’sbicycleandpedestrianprograms.Asapaperontheprojectthathelaterco-authoredexplained:“Traditionalbicyclelanesarelocatedbetweentheparkinglaneandtravellaneofaroadway,wheretheyaresubjecttoviolationbymotorvehicles,butwherevisibilitybetweenmotoristsandcyclistsisgood.”Incontrast,“Europeancycletracks,”whichgenerallyarelocatedbetweenthesidewalkandparkingspots(andtheroadway)“aretypicallyraisedandthereforecostlyanddifficulttobuildquickly.”54

Lackingaprecedent,Primeggia,RussoandothersatDOTcreatedafirst-in-the-nationdesignthattookthebestofbothworlds.LiketheEuropeans,theyplacedthebicyclelanebetweenthesidewalkandrelocatedparkingspaces.ButdrawingonU.S.modelsofbikepathsandpedestrianplazas,theyusedpainttodesignatethebikelanesandbarrierstoseparateitfromtheparkedcars.Theyalsogavecycliststheirowntrafficsignalsatcrossstreetsandslowedturningtrafficvialeft-turnbays.TheseapproachesnotonlybecameamodelforNewYork,whichhassubsequentlybuiltabouttwodozenmoreparking-protectedbikelanes,butalsoforatleast16otherAmericancitiesthathavebuiltsimilarlanessince2008.55Moreover,theTransportationandPlanningCounciloftheInstituteofTransportationEngineers(ITE),aninternationalgroupoftransportationprofessionals,namedthe9thAvenueprojectthe“BestProgram”carriedoutbyitsmembersin2008.



Figure2:NinthAvenueBeforeandAfterChanges

ChangingDOT’sPolicies,Programs,andCulture

AmongthefirsttasksthatSadik-KhanassignedherteamwastodevelopNYCDOT’sfirst-everstrategicplan.Sherecalled:“Wepulledeverybodytogether,andsaid…wearelayingoutanewvisionforthisagencyandforthecitystreets…It’sgoingtobebasicallythetransportationtranslationofPlaNYC.”56Theeffortwasneeded,addedWiley-Schwartz,becauseinmanycases,PlaNYC,whichhadonlybriefdescriptionsofthepoliciesandprogramsthatthedepartmentwassupposedtolaunch,was“textnotTalmud.”57



Aspartofthisprocess–andthroughouthertenureascommissioner–Sadik-Khanalsopressedherstafftosetambitiousandmeasurablegoalssuchasreducingdeathsfromcrasheswhichhadfallenfromabout700peopleayearintheearly1990sto300inthemid2000sbyanother50percentbefore2030.Sherecalled:“Theagency’sengineerswereveryuncomfortable…becausetheyfeltthereweresomanyfactorsthatwereoutsideoftheircontrolthattheydidn’twanttocommittoanumber.”However,shepressedandintheplanDOTpledgedtocutdeathsinhalfby2025,which,shesaid,madeNYCDOTthatnation’sfirstlocalDOTto“committo”anumericaltrafficsafetygoalthatcouldbeusedtoassessitsperformance.58

Sadik-KhanalsostronglyencouragedDOT’sstafftobepro-activeinaddressinglegal,institutionalorpoliticalobstacles.Wiley-Schwartzrecalled:

Janetteunderstandshowtotellpeople,whetherthey’reengineersorthey’relawyers.…“ThisistheoutcomethatIwant.…Youfigureouthowtogetusfromwherewearenowtothere.”…Thisiswhatgetstheirbuy-in.Becausethisisthepartwheretheyhavetobecreativethinkersandownthesolution.Withme,shebasicallysaid:“Yougomakethisprogram.Iknowwhatyoudid[before].Iknowwhatyoubelievein.Iknowwhatyourvaluesystemsare.AndI’monboardwithyou.Youcometomewhenyouhaveaproblem,I’llsolveit.Nowgomakethisprogramwork.”59

Sadik-Khanherselfrecalled:Ithinktheotherpiecethat[people]understoodwasthatifweweregoingtodothis,andanythingwentwrong,Iwouldtaketheblame.…Ifthebikesdidn’tworkout,ifthebusesdidn’tworkout,ifthepedestrianplazadidn’tworkout,itwasmyfault.Ithink…thatwentalongwaytogettingthebuy-inoftheagency.60

Sadik-Khanandseveralofherseniorstaffmembersalsopressedforchangesinthewaysthatthedepartmentrelatedtothecommunity.Shesaid:

ItusedtobothermetremendouslythatpeoplewouldwriteintotheDepartmentofTransportationandaskforastopsignorastoplight….Andtheansweralwayscameback,“No.Itdoesn’tmeettheguidelines[asdetailedinstandardmanuals].”…Butpeopledidn’twantaspecifictreatment.…[There]wasaproblemthattheywereaskingustosolve.SowechangedthewaywewenttoCommunityBoards.…Wedidn’tgoinsaying:“No”or“here’sabikelane[or]here’sabuslane.”Wewentinsaying:“What’stheproblemyou’retryingtosolve?”Wealsostartedwiththestatistics,goingintoalltheCommunityBoards,abouthowmanypeoplewereinjuredorkilledinthedistrict…andthenworkingwithcommunities…todealwiththeproblemsthateitherwesawortheysaw.61



TheDemiseofCongestionPricing

WhileNYCDOTwasabletoquicklymoveforwardwiththeplazaandbicycleinitiativesdetailedinPlaNYC,itwasunabletogoforwardwiththeplan’scongestionpricingproposal.Theproblemwasthat–asBloomberghadwarnedinlate2006–theproposalneededapprovalbythestatelegislature,whereitfacedstrongoppositionfrommembersfromthecity’souterboroughsandnearbysuburbs.GovernorEliotSpitzeragreedtobacktheproposal,asdidthe(Republican)statesenateleadership,butAssemblySpeakerSheldonSilver,apowerfulDemocratfromlowerManhattan,balked.

Unabletoagreeonthemeasure’sfatebeforetheypreparedtoadjourninJuly2007,Spitzerandtheleadersofbothlegislativebranchesreferredthemattertoa17-membercommissionthatwouldincludeappointeesofthegovernor,themayor,andotherkeyelectedofficials.Thecommission,whichwaschargedwithreviewingdifferentplansforreducingtrafficcongestioninNewYork,includingthepricingscheme,haduntilJanuary2008topresentitsrecommendations.Meanwhile,theU.S.DepartmentofTransportationagreedtoprovide$354milliontofundavarietyoftransitimprovementsinNewYorkCitybutonlyifthecityadoptedacongestion-pricingplan(orapolicythatwouldproducesimilarresults)byearlyApril.

Inearly2008,thecommissionvoted13-2torecommendamodifiedcongestion-pricingplan.(Silver’sappointeescastthetwonegativevotes).Itsanalysesestimatedthattheplanwouldproducea30percentreductionintheamountoftimethatmotoristswithintheaffectedzonewouldspendinnear-breakdowntrafficconditionsanda20percentreductioninadjacentareas.Thecommissionalsoestimatedthattherevisedplanwouldgenerateover$491millionannually(afteroperatingexpenses)tohelpexpandandimprovelocaltransitservices.62

Sadik-Khanandothercityofficialsworkedfeverishlytobuildacoalitioninsupportoftherevisedplan,whichwasultimatelybackedbyacoalitionof135civic,business,labor,environmentalandadvocacygroups,theeditorialboardsoftheTimes,theDailyNews,andNewsday.Moreover,pollingdoneatthetimeshowedthatamajorityofthevotersineachofthecity’sfiveboroughs(andmorethantwo-thirdsoverall)supportedtheproposal,ontheconditionthatthenetrevenuewasappliedtowardtransitimprovements.63

Nevertheless,manyofficialsfromthecity’souterboroughs,viewingthefeesasanewtaxontheirconstituentswhocommutedintoManhattanbycar,wereopposed.InlateMarch,afteranintenselobbyingcampaignthatreportedlyincludedsignificanthorse-tradinginvolvingsomemembers’favoredprojects,theCityCouncilvoted30-to-20toapprovetheplan.64Ingeneral,thevotefollowedgeographiclines.BackersgenerallycamefromManhattan,theBronx,andthosepartsofBrooklynandQueensthatwereclosertodowntownandmidtownManhattanand,therefore,weremorelikelytobehometomorepeoplewhousedtransittogettoworkinManhattan.65

TheactionthenreturnedtoAlbanywheretheproposalwasbackedbyDavidPatterson,whohadbecomegovernor(followingSpitzer’sresignationinthewakeof



ascandal)inmidMarch.ThemajorobstacleswerestilloppositionfromsomekeyDemocratsintheAssembly,whereDemocratsoutnumberedRepublicansbymorethantwo-to-one.Inaddition,TheNewYorkPost,whichhadsupportedBloomberg’sproposalin2007,cameoutagainstthemodifiedplaninearlyApril.66Sadik-Khanlobbiedhard,butreportedlyoffendedsomeoftheselegislatorswhenshetoldthem:“YouareeitherforthishistoricchangeinNewYorkoryou'reagainstit.Andifyou'reagainstit,you'regoingtohavealotofexplainingtodo.”67

Facingthefederalgovernment’sAprildeadline,theAssembly’sDemocratshadalengthycaucustodiscusstherevisedplan,whichstillfacedstrongopposition.Afterthecaucus,Silverannouncedthemeasurewouldnotcomeupforavotebecausesomanymembersopposedit.Hecontended:

Many[membersofthecaucus]justdon'tbelieveintheconcept.Manyofthemthinkthisbillisflawed.So…thecongestion-pricingbilldidnothaveanywherenearamajorityoftheDemocraticconference,andwillnotbeontheflooroftheAssembly.…Theymadeadecision.IfIweremakingthedecisionalone,Imighthavemadeadifferentdecision.68WhilemanyobserversbelievedthatSilvercouldhaveroundeduptheneeded

votesifhehadbeendeterminedtodoso,otherssaidtheoppositionreallywasoverwhelming.Forexample,AssemblyMemberDonnaLupardo,anupstateDemocrat,laterreported:

ThroughsixhoursofdebateintheDemocraticconference,theoverwhelmingmajorityofmycolleagues(allfromNewYorkCityandthesuburbs)expressedtheiropposition.Honestly,the[Democratic]membersrepresentingUpstateNewYorkcouldnothavepossiblyswayedtheoutcome.AsweareoftensupportedbyourNewYorkCitycolleagues…manyfeltobligedtodefertotheopinionsofthosewhorepresentNewYorkCity.69Bloomberg,whohadseenSilverkillsomeofhisothersignatureinitiatives(such

asaproposedstadiumonManhattan’sfarWestSide),sharplycriticizedthespeaker’sdecision,contending:“Ittakesaspecialtypeofcowardiceforelectedofficialstorefusetostandupandvotetheirconscienceonanissuethathasbeendebated,andamendedsignificantlytoresolvemanyoutstandingissues,formorethanayear.EveryNewYorkerhasarighttoknowifthepersontheysendtoAlbanywasfororagainstbettertransitandcleanerair.”70

However,judgingthatthecitywouldneverwinlegislativeapprovalforthepricingplan,Bloombergdidnotpursuethematterfurther.U.S.DOTredistributedthefundsithadreservedforNewYorktootherjurisdictions.AndJonOrcutt,formerheadoftheTri-StateTransportationCampaignwhoSadik-KhanhadbroughtintobeDOT’spolicydirector,quicklyeditedoutallplannedreferencestothecongestion-pricingprograminDOT’snearlyfinishedstrategicplan.

LessthanamonthafterthedemiseofcongestionpricingNYCDOTreleased“SustainableStreets,”itsfirst-everstrategicplan.Itsmostconspicuousgoalsweretoreducetrafficfatalitiesby50percentby2030,todoublebicyclecommutinginthe



cityby2015,andtosignificantlyincreasebustravelspeeds.Itproposedtoachievethefirstbyavarietyofdesignandenforcementstrategiestomakethecity’sstreetsmorepedestrian-andbike-friendly.Itproposedtoachievethesecondbyrapidlyexpandingthecity’snetworkofbikelanes,providingmorebicycleracksinstrategiclocations,andexploringthepossibilityofbringingabike-sharingsystemtothecity.AnditproposedtoachievethethirdgoalbyimplementingsomeBusRapidTransitroutesandotherbus-preferencemeasures.71PresentingtheplanattheMunicipalArtsSociety,Sadik-KhanobservedthatwhilemanypeoplehadcalledonNewYorktofollowtheleadofcitieslikeLondon,ParisandCopenhagen,“Iwantto…beclearthat…weareimplementingtheNewYorkCitymodel.Wearegoingtobe…dealingwithallthisinthecontextofNewYorkCity’sstyleofgovernanceanddemocracy.”72

TappingthePowerofInterimProjects

InaMay2009article,NewYorkMagazineasserted:“JanetteSadik-Khan…managestobeequalpartsJaneJacobsandRobertMoses.”73LikeJacobs,Sadik-Khanwasfocusedonhowpedestriansusedstreetsandsidewalks.AndlikeMoses,sheunderstoodtheimportanceofmovingquicklyanddecisively.Bothapproacheswereondisplayintheplazasinitiative,whereNYCDOTcontinuedthepracticeofinitiallymakingthem“interim”projectsconsistingofpaint,graniteblocks,planters,andmoveablefurniture.NYCDOTdidsonotonlybecauseitenabledthedepartmenttobuildquicklybutalsobecauseitfacilitatedresponsivenesstocritics.Ifanewplazafailedtomeetwithbroadapproval,itcouldbeeasilyremoved.Inpractice,the“interim”plazasalmostalwaysgeneratednewconstituenciesformakingthempermanent.Thisapproachalsoenabledthefinaldesignstobeinformedbyobservinghowpeopleactuallyusedthenewfacilities.AsSadik-Khanlaternoted:

AlotoftheideasthatweputintoplayinNewYorkCityweren’tnewideas.…ButNewYorkCitydidpioneertheideaofchangingstreetsinrealtime. Goingstraighttothepeoplewiththeideas,andshowingthem[with]temporarymaterialswhatcanhappenwasagamechanger.Insteadofgoingthroughtheyearsandyearsofplanningstudies,andyearsandyearsofcomputermodeling,andshowingadryengineeringdrawingthatnobodycouldreallyunderstand,yougotaverydifferentbuy-inwhenpeoplecouldsee,touch,andfeelthesekindsofchanges.74Overthenextseveralyears,thisapproach’spowerwasdemonstratedtimeand

timeagain.In2008,forexample,assoonasNYCDOTputupbarrelstocreatenewplazasnearMadisonSquarePark,severalartstudentsimmediatelylaydownintheunfinishednewspaceand,takingadvantageofthenewperspectivesitoffered,begansketchingnearbybuildings,whichincludetheiconicFlatironBuilding.Similarly,assoonastablesandchairswereplacedinan“interim”plazaonFultonStreetinBrooklyn’sClintonHillneighborhood,numerouspeople,includingresidentsofanelderlyhousingdevelopment,broughtouttheirchesssets,whileothersescapedtheheatofanearbylaundromatandwaitedintheplazafortheirloadstofinish.



LeveragingtheBenefitsofPartnerships

WhilePlaNYChadcalledforcreationofnewplazasineachofthecity’s59CommunityBoarddistricts(andforbuildingmorethanhalfofthemby2009),itprovidedlittleguidanceonhowthoseplazaswouldbeselectedormanaged.Doctoroffexpectedthatmostwouldbemaintainedandprogrammedbysomeofthecity’smorethan70BIDs.Theseentities,hesaid,wereappealingpartnersbecause“wewereconstantlytryingtofindwaystogettheseplacespaidforbysomeoneelsethatwouldhaveamorestablesourceofrevenuethanthecity.”75

ThetaskofdesigningaprocessthatwouldidentifyandselectpromisingpartnersfelltoWiley-Schwartz,whoconsultedwidelywithlocalexpertsanddrewonhisanalysesofpartnerships(suchastheCentralParkConservancy)thatNewYorkCityhadsuccessfullyusedtorenovateandmanagepublicparks.Intheend,hecreatedwhathebelievedwasafirst-in-thenationcompetitiveapplicationprocessthathedescribedasfollows:

Therewouldbeanapplicationstructured…aroundaneighborhoodorganization,anon-profit.Theyhadtohavethewherewithaltobringagroupofpeopleinthatneighborhoodtogetheraroundsupportingcreatingapublicspaceinthatneighborhood.Theyhadtoagreetobethemaintenancepartner,togettheCommunityBoardtosignoffonit,andtoamassasmanylettersofsupportfromneighborhoodinstitutionsandlocalmerchantsandwhomeverelseaspossible.Basically[theyhadto]makethecaseforthespace,andinoculateusagainsttheinevitablebacklashfrompartsoftheneighborhoodthatsaidtheydidn’tgetachancetoconsultonit.76Thestrategyrelied,inpart,onauthorizingthenon-profitstousetheplazasfor

somecommercialactivitiesthatwouldhelpdefraythecostsofmaintainingthem.Whilethecitycharterandrelatedlawsclearlyallowedthecitytoauthorizenon-exclusiveconcessionsonpublicparkland,itwasnotclearifDOTcouldusethatapproachonofficiallymappedroadwaysandstreets,evenifthoseroadswerebeingusedforplazas,recalledDamashek,thenDOT’sgeneralcounsel.Intheend,headded,DOT’sattorneyswereableto“workcloselywiththeCorporationCounseltoarticulateabroaderapproachthatappliedthesamelegalprinciples”usedforconcessionsinparkstoconcessionsinthenewplazas.77

Despitethelegalandfiscalchallenges,Wiley-Schwartzbelievedthatthe“demand”forthenewspaceswouldalwaysexceedDOT’s“abilitytocreate”them.Thekey,hejudged,wastoprovidebroadguidelinesandaprocessforfleshingoutthedetails.Inhisownwords:

“Youjustneedtotellpeoplewhatyouwant.Alotofpeoplewouldsaytome,“Youknow,theengineerscommonlysay,youcan’tdo[theplazas]onatwo-waystreetoryoucan’tdoitonastreetthatabusrunsdownorwhatever.”…They’regivingmeallthesereasonswhyIcan’tdoit.AndIsaid,“That’sgreat.Sitdownwiththemandmakealonglistofthekindsofplaceswhereyoucandoit.”Andthenpublishthelist.Andyourcommunitieswillfindtheplacesthatmeetthosecriteria.Theywillsurpriseyou.”78



BruceSchaller,another“outsider”broughtinbySadik-Khantooverseethedepartment’seffortstocarryoutthePlaNYCagenda,addedthatthatthecompetitiveprocesshelpedchangethenatureofconversationswithlocalmerchants,whooftenwere“veryfearfulofchange,”particularlythelossofparkingspacesthatusuallyweretakentocreatethenewplazas.Hecontinued:

Youposethequestion:“Doyoureallythinkthattakingthesetenparkingspacesoutisgoingtodoyoumoredamagethanhavingaplacethat'sattractiveforpeopletocomeandhavelunchandsitandplaywiththeirkidsandsitinthesun?…Itposesthequestion,inawaythattheyhavetoask:“Whatisbestforme?”Andthat'swhatthisisallabout.It'speoplecomingupwithadifferentanswertothequestion:“What'sbestforme?”79Inpractice,thedemandfornewplazasfaroutstrippedDOT’sabilitytosupply

them.In2008,theprogram’sfirstyear,22entitiesappliedandDOTcouldfundonlyeight.Overthenextseveralyears,DOTannuallyreceivedeighttotwelveadditionalproposals–mostofthemfromBIDs–andgenerallyselectedthreeorfour.80

Illustratively,leadersoftheFultonAreaBusinessAlliance(FAB),aBIDcreatedin2009thatserveschangingareasnearFultonStreetinBrooklyn,quicklyfocusedonseveralunderutilizedtriangularspacesatthree-wayintersections.AfterinternaldiscussionsandconsultationwithDOTofficials,FABsuccessfullyproposedthecreationofnewplazasontwoofthese.Therewerelocalcriticsofbothproposals,ofcourse,concernedaboutthelossofparkingandpossibletrafficproblems,aswellfearsofhowtheplazasmightbeusedandpossiblegentrifyingeffects.Forexample,someopponentsofaproposedplazacirculatedaflyercontendingthat“FultonStreetiscontrolledbyGreedy1%,”adding,“LettheleisureclassloungeinFortGreenePark.ComefighttokeepS.Elliottopenforbusiness.Tellit.YellittoFABandDOT.”81Whileafewpeopleardentlyopposedtheproposedplazas,manywhoexpressedconcernswereassuagedbypromisesthattheirimpactswouldbereviewedbeforeDOTdecidedwhethertomakethempermanent.Intheend,DOT,withoverwhelmingsupportfromtheCommunityBoard,didmaketheplazaspermanent,and,asinotherareas,thefinaldesignsweregreatlyinformedbyhowpeoplehadusedtheinterimplazas.

Despitetheirsuccesses,theplazasdidoftenpresentfiscalchallengesforthemanagingentitiesbecausetheopportunitiestogeneraterevenueontheplazasweresolimited.“It’snotastraightforwardthing,”saidReed,formerheadoftheDUMBOBIDwhonowispresidentoftheDowntownBrooklynPartnership,whichadministersthreeseparateBIDsthatmaintainplazas.“Creationofaplazadoesnotautomaticallyunlockrevenues.”82Inanefforttorespondtotheseproblems,whichwereparticularlypressingforthecity’ssmallerBIDsandthoseinlessvibrantcommercialareas,theNewYorkHorticulturalSocietyin2013createdtheNeighborhoodPlazaPartnership,whichprovidessubsidizedmaintenanceservicesandotherassistanceforthesegroups.In2015,moreover,thecitybudgetforthefirsttimeincludedsomefundingtoassistthem.



ReplicatingtheModelwithCitiBike

PrivatefinancingandmanagementwerealsohallmarksofCitiBike,thesignaturebike-sharingprogramthatthecitylaunchedin2013afterseveralyearsofdetailedplanning.Aswiththeplazaandbikelaneinitiatives,NewYorkwasnotthefirstmajorcitytolaunchsuchasystem.However,itwasthefirsttolaunchonewithoutpublicsubsidiesorfinancialguarantees.Forexample,thecapitalcostsofParis’Vélib’bike-sharingsystem,whichislargerandolderthanCitiBike,weresubsidizedbyrevenuesfromover1,500city-ownedbillboardsandadsatthebikestations.(InParis,asinallothercities,userfeesgenerallyfundedthesystem’soperatingcosts.)Incontrast,CitiBike’scapitalcostswerefundedbythe$41millionthatCitibankpaidtobethesystem’s“namesponsor”foritsfirstsixyearsandthe$6.5millionthatMasterCardpaidtobethehaveitslogoonthepaymentmachinesatthesystem’smorethan300stations.Aswiththeplazas,thisarrangementrequiredaninnovativecontractingprocessaswellasseveralsubsequentrevisionstotheinitialcontract.)

Forthecity,thearrangementwasattractivebecauseitavoidedanytaxpayercost.ForCitibank,whichreportedlysawitsfavorabilityratingsamongNewYorkersriseby17percentagepointsinthemonthsafterthesystemwaslaunched,thedealofferedauniquebrandingopportunitybecauseitslogowasprominentlydisplayedonthepaymentstationsandthebikes.InthewordsofEdwardSkyler,Citigroup’sexecutivevicepresidentforglobalpublicaffairs(andformerdeputymayorforoperationsunderBloombergwhowasapproachedbySadik-KhanwhenDOTwaslookingforsomeonetosponsorthesystem):“Whenyou’reinNewYorkCity,you’reinundatedbyadseverywhereyougo.…Thisisunique.Itdistinguishesitself.…Franklyit’spaidoffalotfasterthanweexpected.”83

Inareflectionofhowatleastsomeinvestorsviewedtheopportunitiescreatedbyaheavilyusedbike-sharingsystem,inOctober2014Alta,theoriginalsystemoperator(whichhaddevelopedandoperatedMontreal’sbike-sharesystembutwashavingmajorfinancialandoperationalproblems),wasboughtoutbyanew,privately-heldcompanybackedbyeminentlocalinvestors.TheseincludedseniorexecutivesfromtheRelatedCompanies,amajorNewYork-baseddeveloper;Equinox,anupscalefitnesschain;andJonathanSchulhof,aprivateequityinvestorwhobroughttheteamtogether.

Thenewowners,whochangedthecompany’snameto“Motivate,”hiredJayWalder,aformerheadoftheMetropolitanTransportationAuthority,asCEO.Thenewentitymovedtoimproveservicequality.Thefirmalsobegantomoveforwardwithamodifiedversionofarequiredandlong-promisedexpansionofthesystemwhichinitsfirstphasehadcoveredonlyManhattansouthof59thStreet(ineffect,theCBD)andpartsofBrooklynclosesttodowntownManhattan.(SeeFigure3)

Motivate’smanagersalsoraisedthesystem’sannualsubscriptionfees.Inaddition,Citibankagreedtopay$70.5milliontoextenditssponsorshipofthesystemforanotherfiveyears(until2024)andMotivateactivelybegantoexploreotherrevenuestrategiessuchassponsorshipsofindividualdockingstations.Many



oftheseinitiativesrequiredextensive,andultimatelysuccessful,negotiationsovercontractrevisionswithDOT.However,itremainstobeseenwhethertheself-financingmodelwillbeeffectiveasthesystemextendsintolower-densityandlower-incomeareas.

Figure3:CitiBikeServiceAreasMotivateisalsobringingits

fundingmodeltotheSanFranciscoBayareawhereitisfundingaten-foldexpansionofBayAreaBikeShare,anexistingbike-shareprogramalreadyoperatedbyMotivateundercontractwithagroupofpublicentitiescoordinatedbytheBayAreaAirQualityManagementDistrict.Theexistingsystem,whichwasstartedin2013,had350bikesat35stationsindowntownSanFrancisco,150bikesindowntownSanJose,and200bikesinPaloAltoandtwootherSiliconValleylocales.84Inmid-2015MotivateandtheBayArea’sMetropolitanTransportationCommission(actingonbehalfofavarietyofpublicentities)agreedtoamajor,privatelyfunded

expansionofthatsystem.ByNovember2017,thenewsystemwillhave4,500bikesinSanFrancisco,1,000inSanJose,and1,250inthreeEastBaycities(Oakland,Berkeley,andEmeryville).85

UsingDatatoTransformTimesSquare

Althoughtheplazaprogramproduceddozensofwell-usednewpublicspaces,itssignatureprojectwasahotlydebatedreconfigurationofTimesSquare,whichentailedclosingfiveblocksofBroadwaytocreate140,000squarefeetofnewpublicspace.86(SeeFigure4)

ForsomeyearsleadersoftheTimesSquareAlliancehadbeenlookingforwaystobetteraccommodatetheincreasingnumberofpedestrianspassingthroughthearea.Fearingnegativeimpactsontrafficflow,PrimeggiahadresistedtheAlliance'sproposalstowidensidewalksintheareaandconnectsomeofitspedestrianislands.However,in2006,persuadedbytheAlliance’sdata,in2006Weinshallapprovethe



Alliance’splan,whichrequiredconvertingpartsofBroadwayand7thAvenueandreroutingsometraffic.

Sadik-Khan,whoinheritedthisproject,quicklybegantopushforanevenmoreambitiousapproachthatwoulddrawonwhatthecityhadlearnedfromtheworkGehlhaddoneafterhewashiredbytheMayor’sFundtoAdvanceNewYorkCityinmid-2007.HehadfoundanextremedisjunctionbetweenTimesSquare’smagnetismanditspaucityofattractivepublicways,wherepedestrianscould“stop,enjoy,andsoakintheuniqueatmosphere.”87Consequently,inSeptember2008,DOTconvertedtwoofBroadway’sfourlanes,fromTimesSquare(at42ndStreet)toHeraldSquare(at35thStreet),intonewplazasandbicyclelanes.Figure4:TimesSquareBeforeandAfterChanges

Fromthestartofthiseffort,moreover,Sadik-Khanandherseniorstaffwere

consideringthepossibilityofclosingBroadwayfromUnionSquare(at14thStreet)toColumbusCircle(at59thStreet).Judgingthatthisinitiativewastoocontroversialtoadopt,theysettledinsteadonaplantoclosefiveblocksofBroadwayinTimesSquareandtwoblocksinHeraldSquare.Theplanwouldnotonlycreateadditionalspaceforpedestrians,italsoseemedtohavethepotentialtodosowithoutslowingmotorvehiclethroughputbecauseitwouldeliminateseveralthree-wayintersectionsthatwerecurrentlycongestionhotspots.Asaresult,theTimesSquareAllianceandmanyofthemajorpropertyownersandtenantsitrepresentedweresupportive.However,others,includingsomeofthemajortheaterowners,whobelievedthattheirmostimportantpatronsarrivedbycar,stronglyopposedit.



Bloomberghimselfwasskeptical.Ina2013interview,herecalledthatwhenSadik-Khan“cameandtoldmeaboutit…IthoughtitwasthestupidestideaI’deverheard.”88AsSadik-Khancontinued,themayor’sresistancewaned,particularlybecausehewasintriguedbyDOT’strafficmodelingwhichfoundthatclosingBroadwaywouldproducea17percentimprovementintravelspeedsonSeventhAvenue,whichpassesthroughTimesSquare,anda37percentimprovementonSixthAvenue,whichpassesthroughHeraldSquare.

DOT’simplementationplancalledformeasuringtheactualimpactsofthechangebyhavingitsemployeesdrivethesestreetsatvarioustimesofday,keepingtrackoftheirspeedsandtraveltimes.However,Bloombergwasconcernedthatthisdatawouldnotbe(orwouldnotbeseenas)havingbeencollectedbyunbiasedsources.Fortunately,Schaller,whohaddoneseveralinnovativestudiesofcitytransportationissuesbeforeSadik-KhanhadbroughthimintoDOT,hadbeendevelopinganalternative–usingdatafromGPSequipmentthathadrecentlybeeninstalled(forotherpurposes)inallofthecity’staxicabs.Herecalled:

Iwassittinginthemeeting[atDOT],andIsaid,…“IftheMayorisn'thappywiththespeedruns[donebyDOTstaff]…wecouldusethetaxiGPSdata.AndJanettesaid,“Thatwouldbegreat,”particularlybecausetheMayorknewabout[theGPSsystems].SowewentintoexplaintotheMayorwhatweweregoingtodo,andhegaveafive-minutetutorialonhowthedatawerecollectedandhowtheycouldbeanalyzed.Heistrulyadataguy,afterall.IwassittingnexttohimandIknowthetaxiGPSsysteminsideandout.Butafterhewentthroughhisexplanation,heaskedifIwanttosayanythingelse.Ididn'thaveanythingtoadd.89

Havingdecidedtoproceedwiththisplanonatrialbasis,thenextquestionwaswhen.Someofthemayor’sadvisorssuggestedthatheshouldwaituntilafterNovember2009whenBloombergwasrunningforathirdterm.90Bloombergdemurred,reportedlysaying:“Idon'taskmycommissionerstodotherightthingaccordingtothepoliticalcalendar.Iaskmycommissionerstodotherightthing,period.”91Accordingly,inFebruary2009,Bloombergannouncedtheproposedchanges,noting:“OurgoalissimplytogiveMidtownfasterstreetsthatarealso,veryimportantly,safer.”Headded:“People[inTimesSquare]aregettingpushedoutintothestreets[because]thesidewalkscan’thandleit.…Peopledon’tcome[toTimesSquare]tolookatcarsstuckintraffic.Theycometolookatthelights,thebuildings,andtheexcitementandthisisgoingtohavealotmoreofit.”92

OverMemorialDayweekendtheplaza,whichwastobemanagedandmaintainedbytheTimesSquareAlliance,wasputinplace–initiallywith376foldingrubberlawnchairsthattheAllianceboughtfromtwolocalhardwarestoresbecausethestreetfurnitureorderedfortheplazahadnotyetarrived.Thenewspace,completewiththelawnchairs,wasimmediatelyagreathitwithpedestrians.Inanunexpectedtwist,thechairs,ratherthantheplazaitself,becamethemajortopicofdebate.TimTompkins,presidentoftheTimesSquareAlliance,toldTheNewYorkTimesthat“thelawnchairdecision[was]farandawaythemost



controversialdecisionI’vemadeinmysevenyearsasheadofthealliance.”Headdedthatpeoplewholovedthechairshailedhis“strokeofgenius,”inbuyingthemwhileothers,whodislikedthem,calledhim“thekingoftrailertrash.93Lostinthosefights,helateradded,wasthemoresignificantfact“thewholedebatehadshiftedfrombeingaboutcarstoadebateaboutwhatkindofapublicspacewewantedtohaveinTimesSquare.”94

InAugustDavidLetterman,whosenationallytelevisedshowwastapedinTimesSquare,jokedthatthecityhadturned“thegreateststreetintheworld”into“apettingzoo”wheretouristswere“encouragedtobringcoolersandsitattheintersections.”DonaldTrump,whowashisguestthatnight,concurred,sayingthedesignwas“awful.”InaninterviewaftertheshowwithNewYorkPostcolumnistSteveCuozzo,Trumpadded,“It’snolongerTimesSquare.IlovethemayorbutIfeelthisisanexperimentthatshouldbereversed”notonlybecauseitchangedthe“100-yearoldfabricofBroadway,”butalsobecauseitwouldbe“terribleforretail.”95Inaddition,manytaxidriverscomplainedthatthechangeshadworsenedtrafficandmadeithardertopickupanddropoffcustomersatkeylocations.

Thesewereclearlyminorityviewpoints,however.InaJuly2009QuinnipiacUniversityPoll,bya58/34margin,NewYorkCityresidentssaiditwasagoodideatocloseBroadwayinTimesandHeraldSquares.96Surveysdoneafewmonthslaterby(andinsomecasesfor)theTimesSquareAlliancefoundthatmorethantwo-thirdsofthearea’smajorpropertyowners,employers,tenants,andusersstronglysupportedthechanges,asdid70percentofrecenttheatergoers.97

However,thedatafromthetaxisshowedmixedresults(asdidthedatacollectedbyDOT’sdrivers).AccordingtotheGPSdata,southboundspeedsontheWestSideavenuesdecreasedbyaboutthreepercentwhilespeedsontheEastSide’ssouthboundavenues,whichDOTusedasacontrolgroup,hadincreasedbyaboutthreepercent.Incontrast,theaveragespeedofnorthboundvehiclesontheWestSide’savenuesincreasedby21percent,whichwasabouttwo-thirdsofwhatDOThadprojectedandalmostthreetimesgreaterthantheimprovementontheEastSide’snorthboundavenues.Inaddition,speedsincreasedbyfive-toninepercentontheWestSide’scrosstownstreets,animprovementthatwaslargerthangainsfoundoncomparableEastSidestreets.98

Despitethelessthanprojectedtrafficimprovements,inFebruary2010,Bloomberg–whohadbeenreelectedinNovember2009thoughbyasurprisinglysmallmargin–announcedthattheinterimplazaswouldbecomepermanentandthatnewdesignsforthoseareaswouldbepartofthecity’slong-termcapitalbudget.“It’sfairtosaythatthisisoneofthosethingsthathassucceeded,”henoted.“Notineverywaywethoughtbutinsomewayswehadn’tthoughtabout.”99Tompkinshailedthedecision,tellingTheNewYorkTimes:“It’sshiftedtheparadigmforwhatastreetandsidewalkexperienceissupposedtobelikeinNewYorkCity.”100

Therewereseverallingeringproblems.Mostnotably,whiletheplazafunctionedlikeapark,itwasgovernedbylawsthatappliedtostreetsandsidewalks,whichmeantthatneitherthecitynortheTimesSquareAlliancecouldlimituseoftheplaza



byagrowingnumberofhawkers,hustlers,andsolicitors.Theseconspicuouslyincludedagrowingnumberofcostumedcharacterswhoaggressivelytriedtogettipsfromtouristswhophotographedthem.Moreover,someNewYorkerscontinuedtoarguethatsomethingvaluablehadbeenlostwhenTimesSquarewaschanged.In2013,forexample,essayist(andformerNewYorkTimescolumnist)FrankRichcalledonMayor-electdeBlasioto“reconfigureTimesSquaresothatitmightatrueCrossroadsoftheWorldagainratherthanahideousquasi-foodcourtforidlingtourists.”101

Despitethesecriticisms,thenewplazasnotonlycontinuedtobeheavilyused,theyalsoseemedtohaveanongoingpositiveeffectonnearbybusinesses.Aftertheplazaswereputinplace,severalmajorretailers,includingDisney,Aeropostale,andAmericanEagleopenedflagshipstoresinTimesSquare.In2011,CushmanandWakefieldforthefirsttimelistedTimesSquareasoneoftheworld’stoptenretaillocations.102Andin2013NYCDOTreportedthatresearchbytheRealEstateBoardofNewYorkfoundthatbetweenfall2008andspring2013retailrentsinTimesSquarehadnearlytripledandthatthisrateofincreasewasgreaterthanforanyotherretailareatrackedbytheboard.

UsingCrashDatatoCraftaSafetyAgenda

DOT’suseofthetaxiGPSdatawasfarfromunique.Rather,Sadik-Khanandherteamroutinelydrewonsophisticateddataanalysestoplanandthenassessnewinitiatives.Forexample,DOTdrewonsalestaxreceiptdatatoshowthatbicyclelanesandbetterpedestrianspaceson9thAvenuehadapositiveimpactonretailsales,anddataonvacanciestoestablishthatnewpedestrianplazashadbenefitedtheareaaroundUnionSquare.103

Aboveall,though,itfocuseditsdataanalyticcapabilitiesonsafety.In2010DOTproducedareportanalyzingindetailthecauses,nature,andlocationofcrashesthatkilledorseriouslyinjuredpedestrians,cyclists,driversandpassengers;assessedrecenteffortstoreducethosecrashes;andproposednewpoliciestoachievefurtherreductions.Thereport(mandatedbya2008cityordinance)beganbynotingthat,comparedtothe1990s,thenumberofpeoplekilledincrasheshaddeclinedbyabout40percentashadthenumberofpeopleseriouslyinjuredincrashes.Thereportalsonotedthatineveryyearsince2004,thenumberofannualtrafficfatalitieshadbeenlowerthanthepreviouslowin1910,theyearthecitybeganmeasuringthem.In2009,themostrecentyearforwhichdatawereavailable,256peoplehaddiedasaresultoftrafficincidents.104(SeeFigure5)

Abouthalfofthepeoplekilledinrecentyearshadbeenpedestrians(aswereaboutathirdofthoseseriouslyinjured),withtheelderlyatparticularrisk.Andcontrarytopopularopinion,fatalandseriouscrashesoverwhelminglyinvolvedprivatecarsratherthantaxis,trucksorbuses.

Turningtothecausesofcrashes,thereportfoundthatthat37percentofseriouscrashesweremainlyattributabletodriverinattention;21percentto“speed-related”factors;and27percenttothefailureofdriverstorespecttrafficsignals,stopsigns,ormarkedcrosswalks.Itaddedthatpedestrianfatalitiestendedtorise



exponentiallywithvehiclespeeds,that60percentofpedestrianfatalitiesoccurredonarterialstreets,andthatpedestrianshitbyvehiclesonstreetswithbikelanesweremuchlesslikelytobekilledthanthosehitonsimilarstreetswithoutbikelanes.105

Figure5:TrafficFatalitiesinNewYorkCity,2001-2014106

Onthebasisofthesefindings,DOTproposedtoannuallyreengineer60milesof

particularlydangerousstreets,withatleastathirdoftheseprojectsinvolvingsuchelementsassidewalkextensions,pedestrianplazas,andbicyclelanes.Aswell,itproposedapilotprogramofneighborhoodsafetyzones,inwhichthespeedlimitwouldbe20mphinsteadofthewidelyignored30mphstandardusedonmostthecity’sstreets.Italsocalledforincreasingtheuseofredlightcamerasandintroducingspeedcameras,measuresthatrequiredchangesinstatelaws.Finally,itindicatedthattheNewYorkPoliceDepartment(NYPD),whichhadnotpreviouslyassignedveryhighprioritytotrafficenforcement,nowplannedtoworkwithDOTonatargetedefforttoreducespeedinginkeycorridorsandfailurestoyieldtopedestriansatdangerousintersections.(However,theenforcementinitiativewaspredicatedonreceivingfundingfromacompetitivefederalgrant.)107

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015Motorists 187 179 167 126 142 138 111 115 86 100 85 109 102 98 83Cyclists 13 21 18 16 22 18 24 25 12 19 22 18 12 20 14Pedestrians 193 186 177 155 157 168 139 151 158 152 142 151 182 139 133

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DOT’sproposalsdrewmixedreviewsfromTAandotherstreetsafetyadvocates.Whilehailingthestepsthecityhadtakenandwasplanningtotake,TA’sleadersbelievedthecitycoulddomore.Inparticular,theythoughtthecityshouldreplicate“VisionZero,”aSwedishprogramintroducedinthelate1990sthatusesdesignchangesandlowerspeedlimits(aswellaseducationandenhancedenforcement)togreatlyreduceand(hopefully)ultimatelyeliminatetrafficfatalities.LeadersofTA,whichin2009hadissuedareportcontendingthatNewYork’spolicehadneveractivelytargetedspeedingorfailure-to-yieldviolations,alsocontendedthattherewasn’tanythingnewonthisscoreinDOT’snewsafetyplan.108AskedatthepressconferencehelduponreleaseofDOT’sreportifthepolicedepartmentwouldnowstepupitsenforcementefforts,Bloombergrepliedthatthedepartment'sresourceswere“stretchedthin”andthat“theywillcontinuetodowhatthey'redoing.”109

Overthenextfouryears,DOTdidcarryoutmanyofitspromisedprojects(thoughthestatelegislatureallowedonlylimiteduseofspeed-andred-lightcameras).InaNovember2013report,DOTclaimedthatmanyoftheseseemedtohavesignificantlyenhancedsafety.Forexample,followingtheadditionofpedestrianplazasandislandsonMacombsRoadintheBronx,andremovingatrafficlane,seriousinjurieshaddeclinedby41percent.AndfollowingtheadditionofbikelanesonLeggettandRandallAvenuesandTiffanyStreetintheBronx,seriousinjurieshaddeclinedby23percent.110However,despitetheseandothersite-specificsuccesses,thenumberofpeoplekilledincrasheswasvirtuallyunchangedbetween2009and2013.111

DevelopingNationalGuidelines

Thecity’stransportinitiativesgraduallyattractedsubstantialattention,bothacrosstheUnitedStatesandinternationally.In2009,forexample,NewYorkbecamethefirstAmericancitytowina“SustainableTransportAward”fromaconsortiumthatincludestheWorldBankandthenon-profitInstituteforTransportationandDevelopmentPolicy.TheawardcitationhonoredNewYorkforhavingdemonstratedthat“politicalwill,boldleadershipandcitizenengagementcanleadtosweepingtransportationreforms,”andmorespecificallyforhaving“reshapedtheexperienceofwalkingonNewYorkCitystreets”anddemonstratingthat“bikingandwalking”are“investment-worthytransportationalternatives.”112OverthenextseveralyearslongarticlesfocusedonNewYork’stransportinnovations,andonSadik-Khanastheirchampion,appearedinTheNewYorkTimes,Forbes,Esquire,TheAmericanProspect,andTheGuardian.113In2012,thecityreceivedthesecondLeeKuanYewWorldCityPrize,“abiennialinternationalawardthathonoursoutstandingachievementsandcontributionstothecreationofliveable,vibrantandsustainableurbancommunitiesaroundtheworld.”114Anda2013TEDTalkbySadik-Khanhasattractedmorethan800,000viewers.115Summingupthecity’saccomplishmentinearly2014,Gehl(whoconsultedtothecityatthestartofkeyprograms)assertedthatNewYorkCityhaddonemorethananyotherAmericancityto“discouragecommutingbycarandincreasingtheuseofsubway,bikingandwalkingtogetaround.”Headded,convertingportionsof



BroadwaytopedestrianplazasandbikelanesinTimesSquarenotonlywasa“hugesuccess,”butalsowasa“fantasticinfluenceonothercities”116

AslocalofficialsnationallybecameawareofNewYork’sefforts(andsimilarinitiativesbeingcarriedoutinafewothercities,includingWashington,DC,Chicago,Boston,andPortland,OR)manybegantoexplorewhethertheymightadaptsimilarpracticesintheircommunities.Theywerecommonlystymied,however,byomissionsinthetworoaddesignmanualsapprovedforusebytheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA):oneproducedbyacommitteecreatedbytheFHWA,theotherbytheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).Neithersaidanythingatallaboutsuchcyclist-friendlydesignelementsasparking-protectedbicyclelanes,separatetrafficsignalsforcyclists,and“bikeboxes”(designatedareasatenablingcycliststogetaheadofqueuingtrafficatredlights).Withouttheimprimaturofatleastoneofthesemanuals,somestateswouldnotallowsuchprojectstobebuilt.Eveninplaceswithoutsuchanexplicitban,stateandlocaltransportationengineersoftenfearedliabilityshouldacrashoccur,andthuswouldnotsignoffondesignsthatincludedsuchelements.

Tohelpovercomethisobstacle,Sadik-KhanturnedtotheNationalAssociationofCityTransportationOfficials(NACTO),agroupofherpeersinabout15largeAmericancities.NACTO,foundedinthe1990sbyoneofSadik-Khan’spredecessors,hadbeenlargelymoribundwhenSadik-Khanagreedtobecomeitspresidentin2007.Inadditiontoinvigoratingitgenerally,shetooktheleadinraisingfundstoproduceanUrbanBikewayDesignGuide,whichNACTOpublishedin2011.Shortlythereafter,U.S.TransportationSecretaryRayLaHoodlaudedtheGuideas“anextraordinarypieceofworkthat’slongoverdue.”117Despitehisembrace,officialsinmanyjurisdictionswerestillwarybecausetheguidestillboretheformalimprimatursolelyofNACTO.Illustratively,accordingtoBenWeiss,bicycle/pedestrianprogrammanagerforthecityofMissoula,Montana,whenhiscityaskedthestateDOTtoconsiderprotectedbikelanesonstateroadswithinthecity,theresponsewas:“Ifit'snotAASHTO,wedon'twanttohearit.”118

Inresponse,Sadik-KhanandNACTOlaunchedanambitiousefforttogetcitiesandstatesthemselvestoformallyadopttheguide.Withinaboutayear,morethan50jurisdictionshaddoneso,includingfourofthenation’slargestfivecitiesandeightstates.Finally,inSeptember2013,FHWAissuedamemostatingthatinsofarastheexistingfederalmanualsweresilent,citiesandstatescouldusetheNACTOmanualto“plananddesignsafeandconvenientfacilitiesforpedestrianandbicyclists.”119In2014,FHWAextendedsimilarsupporttoNACTO’sUrbanStreetDesignGuide,whichcombinedinformationoncyclist,pedestrian,andtransit-orientedstreetdesignelements,suchasparklets,contra-flowbuslanes,andslowzones.MichelleSwanson,seniorprogramspecialistfortheCityofOlympia,Washington,wasoneofmanylocalofficialshailingthisnews,noting:“Weoftenrunintocircumstanceswherewe'rereluctanttousecertaindesigntreatmentsbecausetheyhavenotbeenformallyendorsedbytheFHWA.Thisliberatesustocreatecontext-appropriateimprovementstomakeourstreetsmoresafeandinviting.”120



BikelashandtheRedefinitionofNewYork’sTransportationAgendaDespitethesenationalsuccesses,Sadik-KhanandDOTbecametheobjectsof

increasingcriticismasBloomberg’spopularitywanedduringhisthirdterm.Thecritics,whoincludedseveralcontenderstosucceedhimandseveralprominentlocaljournalists,chargedthatBloombergandSadik-KhanweretryingtoturnNewYorkintoaEuropeancitythatcateredtoeliteoutsiders.TypicalofthisgenrewasaMarch2011coverarticleinNewYorkmagazineentitled:“NotQuiteCopenhagen.IsNewYorkTooNewYorkforBikeLanes?”121SomealsochargedSadik-Khanwithrunningroughshodovercommunitiesthatwereforcedtoacceptunwelcomeplazasandbicyclelanes.Illustratively,TheNewYorkPostcaptionedonepiece:“Wheelycrazy:JanetteSadik-Khanhasimposeddisastrous,bike-centeredschemesacrossthefiveboroughs.”andoneofitscolumnistsreferredtoherasthecity’s“wackonutsobikecommissioner.”122

JakeDobkin,publisherofTheGothamistwebsite,observedin2013thatthestoriesshowedthatthepublicparticularlylovedtoreadaboutthebikedisputes.“TherearecertainstoriesinNewYorkthathitatanerve,”hecommented.“Therearetheseoppositionsinoursociety:Youngpeopleversusoldpeople,richpeopleversuspoorpeople,peoplethatdrivecarsversuspeoplethatdon’t.Andsomehow,bicyclingtoucheseverysingleoneofthem.”123

TheBattleofProspectParkWest

Oneparticularlyintensedisputeinvolvedaparking-protectedbicyclepathonProspectParkWest,astatelyboulevardinBrooklyn’supscale,largelyliberal,ParkSlopeneighborhood.Locatedbetweenthesidewalkandrelocatedparkingspacesinwhathadbeenoneofthreetrafficlanesontheone-wayroad,thepath“becamethemostcontroversialslabofcementoutsideoftheGazaStrip,”notedTheBrooklynPaper,whichpublishednumerousarticlesaboutthepath.124Thesefightsbecamesointenseandknownthatattheheightofthiscontroversy,theguardian.comsuggestedthattheoutcomeofthefighthadthepotentialto“affectthefutureofcyclingworldwide.”125(SeeFigure6)

Theprojectdatedbackto2007,whenthelocalCommunityBoardaskedDOTtostudywhetherbikelaneswouldreducespeedingandimprovebicycleaccesstotheworld-famousProspectPark.Followingmuchdiscussion,theprojectwasimplementedinJune2010.AccordingtodatacollectedbyDOTsixmonthslater,theshareofcarsspeedingontheaffectedstretchofProspectParkWestfellfrom74to20percentwhilethenumberofweekdaycycliststripled.126RichardBashner,whochairedthelocalCommunityBoardwhentheprojectwasapproved,latersaid:“Iamproudoftheextensivedemocraticprocessthattookplacehere.…DOTshouldbelaudedforitscollaborativecommunityprocess,ratherthanbeingaccusedofmakingan‘arbitraryandcapricious’decision.Thankstothisprocess,ProspectParkWest–thestreetwhereIlive–ismuchsafertoday.”127

However,manyresidentsofProspectParkWestdisagreed,includingNormanSteisel,whohadservedasthecity’sfirstdeputymayorunderMayorDavidDinkins



(1990-1994)aswellasIrisWeinshall,Sadik-Khan’simmediatepredecessorasDOTwhowas(andis)alsothewifeofU.S.SenatorCharlesSchumer.Opponentstappedintotheirextensivenetworksofpoliticalandmediacontactstolobbyagainstthebikelanes.Theyalsochallengedtheprojectincourt,whereJimWalden,thenapartnerwithGibsonDunnandCrutcher,agloballawfirm(andformerAssistantU.S.Attorney),representedthemonaprobonobasis.Inhisbrief,WaldenallegedthatDOThadcherry-pickeddata–forexample,byusingarainydayforitsbaselineanalysesofpre-pathbikeridershipandignoringthefactthatevenbeforetheprojectwasimplementedseriouscrashes(i.e.,thoseresultingininjuries)hadbeendecliningonProspectParkWest.HealsochargedthatDOThadinappropriatelyworkedwithbikepathadvocatestoattackthelane’scritics.

Figure6:ProspectParkWestBeforeandAfterChanges

Twodaysbeforethelawsuitwasfiled,theSundayNewYorkTimesprominently

featureda3,000wordarticleopiningthatwhileSadik-Khanhad“earnedinternationalfame”fortransformingthecity’sstreets,shehad“alsobecomenotoriousforabrusque,I-know-beststyleandareluctancetocompromise.Inpublicscreedsandprivatewhispers,manycityleaderssaytheyhavefeltrebuffed,alienatedoroutrightdismissedbyMs.Sadik-Khan,withseveralrecountingininterviewshavingpickeduptheirphonestofindheryellingontheotherend.”128

ThearticlealsosuggestedthatSadik-KhanwasbecomingapoliticalproblemforBloomberg,whosefavorabilityratingshaddroppedfromover60percentinlate2008toaround40percentbyMarch2011.129Illustratively,thepaperreportedthatataJune2010dinner,U.S.RepresentativeAnthonyWeiner,aBrooklynDemocrat,whowasalikelycandidateformayorin2013,hadtoldthemayor:“WhenIbecome



mayor,youknowwhatI’mgoingtospendmyfirstyeardoing?I’mgoingtohaveabunchofribbon-cuttingstearingoutyourf***ingbikelanes.”Moreover,thepaperreportedthatsomeofthemayor’sclosestaideswerebeginningtowonderifSadik-Khan(whoWeinerlatercalleda“policyjihadist”)wasbecomingtoomuchofaliabilityfortheadministration.130Reflectingonthedisputesseveralyearslater,Sadik-Khansaid:

MysonMax,whowasgrowingupasthisishappening,…camehomeandwe’retalkingabouttheNewYorkPost.Andhe’slike,“ohMom,nobodyreadstheNewYorkPost.”Thenextfewmonthsgoby,andI’mtalkingabouttheDailyNews,andhe’slike,“ohMom,nobodyreadstheDailyNews.”ThenonedayhecomeshomeandI’mtalkingaboutTheNewYorkTimes,andhe’slike,“yeah,well,somepeopledoreadTheNewYorkTimes.”…Itwasapainfulpiece.131Despitethesecontroversies,thehighlyrespectedQuinnipiacUniversitypoll

foundinthesamemonthasTheNewYorkTimesarticle,thatcityresidentsfavoredbikelanesbya54/39margin.132Alsointhatmonth,themayor(atonestepremoved)issuedadefenseofSadik-KhanandDOT.Itsformatwasatwo-pagememoto“InterestedParties”fromHowardWolfson,thenBloomberg’sDeputyMayorforGovernmentAffairsandCommunications.Inthememo,whichwaswrittenon“OfficeoftheMayor”letterheadandpostedonthemayor’swebsite,WolfsoncitedtheQuinnipiacpoll,notedthatmany bikelaneswerebuiltattherequestoflocalCommunityBoards,andpointedoutthatwhilethecityhadadded255milesofbikelanesinthepreviousfouryears,itstillhadover6,000milesofstreets.Heconcludedbyassertingthatconstructionofthelanesusuallyproducedatleasta40percentdropinfatalitiesandseriousinjuriestodrivers,pedestrians,andcyclists.133AfewdayslaterBloomberg,speakingatafundraiserforthecity’sthen-proposedbike-sharingprogram,saidthathisadministrationplannedtofightthe“misinformation”beingspreadaboutthebikelanes.134

Wolfson–whohadbeencommunicationsdirectorforHillaryClinton’s2008presidentialcampaignandhadheldseniorpositionsonthecampaignsforandofficesofseveralofthecity’sleadingDemocrats–laterrecalledthathebelievedthecityhadmadeatacticalmistakebynottakingonthebikepathcriticssoonerbecause“inanypublicpolicydebateifyouallowtheothersidetoadvancetheiragendawithoutaresponse,youwillbeatadisadvantage.”135Hisinvolvement,Sadik-Khanadded:“wassuchalife-saver.…Itmadeahugedifference[because]itwasaverystrongsignalthatCityHallwasgoingtofightforthis[and]wewerenotgoingtobedanglingouttherebyourselves.”Sadik-Khan,whonowworksforBloombergAssociates,aconsultingservicefoundedbytheformermayor,added:“Ican’tsayenoughabouttheleadershipofMichaelR.Bloomberg[for]standinguptojustatorrentialhailstormofcriticism.Havingthepoliticalcouragetodowhathedid,withoutblinkinganeye,wasextraordinary.”136

Buoyedbythemayor’ssupport,advocatesmobilizedtosupporttheProspectParkWestbikepath.Severalhundredpeople,mostofthemsupporters,turnedoutinAprilforaCommunityBoardmeetingaboutthepath.Laterthatmonth,theboardvotedtosupportthepath,withminorrevisionsproposedbyDOT.Backersofthe



lanewonanothervictoryinAugust2011,whenastateSupremeCourtJudgedismissedthesuitchallengingtheprojectonthegroundsthatsinceDOThadapprovedtheprojectinJune2010,theplaintiffshadfiledthesuitafterthefour-monthdeadlineforchallengingsuchdecisions.Thebikelane’sopponentsappealed,contendingthatSadik-KhanandotherDOTofficialshadpromisedthattheprojectwasadoneona“trial”basisthatwouldbereviewedinsixmonths(anassertionthatDOTofficialsdenied).InDecember2012,astateappellatecourtruledthatthelane’sfoescouldseektoconductlimiteddiscoveryonwhetherDOThadinstalledthelaneonatrialbasisandorderedthelowercourttoholdanewhearingonthequestion.Thecourtalsoallowedthelanestostayinplace.Despitetheruling,thebikelane’sopponentsdidnotpresstheissueandthehearingwasnotheldforseveralyears.However,inlate2015,itfinallywasscheduledforFebruary2016.137

IntheaftermathoftheProspectParkfight,DOTsteppedupitseffortstoconsultwithcommunitieswhereitwasplanningnewinitiativesandwithlocalelectedofficials,suchasthemanycitycouncilorswhofeltthatDOThadignoredtheirconcernsorkepttheminthedarkaboutitsplansintheirdistricts.Drawingonlessonsfromotherlargebike-sharingsystems,itwantedtofindsitesforapproximately600bikestations,eachwithinaquartermileofatleastoneotherstation,whichwasadenserconcentrationthanmanyotherU.Ssystems.Thesitesconsideredwereallcurrentlydesignatedforparking,traffic,orpedestrian(sidewalk)use.Inanextensiveblock-by-blockreview,thedepartmentidentifiedalmost3,000possiblesiteswithintheareastobeservedinthesystem’sfirstphase,whichcoveredpartsofManhattan,Brooklyn,andQueens.

Beginninginfall2011,DOTstaffbeganmeetingwithCommunityBoards,BIDs,electedofficials,andotherbusinessandcivicorganizationstoreviewpotentiallocations.Byspring2013,whenthesystem’s332-stationfirstphasewaslaunched,DOTreportedthatithadheldmorethan400meetingsincluding14communityplanningworkshopsandreceivedmorethan10,000suggestionsviaanonlineportal.Thisprocess,itasserted,hadbeenunprecedentedintheplanningoflocalbikesharesystems.(SeeFigure7)

Notsurprisingly,therewerecomplaintsnonetheless,mainlyfromresidentswhoviewedthenewbikeracksandbrightbluebicycles(andtheprominentdisplayoftheCitibanksponsorshiponboth)asgarishandoutofplace.DorothyRabinowitz,aPulitzer-prizewinningmemberoftheWallStreetJournal’seditorialboard,expressedanextremeversionofthiscritiqueinitson-lineoffshoot,WSJLive,whenshesaid:

Donotaskmetoenterthemindofthetotalitariansrunningthisgovernment.…Themajorityofcitizensofthecity...areappalledby…thisdreadfulprogram.…Wenowlookatacitywhosebestneighborhoodsareabsolutely…begrimed…bytheseblazingblueCitibankbikes.…Itisshockingtowalkaroundthecitytoseehowmuchofthistheyhavesneakedundertheradarintheinterestoftheenvironment.…Thebikelobbyisanall-powerfulenterprise.138



Rabinowitz’scomments,whichwentviral,provokedahostofresponsesfromavarietyofcommentatorsincludingcomedicnewscasterJonStewartwhoobserved:“ThegoodnewsistheWallStreetJournalisfinallyrecognizingthecorrosiveeffectoflobbying.Thebadnewsis,its[targetis]thebikelobby.”139Severalpropertyownersevensued,includingtheownersofthefamedPlazaHotel,butnoneofthesesuitsweresuccessfulorsignificantlyslowedimplementationoftheprogram.

Figure7:CitiBikeStation

Ontheground,thesystemwasahit.Thesharedbikeswereusedformorethan

18milliontripsduringtheprogram’sfirsttwoyears.Inaddition,witheachbikebeingusedaboutfivetimesaday,NewYorkCity’sbike-sharesystemhadathirdmoreridesperbikethananyotherintheU.S.,andaboutasmanyasitsPariscounterpart,whichalsofeaturedaparticularlydenseurbanfabricandadensenetworkofbikestations.140Evennon-ridersseemedtolikethenewsystem.ANewYorkTimespollinAugust2013,found73percentsupportforthenewbikesharingsystemingeneraland64percentsupportfortherecentcreationof250+milesofbikelanesoncitystreets.Inaddition,72percentofthosepolledexpressedsupportforthepedestrianplazascreatedbyDOT.141

MayordeBlasioandtheCampaignforVisionZero

Bloombergwassoontoleaveoffice,though–hissuccessorwouldtakeofficeinJanuary2014–andnoneoftheleadingcontenderstosucceedhimhadexpressedenthusiasmaboutthemayor’slivablestreetsinitiatives.Writinginthesummer2012issueofTransportationAlternative’smagazine,SteelyWhitereviewedthestateofplayasfollows:



I’mnotmuchofaworrier,butthere’ssomethingunderwayinTorontothat’skeepingmeupatnight.Theirnewmayor,RobFord,hastakenaimatbikelanesandmasstransit:“Roadsarebuiltforbuses,carsandtrucks,notforpeopleonbikes,”he’ssaid,andhe’sactingonhisimpulses,rippinguplivablestreetsimprovementsasfastashecan.Normally,I’dshakemyheadandmuttersomethingabouthowmisguidedheis,butNewYorkCityhasamayoralelectionfastapproaching,andsomeofthecandidatesaresayingthingsthatdon’tsitwell.Sure,CouncilSpeakerChristineQuinntooktimetoposewithaCitiBike,andManhattanBoroughPresidentScottStringerpromisedtomakemasstransitacenterpieceofhiscampaign.ButComptrollerJohnLiulovestostiruptroublewhenitcomestotheeconomicsoflivablestreets—herecentlypublishedascaremongeringreportwarningthatbikesharewouldgenerateafirestormoffrivolouslawsuits.AndthecandidateIknowbest,PublicAdvocateBilldeBlasio,toldanaudienceofBrooklyndonorsthatbikelanesareoften“illconceived”andpledgedtoputthebrakesontherolloutofsaferstreetdesignsinfavorofamore“incremental”approach.Yikes!What’sworseisthatBillisagoodguy,aneighborofmineand,untilrecently,alivablestreetsstalwart.Sowhathappened?Whendidthetidechange?Ican’tsayforsure,andI’mnotconvincedittrulyhas,butIdoknowthattherearesomewell-connected,deep-pocketedpeopleinthiscitywhohaveanoutdatedviewofourstreets—andallthemayoralcandidatesonspeed-dial.142DeBlasio,whoprevailedintheend,did,infact,seemtohaveanevolving

positiononkeyinitiatives.Asacitycouncilmanfrom2001to2009,hehadsupportedsomepoliciesfavoredbycyclingadvocates,suchasmorecar-freehoursinProspectParkandcreatingabikelaneon9thStreetinParkSlope.Buthehadvotedagainstcongestionpricingand,asthecity’sPublicAdvocatefrom2010to2013,hehadbeenafrequentcriticofBloomberg’slivablestreetsinitiatives.Forexample,inaFebruary2010NewYorkTimesarticleaddressingBloomberg’sdecisiontopermanentlytransformBroadwayintopedestrianplazasinTimestoHeraldSquares,deBlasiohadasserted:“Toooftenwehaveseenthisadministrationdecideforthepeople,insteadofengagingthemintheprocessofmakingourcitybetter.Ibelievethatwhilethisprojecthassomebenefits,wecannotmakesuchafundamentalchangetoTimesSquarewithoutfirstgivingthecommunityagreatersayintheprocess.”143InMarch2011,attheheightoftheProspectParkbikepathcontroversy,hehadcalledonDOTtocarryoutindependentevaluationsofitsprojectsbecauseitsin-houseevaluationshad“providedarubberstamponeverysingleone”ofDOT’smajorinitiatives,includingTimesSquarewhere,heasserted,DOT’sanalyses“ignoredcitydatacriticaloftheproject.”144Andin2012hetoldtheNewYorkPostthatSadik-Khanwasa“radical”onbikelanesandplazas,whilehewasan“incrementalist.”145

Inthispoliticallychargedcontext,TransportationAlternativeshiredPennSchoen,anationallyknownpollingfirm,toshedadditionalandmoretimelylighton



voterperspectivesaboutthepedestrianandcyclinginitiatives.“Whattheydiscovered,”TAlaterreported,“occasionallycontradictslong-heldbeliefs,confusesseasonedpoliticalplayersandcomplicatesmattersroyally.”146Inparticular,SteelyWhitesaid,whilethepollingfoundthatoverwhelmingmajoritiesoflikelyvoterssupportedtherecentprogramsandpolicies,“the[principal]reasonthatpeoplesupportedthisstuffwasn’ttomakeNewYorkaworld-classcity.Itwasn’thealth.Itwasn’tenvironment.Itwassafety.”147

ThequestionformayoralcandidateswashowtoemphasizesafetywhiledifferentiatingthemselvesfromBloomberg.WhileBloombergandSadikKhanhademphasizedthequalityoflifeandeconomicdevelopmentbenefitsoftheirlivablestreetsinitiatives,withsafetyasanadditional(andincreasinglyprominent)benefit,TAnowmovedtoreframethepoliciesasalmostentirelyfocusedonsafety.Todoso,itreviveditscallforthecitytoadoptaVisionZeroapproach,whichTAhaddetailedina2011reportthathadreceivedvirtuallynocoverage.

WhilenotingthatNewYorkwasalreadythesafestcityintheUnitedStates(bythemeasureoftrafficdeathspercapita),TA’s2011reporthademphasizedthatsomegreatcitiesabroad–suchasBerlin,Paris,andTokyo–hadfatalityrateslessthanhalfNewYork’s.Further,itfoundthatbetween2000and2009moreNewYorkershaddiedasaresultofcrashesthanhadbeenmurderedbyguns.ThereporthadgoneontonotethatspeedingordrivingatunsafespeedsweretheprimarycausesofpedestriandeathsinNYC,addingthatpedestrianshitbyacargoing40mphhaveonlya30percentchanceofsurviving,whilethosestruckbyacargoing30mphhavean80percentchanceandthosestruckbyacargoing20mphhavea98percentchanceofsurviving.Therefore,itconcluded,thecityshouldredesignkeystreetstodiscouragespeeding,reducethedefaultspeedlimitoncitystreetsfrom30to20mph,andvigorouslyenforcespeedlimitsandothertrafficlaws.Thereportaddedthatsincetheseapproacheswouldrequirethecollaborationofmultiplecitydepartments:“theMayor[personally]mustmakesafestreetsapriorityanddirectlyleadtheefforttoeliminatetrafficdeathsandseriousinjuries.”148

ChristineQuinn,amayoralcandidatewhowasthenpresidentoftheCityCouncil,seemedtoembracesomeoftheseapproachesinthespringof2013whenshecalledforthecityfocusoncuttingtraffic-relateddeathsinhalfby2025(essentiallythesamethegoalSadik-Khanhadsetforthedepartmentin2008).Todoso,Quinncalledforcreatingastreetsafetyinteragencytaskforce,installingmorespeedcameras,deployinglimitedpoliceresourcessuchasspeedgunsinhigh-fatalityareas,andusingdatatoidentifyintersectionsthatneededcountdownclocksandbettercrosswalks.149

WhileearlypollinghadQuinnleadingtherace,bytheearlysummershebegantofallinthepolls,inpartbecausevotersviewedherastooclosetoBloombergandtoosupportiveofhisadministration’spolicies.Consequently,SteelyWhitebegantofocusheavilyondeBlasio,whowasstartingtoriseinthepolls.TA’sleadersnotonlysharedTA’spollingdataandpolicyrecommendationswithkeymembersofdeBlasio’sstaff(whoincludedTA’sformercommunicationsdirector),theyalsoarrangedfordeBlasiotomeetwithsomelong-timeTAsupporterswhohadrecently



lostfamilymembersincrashes.Thisproveddecisive,SteelyWhitejudged,ingetting“VisionZerooverthefinishline”withdeBlasio.150

InAugust,deBlasio,whopollingnowshowedasrunningaclosesecondtoQuinn,announcedthat,ifelected,hewould“takedecisiveandsustainedactiontoreducestreetfatalitieseachyearuntilwehaveachieved‘VisionZero’—acitywithzerofatalitiesorseriousinjuriescausedbycarcrashes.”HisstrategyfordoingsoincludedhavingDOTrevampatleast50dangerouscorridorsandintersectionsayear.Inkeepingwithhisoverallcampaignfocusoninequality,headdedthatthiseffortwouldfocusonpoorerneighborhoods,areasnearschools,andneighborhoodswithhighnumbersofseniorcitizens.Materialsreleasedbythecampaignaddedthatthiseffortwouldrequire“narrowingexcessivelywidestreetsthatencouragerecklesspassingandspeeding,wideningsidewalksandmedianstomakestreetseasierandsafertocross,andaddingdedicatedbicycleinfrastructuretocreateasafespaceforNewYorkersonbikes”aswellashavingNYPD“trackandprioritizetheenforcementof[thelawsagainst]speeding,failuretoyieldtopedestrians,andrecklessdriving.”Morebroadly,deBlasioalsocalledforgreatlyexpandingtheSelectBusServiceprogram,whichhadprovidedBRT-likeserviceinseveralheavilytravelledcorridors.151

NoneoftheotherDemocraticorRepublicancandidatesembracedthesafetyagendaorembracedcyclingandwalking.Consequently,thechoiceformanyadvocatescamedowntodeBlasioandQuinn,whobythistimewerethetwofrontrunnersintheracefortheDemocraticnomination.BothsoughttheendorsementofStreetsPAC,anewpoliticalactioncommitteefoundedbyseveralpeoplewithclosetiestoTA.Afterinterviewingbothofthem,inearlySeptember,thegroup’sboardendorseddeBlasio,inpart,saidStreetsPACBoardMemberEricMcClure,becauseunlikeQuinn,deBlasiopromisedtoreplacePoliceCommissionerRayKelly,whohadresistedcallsformoreaggressiveenforcementoftrafficlaws.(DeBlasio’spromisetoreplaceKellywasprimarilyduetothecommissioner’sstrongsupportforcontroversial“stop-and-frisk”policiesthatdeBlasioopposed.)Speakingatthetime,StreetsPACboardmemberDougGordonadded:“IwasactuallyprettyimpressedbyQuinn.Shereallywasgreatinpersonandtalkedaboutthisstuffwithahighlevelofknowledge.ButwhenyoureallyjustlookatwhatBillisoffering...heofallthecandidateshasthemostquantifiable,measurablegoalsforhowheisgoingtoincreasethesafetyandlivabilityofcitystreets.”152InSeptember,deBlasio,whosurgedintherace’swaningdays,received41percentofthevoteintheDemocraticprimary,enoughtoavoidarunoff.InNovember,hewaselectedwith73percentofthevote.AhostofcitycouncilcandidatesendorsedbyStreetsPACwereelectedaswell.

ImplementingVisionZero

Sincetakingoffice,deBlasiohascontinuedtosupporttheVisionZeroagenda.HeassignedhisFirstDeputyMayor,AnthonyShorris,toshepherdinterdepartmentalcollaborationinsupportofVisionZero.HischoicefortransportationcommissionerwasPollyTrottenberg,aNewYorkerwhohadserved



asU.S.UndersecretaryofTransportationforPolicyintheObamaAdministrationandhadpreviouslyworkedinaseniorpolicycapacityfortwoNewYorkSenators,MoynihanandSchumer.SherecalledthatinherinterviewwithdeBlasio:

TheMayorandIdiscussed[VisionZero]…andIcertainlyknewthatitwasgoingtobeoneofhispriorities.Butatthesametime…theMayorbasicallysaid,“Look,IlovetransportationbutIdon'tknowthatit'sgoingtobethefirstthing[ontheagenda].”…Hewasquiteclear.ThefirstthingsthathewantedtotacklewerePre-K,housing,andbetterrelationshipsbetween…thepoliceintheminoritycommunity.153WilliamBratton,whowasappointedthecity’spolicecommissioner,alsohad

otherpriorities,notablyimprovingrelationshipswithminoritycommunities.However,hepromisedtomaketrafficenforcementahighpriority.SpeakingataforuminNovember2013,justpriortohisselection,heasserted:“Thetimeforthisissuehascome.Youdonothavetoacceptthestatusquo.”154Sincehisappointment,thedepartmenthasdevotedmoreattentiontotrafficenforcementviasuchmeasuresasreinvigoratingandexpandingthedepartment’s“TrafficStat”program,whichwasbasedonthenationallyknownCompStatprogramthatBrattonhadlaunchedwhenhewasthecity’spolicecommissionerintheearly1990s.

JustamonthafterdeBlasio’sinauguration(andafewweeksafterseveralpedestrianswerekilledinhigh-profilecrashes),thecityreleasedaVisionZeroplanthatincludedmostofthekeyelementspromisedinthecampaign.Thedocumentalsocalledforseveralchangesinstatelaws,includingareductioninthecity’sdefaultspeedlimitfrom30to25mphandfullpowerforthecitytodeployred-lightandspeedcameras.(Atthetime,statelaw,whichhadbeenchangedayearearlierafterintensivelobbyingbytheBloombergAdministration,allowedthecitytodeploy150red-lightcamerasand20speedcameras,butonlynearschoolsandduringschoolhours.)

Themayor’slegislativerequestsgreatlybenefittedfromtheactivesupportofaneworganization,FamiliesforSafeStreets,whichwaspartofTA.(See Figure8) Thegroup,whichbroughttogetherpeoplewhohadlostlovedonesincrashes,grewoutofinformalmeetingsconvenedbyAmyCohenandGaryEckstein,long-time(butpreviouslyuninvolved)TAmemberswhosesonwashitandkilledbyavanontheirBrooklynstreetinOctober2013.“What we bring to this is a human face,” Eckstein told The New York Times. “People are killed and families are turned inside out. It’s important for people to see this.”155

ThenewgroupwasmodeledinpartonMothersAgainstDrunkDriving,agroupfoundedinthe1980sthathadbeenenormouslyinfluentialinbringingaboutbothattitudinalandlegalchangesagainstdrunkdriving.Theconnectionwasnoaccident.OneofthosekilledinJanuary2014wasnine-yearoldCooperStock,whouncleBarronLernerhadwrittenahistoryofdrunkdriving.ShortlythereafterLernerwroteinTheNewYorkTimes’“Well”blog:“Recklessdriving,circa2014,iswhatdrunkdrivingwaspriorto1980:itispoorlydefinedinthelaw,sometimespoorlyinvestigatedbypoliceandalmostneverresultsinacriminalcharge…The



carnagecausedbyrecklessdriving,likethatcausedbydrunkdriving,shouldalsobeviewedascriminal.”156

Figure8:RallyforPoliciesRelatedtoVisionZero‡

JuanMartinez,TA’sformergeneralcounselwhoTrottenbergtappedtobeDOT’s

DirectorofStrategicInitiativesbelievesthegroup’seffortsfundamentallychangedthenatureofthedebatesaboutspeedlimitsandenforcement.AfterlegislatorsmetwithCohenorothermembersofthegroup,herecalled,“they’dgetthegravityofthesituation.Humansarefunnylikethat.Wedon'ttrustnumbers,butwetrustpeople.”157Amongthoseswayedbythegroup’slobbyingwasStateSenatorJeffreyKlein(D-Bronx/WestchesterCounty),whoasaleaderoftheIndependentDemocraticCaucus,abreakawaygroupalliedwiththeSenate’sRepublicans,reportedlymadethespeedlimitandascaledbackversionofthecameras’proposalshisconditionsforremainingintheprecariousSenategoverningcoalition.AndjustbeforeitadjournedinJune2014,thestatelegislaturepassed(andthegovernorsubsequentlysigned)measuresthatallowedthecitytolowerthedefaultspeedlimitonitsstreetsto25mph,toadd120additionalspeedcamerasinschoolzones,andtocontinueoperatingitsred-lightcameraprogramforfiveyears.158

Withthelegislationinhand,thecityhasintensifieditseffortstomoveforwardwiththeVisionZeroagenda.Inadditiontosteppingupenforcement,ithasemployedsophisticateddataanalysistoprioritizeindividualstreetsand

‡PhotobyDmitryGudkov.Reprintedwithpermission.



intersectionsfordesignchanges.Illustratively,inJuly2015,thecitybrokegroundonamulti-yearprojecttocreatenewpedestrianzonesandbikelanesonaportionofheavilytravelledQueensBoulevard,which,despiteprevioussafety-orienteddesignchangesmadeinthemid-2000s,wasstillthesiteofanunusuallylargenumberofcrashes.Thepolicedepartmentalsousedthedatatoidentifycrash-pronecorridors,likeQueensBoulevardandtheGrandConcourseintheBronx,thatwouldbenefitfromstepped-upenforcementefforts.Morebroadly,in2014theNYPDissued117,719speedingtickets,42percentmorethanin2013.Finally,makinguseofarevisedcityordinancetougheningpenaltiesforfailingtoyieldtopedestrians,thepolicealsoissued18,723summonsesforthatviolation,anincreaseof126percentfrom2013.159

Whileitistooearlytotelliftheseeffortswillgreatlyreducedeathsandseriousinjuriesfromcrashes,preliminaryindicationsarepromising.In2014,139pedestrianswerekilledincrashes,thefewestsincethecitybegankeepingtrackin1910.Thetotalnumberoftrafficfatalitieswas256,whichwastiedforthesecond-lowesttotalonrecordsince1910.Thepositivetrendcontinuedin2015whenthecitysetanotherrecordlowwith131pedestriandeathsand230totaldeaths.160

Ontheotherhand,inAugust2015deBlasioagainexpressedambivalenceaboutTimesSquare,wherevariousstreetperformers,mostnotoriouslytopless(thoughpainted)women,whoinvitetouriststoposeforpictureswiththemandthenseektipsfordoingso,hadbecomeincreasinglynumerousandwereattractinghugemediaattention.Respondingtoarticlesaboutthetoplessstreetperformers,Brattonstated:“I’dprefertojustdigthewholedamnthingupandputitbackthewayitwas”anddeBlasiosaidhewouldconsiderremovingtheplazaaswell.Theplaza’ssupportersoutnumbereditscritics,however.TimesSquareAlliancePresidentTimTompkins,forexample,toldTheNewYorkTimes,“Sure,let’stearitup.Wecan’tgovern,manage,orpoliceourpublicspacessoweshouldjusttearthemup.That’snotasolution.It’sasurrender.”161InOctober,ataskforceappointedbydeBlasiorecommendedthattheplazaberetained,withthewomenandothersolicitorslimitedtoasmallportionofit.

DOTCommissionerTrottenbergexpressesconfidencethatthechangesstartedinthepreviousadministration–includingacommitmenttocontinueexpandingthecity’sbikelanenetwork–areheretostay:

Whenitcomestotransportation,we'renotradicallydifferentthanthelastadministration.…Perhapstheflavorisalittledifferent…IthinkwetryhardertoworkwiththeCityCouncilandmaketheprocessconsensual.Wealsobenefitfromthefactthatalotoftheseprojectswerealotmorecontroversialsixorsevenyearsagothantheyaretoday.ButIdon'tviewusasaradicalchange.162



Endnotes1(LeeKuanYewWorldCityPrizeSecretariat2012)2(Doctoroff2015)3(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityandtheMayor'sOfficeof

RecoveryandResiliency2007,10)4(Taddeo2010)5TheBIDsarecreatedbytheCityCouncilandtheMayorattherequestoflocal

businesses.See(CityofNewYork,DepartmentofSmallBusinessServicesn.d.)6Between1950and1980Chicago’spopulationdroppedby17percent(from3.6

to3million),Philadelphia’sdroppedby14percent(from2.1to1.7million)andDetroit’sdroppedby35percent(from1.8to1.2million).Inthesameperiod,LosAngeles,whichwastheonlyotherAmericancitywithmorethanonemillionresidentsin1950,grewby51percent(from2to3million).NewYork’slandareaisgreaterthanallofthesecitiesexceptLosAngeles.Citeauthor’scalculationsfrom(Gibson1998).

7(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityandtheMayor'sOfficeofRecoveryandResiliency2007,3)

8Author’scalculationsfrom(BrecherandHorton1993,7)(GladstoneandFainstein2003,86),and(GladstoneandFainstein2013,85)

9(Glaeser2005,22)10Theboard–whichwascreatedbythestateinSeptember1975–consistedof

thegovernor,thestatecomptroller,themayorofNewYorkCity,thecity’scomptroller,andthreemembersappointedbythegovernorandapprovedbytheStateSenate.Between1975and1986allofthecity’sfinancialplans,financialplanmodifications,andborrowings,togetherwithcertaincontracts,hadtobeapprovedbytheboardbeforetheywereimplemented.

11TheprimarytransitprovideristheMetropolitanTransportationAuthority(MTA),whichoperatesthesubways,commuterraillines,buses,severalmajorbridgesandtwotunnels.TheMTAisgovernedbya19-memberboardnominatedbythegovernorandapprovedbytheStateSenate.TheboardincludesachairmanandCEOandfiveothermembersdirectlynominatedbythegovernor,fourmembersrecommendedbythemayorofNewYork,andthreemembersrecommendedbythecountyexecutivesofSuffolk,NassauandWestchesterCounties.Italsoincludesfourmembersnominatedbytheexecutiveoffourfarther-flungcountieswhotogethercastonlyonevote.Theremainingmembersarenon-votingrepresentativesoftheMTA’sworkersandriders.ThePortAuthorityofNewYorkandNewJersey,whichisgovernedbyaboardappointedbythetwostate’sgovernors,providessubwayserviceundertheHudsonRiver,whichdividesthetwostates.NewJerseyTransit,astateagency,alsorunsbusesandtrainstoNYC.



12(CityofNewYork,OfficeoftheMayor2003).13(Doctoroff2015)14ForagooddiscussionofhowtheOlympicsshapeddevelopmentplanssee

(Moss2011).FormoreontheBloombergadministration’sgeneralapproachtodevelopmentsee(Brash2011)and(Larson2013).ForagoodoverviewofrezoningthephysicalchangesduringtheBloombergAdministrationsee(NewYorkTimes2013).

15(Crowley2009)16(Naparstek,MayorBloombergSaysNYCTrafficCongestionisGood2006)17(Naparstek,OutgoingBikeProgramDirectorRipsAgencyBosses2006)18(Tompkins2015)19(Doctoroff2015)20(Doctoroff2015)21(AlexGarvin&Associates,Inc.2006,4)Notethatthisreportwasnotmade

publicbythecity.Rather,itwasleakedto–andpublishedby–StreetsblogNYC.22(AlexGarvin&Associates,Inc.2006,2)Seealso(Naparstek,SneakPreviewof

Bloomberg’s21stCenturyUrbanVision2006)23(AlexGarvin&Associates,Inc.2006,61)24(SteelyWhite2015).Formoreontheroleofadvocacygroupsintheseefforts

see(Tsay2015,14,35-36)25(White2016)TheNewYorkTimesreportedthatGortonhadgiven$10million

butWhitesaidthatisamistake.See(Goodman2012).Seealso(Tsay2015,36-37)26See(ProjectforPublicSpacesn.d.).27(Chan2007).Seealso(LydonandGarcia2015,159)28(Naparstek2015)29(PartnershipforNewYorkCity2006)30TheseincludedTA,theRegionalPlanAssociation,andtheManhattan

Institute,aneo-conservativethink-tank.31(NeumanandCardwell,MayorSaysFeeonPeakTrafficIsNotLikely2006).

Formoreonpoliticsofcongestionpricingsee(Altshuler2010).32See(DonahueandZeckhauser2011,156-187),(Berens1997),and(Davidand

Hammond2011)33See(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityandtheMayor'sOffice

ofRecoveryandResiliency2007,37)



34(CityofNewYork,OfficeoftheMayor2006)35Themayoralsocalledfordevelopingcriticalback-upsystemsforNewYork’s

waternetworkandforprovidingcleanerandmorereliableelectricityaswellascleaningupcontaminatedland,andopeningup90percentofthecity’swaterwaystorecreationbyreducingwaterpollutionandpreservingnaturalareas.See(CityofNewYork,OfficeoftheMayor2006)

36(SteelyWhite2015)37(Sadik-Khan2015)38(Doctoroff2015)39Theplanidentifiedfiveprioritycapitalprojects:buildingthe2ndAvenue

Subway,addingathirdtracktothemainlineoftheLongIslandRailroad,buildingasecondtrans-Hudsontraintunnel,buildingasecondexpressbuslaneintheLincolnTunnel,andreplacingPennStationwiththeMoynihanStationProjectattheformerFarleyPostOfficeBuilding.(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityandtheMayor'sOfficeofRecoveryandResiliency2007,94-96)

40Theplanalsocalledforimprovingandexpandingbusservice,includingintroducingnewBusRapidTransitserviceinheavilytravelledcorridors;improvingpedestrianaccesstoexistingsubwaystationsandbusstops;expandingferryservices;strengtheningenforcementoftrafficviolations;creatingnewlandformixed-usedevelopmentbydeckingovermajortransportationfacilities,suchasthetrainyardsintheFarWestSidenearPennStation;andbuildingmorethan1,000housingunitsonmunicipalparkinglots(whilereplacingmostofthecurrentparking).See(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityandtheMayor'sOfficeofRecoveryandResiliency2007)

41(Naparstek,Sadik-KhanHasTwoThingsHerPredecessorsLacked…2007)42(Sadik-Khan2015)43(Damashek2015)44(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportationandtheMetropolitan

TransportationAuthority2013)45(Naparstek,JonOrcuttAppointedasDOTSeniorPolicyAdvisor2007)46(Crowley2009)47(Sadik-Khan2015)48(Rubinstein,Sadik-Khan'srearguard2014)49(SteelyWhite2015)50(Sadik-Khan2015)



51DUMBOstandsforDownUndertheManhattanBridgeOverpass,anareanear

theEastRiver.52(Reed2015)53(Naparstek,CityLaunches“PublicPlazaInitiative”atDUMBOPocketPark

2007)54(Russo,etal.2008)55(GreenLaneProject2015)56(Sadik-Khan2015)57(Wiley-Schwartz2015)ThequotereferstothefactthatintheJewish

tradition,arelativelybriefstatementintheTorah(thefirstfivebooksoftheOldTestament)generateddetailedcommentariesfromnotedrabbis,whicharecollectedintheTalmud,whichinstandardprintismorethan6,000pageslong.

58(Sadik-Khan2015)59(Wiley-Schwartz2015)60(Sadik-Khan2015)61(Sadik-Khan2015)62Thissectiondrawson(Schaller2010).63(QuinnipiacUniversityPoll2008)64See(Gonzalez2008)65Seemapat(Fried,TheCityCouncilVoteinTwoDimensions2008)66(NewYorkPostEditorialBoard2007)and(NewYorkPostEditorialBoard

2008)67(CardwellandHakim2008)68(LisbergandBenjamin2008)69(Aaron,UpstateAssemblyMemberSaysCityDelegationKilledPricing2008)70(Confessore2008)71See(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2008)72See(Streetsfilms2008)forbothatranscriptandavideooftheevent.73(Crowley2009).OthersusedthesameformulationtodescribetheBloomberg

Administration’sgeneralapproachtodevelopment.See(Larson2013)ForgoodbackgroundonthebattlesonMosesandJacobs,see(Flint2009)

74(Sadik-Khan2015).Seealso(LydonandGarcia2015,156-164)



75(Doctoroff2015)and(CityofNewYork,Mayor'sOfficeofSustainabilityand

theMayor'sOfficeofRecoveryandResiliency2007)76(Wiley-Schwartz2015)77(Damashek2015)78(Wiley-Schwartz2015)79(Schaller2015)80(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2012)81(Fried,ProductiveExchangeofIdeasBreaksOutatFortGreenePlaza

Workshop2012)82(Reed2015).Seealso(LydonandGarcia2015,161-163)83(Summers2013)84Thesystem,whichalsohadbikesinMountainViewandRedwoodCity,wasa

partnershipofseveralentitiesthattogethercovereditcapitalcosts.TheseincludedtheBayAreaAirQualityManagementDistrict,theSanFranciscoMunicipalTransportationAgency,thecountyofSanMateoanditstransportationauthority,andsomelocalgovernments.See(BayAreaBikeSharen.d.)

85TheprivatelyfundedexpansionwillnotincludeotherSiliconValleycommunities.However,thosecommunitiescanjointhesystemiftheysubsidizethestationswithintheirborders.See(Motivate2015)and(Boone2015)

86Figureonsquarefootagefrom(CityofNewYork,OfficeoftheMayor2013)87(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2008).88(Gertner2013)89(Schaller2015)90InOctober2008,Bloomberghadannouncedthatinlightchallengesforthe

citycreatedbytheglobalfinancialcrisishehaddecidedtotryandseekathirdterminNovember2009.Todoso,hehadtogettheCityCounciltoamendtheCityCharter,which,underthetermsoftworeferendapassedbythecity’svotersinthe1990s,limitedthemayorandothercityelectedofficialstotwoterms.Afteranintenselobbyingcampaign,thecouncilnarrowlyapprovedthechangelaterthatmonth.

91(Holeywell2013)92(Neuman2009)93(M.M.Grynbaum,TouristsandNewYorkersTakeaRubberSeatinTimes

Square2009)94(Tompkins2015)



95(Cuozzo2009)96However,bya38/57margin,NewYorkersrejectedtheideaofbuildingsuch

plazasintheirownneighborhoods.See(QuinnipiacUniversityPoll2009)97Specifically,insurveysdonebythealliance,70percentofits48board

members,68percentofthearea’s22majorcommercialtenants,and83percentofthearea’s25largestemployersallsupportedmakingtheplazaspermanent.IndependentinterviewsconductedfortheAlliancealsofoundthatcontrarytotheaterowners’concerns,70percentofrecenttheatergoersthoughttheplazashadapositiveimpactonthearea.See(TimesSquareAlliance2010)

98See(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2010,10)99(M.M.Grynbaum,NewYorkTrafficExperimentGetsPermanentRun2010)100(M.M.Grynbaum,NewYorkTrafficExperimentGetsPermanentRun2010).

Seealso(GehlandSvarre2013,132-133)and(LydonandGarcia2015,1-2,150-153)

101(Kaminer2013)102(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2013,141)103See(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2013,134)and(NewYork

CityDepartmentofTransportation2012,4)104(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2010,8)105(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2010,6)106Dataisauthor’scalculationsfrom(CityofNewYorkandNewYorkCity

DepartmentofTransportationn.d.)and(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2010)

107(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2010,6)108(Singer2009)109(Kadzis2010)110(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2013,6)111Author’scalculationsfrom(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation

2013,5)112(SustainableTransportAwardCommittee2009)Previouswinnerswere

Bogota,Seoul,Guayaquil(Ecuador),ParisandLondon(whichshareditin2008).SanFrancisco,whichreceivedtheawardin2012,istheonlyotherAmericancitytoreceivetheaward.

113See(Adams2009),(Bruni2011),(Goldstein2008),(Seaton,NewYork'stransportationchiefisalatter-dayRobinHood2011),(Taddeo2010)and(Williams2007)



114Bilbaowashonoredin2010andSuzhouwonin2014.See(LeeKuanYew

WorldCityPrizeSecretariat2015)115See(Sadik-Khan,NewYork'sstreets?Notsomeananymore2013).With

829,359views(asofJuly22,2015),thetalkranks1,116thoutofthe2023TEDtalkspostedasofJuly22,2015.Sadik-Khan’stalkwasaboutaspopularastalksgivenbysuchwell-knownpeopleasbiologistE.OWilson,linguistStevenPinker,futuristStewartBrand,playwrightEveEnsler,andALSactivistNancyFrates(whostartedtheIceBucketChallenge).Themostpopulartalk–byeducatorKenRobinson’son“Doschoolskillcreativity?”–hadmorethan34millionviews;theleastpopular,on“Streetartwithamessageofhopeandpeace,”had31,806views.Sadik-Khan’stalkwasalsothe38thmostpopularof102talksoncitiesandthefifthmostpopularof28talksontransportation.Source:author’scalculationsfrom(TEDConferencesLLCn.d.)

116(Green2014)117(Szczepanski2011)118(Anderson2013)119(Shepard,etal.2013)120(Anderson2013).Seealso(NationalAssociationofCityTransportation

Officials2012)and(NationalAssociationofCityTransportationOfficials2013)121(Schaer2011)122See(NewYorkPostStaffReport2011)and(NewYorkPostPageSix.comstaff

2011).123(Miller,HowardWolfsonLooksBackontheRiseandFalloftheNYCBikelash

2013)124(O'Neill2011)125(Seaton,HowoneNewYorkbikelanecouldaffectthefutureofcycling

worldwide2011).126See(NewYorkCityDepartmentofTransportation2011,5,26,27)127(Fried,LanderandFormerCB6ChairFileAmicusBriefSupportingPPWBike

Lane2011)128(M.M.Grynbaum,ForCity’sTransportationChief,KudosandCriticism2011)129(MaristCollegeInstituteforPublicOpinion2011)130(M.M.Grynbaum,ForCity’sTransportationChief,KudosandCriticism2011)

and(Pillifant2013)131(Sadik-Khan2015)132(QuinnipiacUniversityPoll2011)



133(Wolfson,MemorandumtoInterestedParties2011)134(M.M.Grynbaum,PromotingBicycleLanesasifTheyWereontheBallot

2011)135(Wolfson2015)136(Sadik-Khan2015,Chan2007)137See(SeniorsforSafetyetal.vs.NYCDepartmentofTransportationetal.

2011)138(WSJLive2013)139(ComedyCentral2013)140Forallthesereasons,boththeinfluentialInstituteforTransportationand

DevelopmentPolicyandtheNationalAssociationofCityTransportationOfficials(NACTO)havetoutedthedesignofCitiBikesystemasamodelforothercities.See(InstituteforTransportation&DevelopmentPolicy2013)and(NationalAssociationofCityTransportationOfficials2015)

141(BarbaroandThee-Brennan2013).Seealso(Miller,TimesPoll:NewYorkersReallyLoveBikeLanes,Bike-Share,andPlazas2013)

142(SteelyWhite,NorthernExposure2012)143(M.M.Grynbaum,NewYorkTrafficExperimentGetsPermanentRun2010)144(Selfman2011)145(Rubinstein,DeBlasio,whocalledSadik-Khana‘radical,’comesaroundonan

expansionofbikelanes2013)146(TransportationAlternatives2013)147(SteelyWhite2015)148(PetroandGanson2011,8,14,17)149(Rubinstein,ChristineQuinnwantstocutstreetfatalitiesinhalf2013)150(SteelyWhite2015,Tompkins2015)151(Aaron,BilldeBlasioOutlinesHis“VisionZero”Plan2013)152(Rubinstein,Safe-streetsadvocacygrouppicksdeBlasiooverQuinn,with

Thompsonoutoftherunning2013)153(Trottenberg2015)154(Hinds2013)155(Kleinfeld2014)156(Lerner2014)



157(Martinez2015).Seealso(Tsay2015,40-41)158(CityofNewYorkn.d.)159(Donohue2014)160Author’scalculationsfrom(CityofNewYorkandNewYorkCityDepartment

ofTransportationn.d.)161(GrynbaumandFlegenheimer2015)162(Trottenberg2015)



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